There are 5 types of insulators used in transmission lines as overhead insulation:

1. Pin Insulator

2. Suspension Insulator

3. Strain Insulator

4. Stay Insulator

5. Shackle Insulator

Pin, Suspension, and Strain insulators are used in medium to high voltage systems.
While Stay and Shackle Insulators are mainly used in low voltage applications.

Pin Insulator

Pin insulators are the earliest developed overhead insulator, but are still commonly
used in power networks up to 33 kV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two
parts or three parts type, depending upon application voltage.

In a 11 kV system we generally use one part type insulator where whole pin
insulator is one piece of properly shaped porcelain or glass.

As the leakage path of insulator is through its surface, it is desirable to increase the
vertical length of the insulator surface area for lengthening leakage path. We provide
one, two or more rain sheds or petticoats on the insulator body to obtain long
leakage path.

In addition to that rain shed or petticoats on an insulator serve another purpose. We

design these rain sheds or petticoats in such a way that while raining the outer
surface of the rain shed becomes wet but the inner surface remains dry and non-
conductive. So there will be discontinuations of conducting path through the damp
pin insulator surface.
In higher voltage systems – like 33KV and 66KV – manufacturing of one part
porcelain pin insulator becomes more difficult. The higher the voltage, the thicker
the insulator must be to provide sufficient insulation. A very thick single piece
porcelain insulator is not practical to manufacture.

In this case, we use multiple part pin insulator, where some properly designed
porcelain shells are fixed together by Portland cement to form one complete
insulator unit. We generally use two parts pin insulators for 33KV, and three parts
pin insulator for 66KV systems.

Designing Consideration of Electrical Insulator

The live conductor attached to the top of the pin insulator which is at the live
potential. We fix the bottom of the insulator to supporting structure of earth
potential. The insulator has to withstand the potential stresses between conductor
and earth. The shortest distance between conductor and earth, surrounding the
insulator body, along which electrical discharge may take place through the air, is
known as flashover distance.

1. When the insulator is wet, its outer surface becomes almost conducting. Hence
the flashover distance of insulator is decreased. The design of an electrical
insulator should be such that the decrease of flashover distance is minimum
when the insulator is wet. That is why the uppermost petticoat of a pin
insulator has umbrella type designed so that it can protect, the rest lower part
of the insulator from the rain. The upper surface of the topmost petticoat is
inclined as less as possible to maintain maximum flashover voltage during
raining.

2. The rain sheds are made in such a way that they should not disturb the voltage
distribution. They are so designed that their subsurface at a right angle to the
electromagnetic lines of force.

Post Insulator

Post insulators are similar to Pin insulators, but post insulators are more suitable for
higher voltage applications.

Post insulators have a higher number of petticoats and a greated height compared to
pin insulators. We can mount this type of insulator on supporting structure
horizontally as well as vertically. The insulator is made of one piece of porcelain and
it has clamp arrangement are in both top and bottom end for fixing.
The main differences between pin insulator and post insulator are:

SL Pin Insulator Post Insulator

It is generally used up to 33KV It is suitable for lower voltage and also for
1
system higher voltage

2 It is single stag It can be single stag as well as multiple stags

Conductor is fixed on the top of the Conductor is fixed on the top of the
3
insulator by binding insulator with help of connector clamp

Two insulators cannot be fixed Two or more insulators can be fixed

4 together for higher voltage together one above other for higher voltage
application application

Metallic fixing arrangement

Metallic fixing arrangement provided on
4 provided only on bottom end of the
both top and bottom ends of the insulator
insulator
Suspension Insulator

In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin insulator

because size, weight of the insulator become more. Handling and replacing bigger
size single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For overcoming these difficulties,
suspension insulator was developed.

In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form a

string and the line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each insulator
of a suspension string is called disc insulator because of their disc like shape.

Advantages of Suspension Insulator

1. Each suspension disc is designed for normal voltage rating 11KV (Higher
voltage rating 15KV), so by using different numbers of discs, a suspension
string can be made suitable for any voltage level.

2. If any one of the disc insulators in a suspension string is damaged, it can be

replaced much easily.

3. Mechanical stresses on the suspension insulator is less since the line hanged
on a flexible suspension string.

4. As the current carrying conductors are suspended from supporting structure

by suspension string, the height of the conductor position is always less than
the total height of the supporting structure. Therefore, the conductors may be
safe from lightening.
Disadvantages of Suspension Insulator

1. Suspension insulator string costlier than pin and post type insulator.

2. Suspension string requires more height of supporting structure than that for
pin or post insulator to maintain same ground clearance of current conductor.

3. The amplitude of free swing of conductors is larger in suspension insulator

system, hence, more spacing between conductors should be provided.
Stay Insulator

For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The
insulator used in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of
porcelain and is so designed that in case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire
will not fall to the ground.

Shackle Insulator

The shackle insulator (also known as a spool insulator) is usually used in low voltage
distribution network. It can be used in both the horizontal or vertical positions. The
use of such insulator has decreased recently after increasing the using of
underground cable for distribution purpose.

The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the load more evenly and
minimizes the possibility of breakage when heavily loaded. The conductor in the
groove of shackle insulator is fixed with the help of soft binding wire.
Q․ Find the number of insulator discs required in string insulator, if operating voltage is
220 kV and maximum voltage of each disc is 11 kV?
20
10
 13
21

Number of insulator discs n = ( Operating voltage/phase)/ Maximum voltage of each disc

Operating voltage/phase = 220*10³/√3 = 127 kV Maximum
voltage of each disc = 11 kV
Number of insulator discs n = 127/11 =11.547 ≈ 12
For safety operation one extra disc is added to the string.
Therefore, total number of insulator discs = 13

String Efficiency:-
The figure below shows a 3-disc string of suspension insulator.

As each porcelain disc lies in between two metal links, it forms a capacitor. This
capacitance is known as self-capacitance or mutual capacitance.

Moreover, air capacitance is also present between metal links and the earthed tower. This
is known as shunt capacitance or pin to earth capacitance.

The figure below illustrates the equivalent circuit of a 3-disc suspension insulator
(assuming that shunt capacitance is some fraction of self-capacitance i.e shunt capacitance
= k * self-capacitance).

K = shunt capacitance/self capacitance = C1 / C

If there were only mutual or self capacitances, then the charging current would have been
the same through all the discs. In this case, the voltage would have been uniformly
distributed across the string, i.e. voltage across each disc would have been the same. But,
due to the shut capacitances, charging current is not the same through all the discs.

Capacitor current , I = V / Zc = V /(1/j ωC) = j ωC V

Magnitude of I = ωC V

From the above equivalent circuit, applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A,

I2 = I1 + i1

V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ω C1

V2ωC = V1ωC + V1ωkC
V2 = V1 + V1k
V2 = (1 + k)V1 ...... eq.(i)

applying Kirchoff's current law to node B,

I3 = I2 + i2

V3ωC = V2ωC + (V2 + V1)ω C1

V3ωC = V2ωC + (V2 + V1)ωkC
V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2)k
V3 = kV1 + (1 + k) V2
V3 = kV1 + (1 + k)2 V1 ...... from eq.(i)
V3 = V1 [k + (1 + k)2]
V3 = V1 [k + 1 + 2k + k2]
V3 = V1 (1 + 3k + k2) ...... eq.(ii)

Now, voltage between the conductor and the earther tower is,

V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = V1 + (1 + k)V1 + V1 (1 + 3k + k2)
V = V1 (3 + 4k + k2) ...... eq.(iii)
2nd disc voltage,V2 = (1 + k)V1

3rd disc voltage,V3 = V1 (1 + 3k + k2)

Total voltage ,V = V1 (3 + 4k + k2)

V1 V2 V3 V
= = =
1 1 + k 1 + 3k + k2 3 + 4k + k2

from the above equations (i), (ii) & (iii), it is clear that the voltage across the top disc is
minimum while voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is maximum, i.e. V 3 = V1 (1
+ 3k + k2). As we move towards the cross arm, voltage across the disc goes on decreasing.
Due to this non-uniform voltage distribution across the string, the unit nearest to the
conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to be punctured.

String efficiency

As explained above, voltage is not uniformly distributed over a suspension insulator string.
The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it and, hence, it will be
under maximum electrical stress. Due to this, the disc nearest to the conductor is likely to
be punctured and subsequently, other discs may puncture successively. Therefore, this
unequal voltage distribution is undesirable and usually expressed in terms of string
efficiency.

The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the
voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is called as string efficiency

Greater the string efficiency, more uniform is the voltage distribution. String efficiency
becomes 100% if the voltage across each disc is exactly the same, but this is an ideal case
and impossible in practical scenario. However, for DC voltages, insulator capacitances are
ineffective and voltage across each unit would be the same. This is why string efficiency for
DC system is 100%.

Inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase in the number of discs in a
string. Therefore, shorter strings are more efficient than longer string insulators.
In a 3-phase transmission line, each phase is supported by 3 insulated discs, maximum
voltage of each disc is 20 kV. Find the operating voltage of the transmission line per phase if
efficiency of string is 80.6%.
48.36 kV
52.84 kV
83.76 kV
20 kV

String efficiency = Operating phase voltage(Vph)/(n * Voltage of disc nearest to conductor)

Where, n = number of discs
Given that, efficiency = 0.806
Maximum voltage of each disc = 20 kV
Therefore, 0.806 = Vph/(3*20*10³)
Operating phase voltage(Vph) = 48.36 kV

Q․ Two insulator discs of identical capacitance value C make up a string for a 22 kV, 50 Hz,
single phase overhead line insulation system. If pin to earth capacitance is also C, then find
the string efficiency?
75%
90%
50%
86%

Solution –
V2 = V1(1+K)
Where, K = Pin to earth capacitance/self Capacitance = C/C =1
V2 = 2V1

Where, n = number of discs Voltage of disc nearest to conductor

% String efficiency = 75%

Q․ A string type insulator has three units with self capacitance C and ground capacitance of
0.2 C having a string efficiency of
78%
80%
 82%
76%

Methods to Improve String Efficiency:-

Method # 1. By Using Insulators with Larger Discs or by Providing Each Insulator
Unit with a Metal Cap:

Ex.- For 3 insulators string

2nd disc voltage,V2 = (1 + k)V1

3rd disc voltage,V3 = V1 (1 + 3k + k2)

Total voltage ,V = V1 (3 + 4k + k2)

If k=0 then V1= V2= V3 and total voltage= 3* V1

It is clear from the expression of string efficiency that the string efficiency increases with
the decrease in value of K (i.e. the ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance). One
method is to design the units such that the mutual capacitance (capacitance of each unit) is
much greater than the shunt capacitance (capacitance to earth). This can be achieved by
using insulators with larger discs or providing each insulator unit with a metal cap. The
ratio K can be made 1/6 to 1/10 by this method.

Method # 2. By Using Longer Cross-Arms:

The ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance, K can alternatively be reduced by

using longer cross-arms so that the horizontal distance from line support (pole or tower) is
increased thereby decreasing the shunt capacitance. But the limitations of cost and
mechanical strength of line supports do not allow the cross-arms to be too long and it has
been found that in practice it is not possible to obtain the value of K less than 0.1.

Method # 3. By Capacitance Grading:

It is seen that non-uniform distribution of voltage across an insulator string is due to

leakage current from the insulator pin to the supporting structure. This current cannot be
eliminated. However, it is possible that discs of different capacities are used such that the
product of their capacitive reactance and the current flowing through the respective unit is
same.

This can be achieved by grading the mutual capacitance of the insulator units i.e., by having
lower units of more capacitance—maximum at the line unit and minimum at the top unit,
nearest to the cross-arm. It can be shown that by this method complete equality of voltage
across the units of an insulator string can be obtained but this method needs a large
number of different-sized insulator units. This involves maintaining spares of all varieties
of insulator discs which is contrary to the tendency of standardization. So this method is
not used in practice below 200 kV.

Consider a 4-unit string. Let C be the capacitance of the top unit and let the capacitances of
others units are C2, C3 and C4, as shown in Fig. 9.21.

Assume C1 = k C
Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to node A we get,

I2 = I1 + i1

or ω C2 v = ω C v + ω C1 v

or C2 = C + K C = C (1 + K) … (9.11)

Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to node B we get,

I3 = I2 + i2

or ω C3 v = ω C2 v + ω C1 × 2 v

or C3 = C2 + 2 K C = C (1 + K) + 2 K C = C (1 + 3 K) … (9.12)

Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to node C we get,

I4 = I3 + i3

or ω C4 v = ω C3 v + ω C1 × 3 v

or C4 = C3 + 3 K C = C (1 + 3 K) + 3 K C = C (1 + 6 K) …(9.13)

Thus it will be possible to equalise the potential across all the units, if their capacitances
are in the ratio of 1: (1 + K): (1 + 3 K): (1 + 6 K) and so on.

But in practice it is impossible to obtain such units which will have their capacitances in
above ratio, although nearby results can be obtained by employing standard insulators for
most of the units and employing larger units adjacent to the line.

Method # 4. By Static Shielding:

In case of capacitance grading, insulator units of different capacitances are used so that the
flow of different currents through the respective units produce equal voltage drop. In static
shielding, pin to supporting structure charging currents are exactly cancelled so that the
same current flows through the identical insulator units and produce equal voltage drops
across each insulator unit.

This arrangement is given is Fig. 9.22. In this method a guard or grading ring, which usually
takes the form of a large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit and electrically connected
to the metal work at the bottom of this unit, and therefore to the line conductor.

The guard ring screens the lower units, reduces their earth capacitance C1 and introduces a
number of capacitances between the line conductor and the various insulator unit caps.
These capacitances are greater for lower units and thus the voltages across them are
reduced. With this method also it is impossible to obtain in practice an equal distribution of
voltage but considerable improvements are possible.

Let the capacitances between the links and the shield be Cx, Cy and Cz respectively as shown
in Fig. 9.22, and let v be the potential across each unit.

Since the capacitance of each unit is same, therefore, their charging currents I1, I2, I3, and I4
would be same, let it be I. If C1 = K C

Applying Kirchhoff s first law to node A we get,

I + ix = I + i1 or ix = i1 … (9.14)

Similarly, iy = i2 … (9.15)

and iz = i3 … (9.16)

Also, i1 = ω C1 v = ω K C v … (9.17)

i2 = 2 ω C1 v = 2 ω K C v … (9.18)

i3 = 3 ω C1v = 3 ω K C v … (9.19)

The potential causing current ix is 3 v (voltage across three units leaving the top one).

So, ix = ω Cx × 3 v = 3 ω Cx v … (9.20)

Comparing Eqs. (9.14), (9.17) and (9.20), we have,

3 ω Cx v = ω K C v or Cx = K C/3 … (9.21)
The potential causing current y is 2 v and therefore,

Iy =2 ω Cy v … (9.22)

Comparing Eqs. (9.15), (9.18) and (9.22) we have,

2 ω Cy v = 2 ω K C v or Cy = K C … (9.23)

The potential causing current iz is v and therefore,

iz = ω Cz v … (9.24)

Comparing Eqs. (9.16), (9.19) and (9.24), we have,

ω Cz v = 3 ω K C v

or Cz = 3 K C … (9.25)

In general if there are n units

i1 = ω K C v and ix = (n – 1) ω Cxv

or Cx = KC/ (n-1) … (2.26)

Similarly, Cy = 2KC/ (n-2) … (2.27)

and Cz = 3KC/ (n-3) … (2.28)

or The capacitance of the pth metal link to the line is given as:

Cp = pKC/ (n-p) …

Q․ A guard ring is used in string type insulator having 3 units to improve string efficiency.
Find the capacitance of metal link 2 if pin to earth capacitance of each unit is 1 F?
1F
2F
4F
0.5 F

P = Metal link number = 2

n = Total number of discs = 3
C = Pin to earth capacitance of each unit = 1 µF