DISASTER MANAGEMENT

(ACE551) IARE-R16
B.Tech V SEM

Prepared By:
Mr. S. Varadarajan
Asst. Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT TITLE CONTENTS
Meaning of Environmental hazards,
Environmental
Disasters and Environmental stress.
I Environmental Conceptof Environmental Hazards,
Hazards & Environmental stress &Environmental
Disasters: Disasters.

Different approaches & relation with human

Ecology
Landscape Approach - Ecosystem Approach -
Perception approach – Human ecology & its
application in geographical researches.
Typesof Man induced hazards &Disasters
Environmental
II Natural Hazards- Planetary Hazards/ Disasters –
hazards & Disasters:
Natural hazards and Extra Planetary Hazards/ disasters - Planetary
Disasters – Hazards-

Endogenous Hazards - Exogenous Hazards

2
 Endogenous Hazards - Volcanic Eruption –
Earthquakes – Landslides - Volcanic Hazards/ Disasters –
III
Causes and distribution of Volcanoes - Hazardous effects
Endogenos
of volcanic eruptions – Environmental impacts of
Hazards
volcanic eruptions - Earthquake Hazards/ disasters –
Causes of Earthquakes – Distribution of earthquakes -
Hazardous effects of - earthquakes – Earthquake Hazards
in India - - Human adjustment, perception & mitigation
of earthquake.
IV
Exogenous hazards/ disasters, infrequent events,
Exogeneous cumulative atmospheric hazards/ disasters, infrequent
hazards and events: Cyclones, lightning, hailstorms; Cyclones: Tropical
disasters cyclones & local storms (causes, distribution human
adjustment, perception & mitigation), cumulative
atmospheric hazards/ disasters: Floods, droughts. cold
waves; heat waves floods: Causes of floods, flood hazards
India, flood control measures (human adjustment,
perception & mitigation), droughts, impacts of droughts,
drought hazards in India- drought control measures, extra
planetary hazards/ disasters, man induced hazards
/disasters, physical hazards/ disasters, soil erosion
3
 Emerging approaches in Disaster Management- Three
Emerging Stages
V approaches of
disaster
management 1. Pre- disaster stage (preparedness)

2. Emergency Stage
3. Post Disaster stage-Rehabilitation

4
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
AND
DISASTERS
 The surroundings or conditions in which a
person, animal or plant lives or operates is termed
as ‘ENVIRONMENT’
 HAZARDS
HAZARDS: Any phenomenon that has the potential to
cause disruption or damage to people & the environment.

A Environmental Hazard is an event which has the

capability of threatening the surrounding natural
environment or adversely affect people’s health including
pollution and natural disasters such as storms and
earthquakes.
.
TYPES OF HAZARDS
Hazards can be categorized in four types
a. Chemical Hazards
b. Physical Hazards
c. Biological Hazards
d. Psychosocial Hazards
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
 A chemical accident is the unintentional release of
one or more hazardous substances which could harm
human health or the environment.
 Chemical hazards are systems where chemical
accidents could occur under certain circumstances
PHYSICAL HAZARDS
 Physical work hazards are workplace hazards that can
affect the body.
 They may include radiation and excessive noise levels,
falls or poorly communicated excavation routes.
 Examples include:- Unguarded machinery, exposed
moving parts, constant loud noise hazards, vibrations,
working from ladders, scaffolding or heights
 DISASTER
MANAGEMENT

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 DEFINITIONS OF DISASTER

• “A disaster can be defined as any occurrence that

cause damage, ecological disruption, loss of human
life, deterioration of health and health services on a
scale, sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response
from outside the affected community or area”.
(W.H.O.)

• A disaster can be defined as an occurrence either

nature or manmade that causes human suffering and
creates human needs that victims cannot alleviate
without assistance”. American RedCross(ARC)

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 CHARACTERISTIC OF DISASTER

Predictability
Controllability
Speed ofonset
Length of
forewarning
Duration of impact
Scope and intensity
of impact
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PHASES OF DISASTER
Pre-impact
phase

Impact
phase

Post-impact
phase
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15
 PRINCIPLES OFDISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Disaster management is the
responsibility of all spheres of
government

Disaster management should use resources

that exist for a day-to-day purpose.

Organizations should function as an

extension of their core business

Individuals are responsible for their own safety.

Disaster management planning should focus

on large-scale events.

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Contd….
Disaster management planning should recognize the difference between
incidents and disasters.
Disaster management operational arrangements are additional to and do
not replace incident management operational arrangements

Disaster management planning must take account of the type of physical

environment and the structure of the population.

Disaster management arrangements must recognise the involvement

and potential role of non- government agencies.

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 PHASES OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Disaster Preparedness
Disaster impact

Disaster Response

Rehabilitation

Disaster Mitigation
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 Disaster Preparedness
Preparedness should be in the form of money, manpower and
materials
Evaluation from past experiences about risk
Location of disaster prone areas
Organization of communication, information and
warning system
Ensuring co-ordination and response mechanisms
Development of public education programme
Co-ordination with media
National & international relations
Keeping stock of foods, drug and other essential commodities.

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E.g.: Indian Meteorological department (IMD) plays a key role in
forewarning the disaster of cyclone-storms by detection tracing. It
has 5 centres in Kolkata, Bhubaneswar, Vishakapatanam, Chennai
& Mumbai. In addition there are 31 special observation posts setup
a long the east coast of India.

The International Agencies which provides humanitarian assistance

to the disaster strike areas are United Nation agencies.
 Office for the co-ordination of Humanitarian Affair (OCHA)
 World Health Organization (WHO)
 UNICEF
 World Food Programme (WFP)
 Food & Agricultural Organisation (FAD)

E.g.: Non Governmental Organizations

Co-Operative American Relief Every where (CARE)
International committee of Red cross
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International committee of Red cross
D i s a s t e r i mpa c t

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 T ria ge
Golden hour
Immediate or high priority:
Delayed or medium priority:
Minor or minimal or ambulatory patients:
Expectant or least priority:
Colour code:

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 D i s a s t e r response
Epidemiologic surveillance and disease
control
Vaccination
Nutrition

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 R e h a b i l i t a t i o n phase

Water supply

Food safety

Basic sanitation and

personal hygiene

Housing

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 D i s a s t e r mi t i g a t i o n
This involves lessening the likely effects of
emergencies. These include depending upon the
disaster, protection of vulnerable population and
structure.

For examples, improving structural qualities of schools,

houses and such other buildings so that medical causalities
can be minimized. Similarly ensuring the safety of health
facilities and public health services including water supply
and sewerage system to reduce the cost of rehabilitation
and reconstruction. This mitigation compliments the
disaster preparedness and disaster response activities.

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DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

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DISASTER-EFFECTS
Deaths
Disability
Increase in communicable disease
Psychological problems
Food shortage
Socioeconomic losses
Shortage of drugs and medical supplies.
Environmental disruption

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 DISASTER DRILL
• A disaster drill is an exercise in which people
simulate the circumstances of a disaster so
that they have an opportunity to practice
their responses.

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 ROLE OF NURSE IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
To facilitate preparation with community
To provide updated record of vulnerable
populations within community
Nurse leads a preparedness effort
Nurse play multiroles in community
Nurse should have understanding of community
resources
Disaster Nurse must be involved in community
organization
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DISASTER RESPONSE

Nurse must involve in community assessment

Once rescue workers begin to arrive at the
scene, immediate plans for triage should begin
Nurse work a member of assessment team
To be involved in ongoing surveillance

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 DISASTER RECOVERY

Successful Recovery
Preparation
Be vigilant in Health teaching
Psychological support
Referrals to hospital as needed
Remain alert for environmental
health
Nurse must be attentive to the
danger

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 UNIT-2

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL
HAZARDS & DISASTERS

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Natural Disasters
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 Why is this important?
Natural disasters are important, because they don’t only effect
buildings and land, they affect human beings. They can severely
injure or kill. They tare families apart.

Natural disasters caused the death of 295,000 people in 2010

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 Who is effected?
Natural disasters can effect everyone, everywhere. Even if it
didn’t happen in your state or area, the cost effects the nation as a
whole.
In 2009, natural disasters cost insurers about $110 billion. In
2010, the cost was double that, at $218 billion.

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 The Effects
 10,000 people have died in Japan’s latest
Tsunami/earthquake

 Katrina caused about $81 billion dollars in property damage alone

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  There were about 454,000
living in metropolitan New
Orleans in 2001. Only this
year has New Orleans
recently surpassed 350,000
citizens.

80% of New Orleans was

flooded, with some parts
under 15 feet of water. total
property damage was
estimated at $81 billion

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 How to Prevent
• Natural disaster are something that can not be stopped, or
prevented, but we can do some thing's before and after
disasters to help reduce the amount of trauma caused by
these disasters.
Ways to Help:
• Donate to organizations that deal with natural disaster relief
• Volunteer with these organizations
• Help rebuild cities
• Many organizations that
are based around helping,
supporting, and rescuing
victims, are places that
you can donate to and
where they raise money.

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The Aftermath
 Natural disasters don't just create damage when it hits. The
effects after can be worse. Many of them can cause lose
ground, creating landslides. Some can start fires in your
homes, also it can cause the loss of everything you know.

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 The Cost of Disasters
 This year Obama has set aside $850 billion for natural disasters.
 In the past $3 trillion budget intended for an infrequent purpose:
federal dollars to help victims of floods, hurricanes, tornadoes
and other natural disasters

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Something needs to be done…

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42
 MAN MADE DISASTERS

We are now living in a civilized society. The days of illiteracy and ignorance
have gone. Man has made much progress in the field of science and technology.
Man has created wealth out of natural resources for his comfortable living. Man
has cut forests recklessly to clear the land for cultivation and along with this
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION has taken place, which also affects his
life. Man is becoming his own enemy because he has also created weapons of
mass destruction and these weapons are used against humanity, which further
brings sorrow, and suffering to mankind. This is just example of manmade
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disaster which shows in daily news paper and well known to people
TYPES OF MAN MADE DISASTERS

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
CHEMICHAL DISASTERS
BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
GLOBAL WARMING
TERRORIST ATTACKS
POLLUTION

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BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Biological disaster spreads through the organism that is developed in the form
of BACTERIA or MICROBES. Biological agent spread fast in the
environment and then makes an attack on the human beings. The people inhale
these microbes. When these microbes find themselves a host body, they start
affecting the immune systems of the body. Microbes’ also entire human body
through open wounds or cuts.
The attack of these microbes is generally slow but once they are spread in the
body, it becomes different to control them. It takes the life of the affected
persons. Many a time, it becomes difficult to diagnose the illness caused by
these microbes and it proves to be fatal.
Whenever we learn or hear of type of danger of communicable
diseases through official announcements on radio or TV, then we can
adequate preventive and protective measures.
We aware that you are one of few, who have quite often tried to help in taking
this type of noble cause and solve the problem of affected people, please let us
to help in certain time of disaster or create fund for this uncertain event.
Therefore we have taken the liberty of appealing to you that if any kind of
donation or charity for such type future uncertain event we would be than
thank full
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 GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century,
Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-
thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90 certain that it
is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human
activities such as the burning of fossil
fuels and deforestation.
These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized
nations The effects of an increase in global temperature include arise in sea levels and a
change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of
subtropical deserts.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the
continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming
include a more frequent occurrence of extreme- weather events including heat waves,
droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting
temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from
decreasing crop yields and the loss of habit from industrialized nations
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TERRORIST ATTACKS

terrorist attack - a surprise attack involving the deliberate use of

violence against civilians in the hope of attaining political or
religious aims

terrorist act can be defined as the calculated use of violence (or the
threat of violence) against civilians in order to attain goals that are
political or religious or ideological in nature; this is done through
intimidation or coercion or instilling fear

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WORST TERRORIST ATTACKS
Mumbai terrorist attack is also referred to as November 26 or 26/11 and this terrorist attack
targeted India’s largest city Mumbai. It was actually a series of 10 coordinated shooting and
bombing attacks across Mumbai by Islamic terrorists who are believed to have come from
Pakistani Seawaters and backed by ISI, Pakistani secret service agency. It affected the Indo-Pak
relation immensely and the bilateral relations were debilitated which have never returned to
normalcy since

There was a series of coordinated attacks by Al-Qaeda on America on September 11, 2001. Four
commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked by 19 Al-Qaeda members and they
intentionally steered two of the planes towards the Twin Towers of World Trade Center,
consequently bringing them down to earth. The third airliner was crashed into The Pentagon in
Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. and the fourth one crashed into a field near
Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania. There were no survivors from any of the flights. This event
triggered many changes in the world as a whole and was the beginning of a very horrendous
film for the humans across the globe because humans had to pay a very heavy price of this
terrorist attack and this fact is conspicuous from the current state of affairs

This incident took place on April 19, 1995 and it was an attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in downtown Oklahoma City. It was the most deadly terrorist attack on the American
soil until 9/11,and it claimed 168 lives, including 19 children under the age of 6,[1] and injured
more than 680 people.
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Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural
environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances or energy such as noise, heat or
light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either
foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring
contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or
nonpoint source pollution.

The Blacksmith Institute issues an annual list of the world's

worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees
are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine
and Zambia.

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 FORMS OF AIR POLLUTION
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminant
relevant to each of them:
• Air pollution:- the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by
their micro meter size PM10 to PM2.5.
• Light pollution:- includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
• Littering:- the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, un removed,
on to public and private properties.
• Noise pollution:- which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
as well as high-intensity sonar.
• Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or
underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
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hydrocarbons.
• Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research,
manufacture and deployment.

• Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by

human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

• Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines,
motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage
of trash, municipal solid waste or space debris.

• Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial

waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of
untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from
treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing
to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may
contain

• chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into

groundwater; eutrophication and littering.

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SOME MAN MADE
DISASTERS

In October 2001, there was a danger of anthrax germs being used as biological
weapons. Anthrax was the cause of death for some people in USA.US authorities
also confirmed that a postal worker in the city of Washington DC was tested positive
for anthrax infection. Anthrax is a deadly disease caused by bacillus, most common
in sheep and cattle but also communicable to mankind.

In December 1984, the leakage of gas from the Union Carbide factory at Bhopal in
Madhya Pradesh caused 2,500 deaths and more than 3 lakes people of Bhopal
suffered the disastrous effects of the poisonous gas.

The worst type of man-made disaster is caused by the use of nuclear weapons. If we
go back to the history of 1945, we come to know the history of 1945; we come to
know the worst type of nuclear disaster the world had witnessed. On August 6, 1945
an atom bomb was dropped on HIROSHIMA in Japan, which devastated the entire
town killing 66,000 people and injuring nearly 69,000. On August 9, 1945 another
atom bomb was dropped on NAGASAKI. This bomb killed nearly 39,000 people
and injured more than 25,000.
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NATURAL DISASTERS

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 Disaster Database
• Avalanche
• Earthquakes
• Hurricanes
• Landslides
• Thunderstorms
• Tornados
• Tsunami
• Volcanoes

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 AVALANCHES
• Avalanches Happen on every continent
• Avalanche “eason is during the “winter time”
or December-April in the United States
• A large scale can release up to 300,000 cubic
yards of snow
• Avalanches are more commonly released by
recreationists than by natural causes
• The biggest factor of avalanche possibility is
the accumulation snow over the winter season
– More snow = bigger avalanche

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 Earthquakes
• Earthquakes are caused by the release
of built up pressure caused by the
shifting of tectonicplates
• Earthquakes usually occur on fault
lines, or areas where tectonic plates
meet
• The size of an earthquake is
measured using the logarithmic
based Richter scale

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 Hurricanes
• A hurricane is a tropical storm
with winds over74mph
• Hurricanes occupy the most
intense level of the three
levels of tropical storms
• Hurricanes rotate or circulate
counter-clockwise in the
northern hemisphere
• Hurricanes can only occur
over the Atlantic ocean,
Caribbean sea, and gulf of
Mexico

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 Landslides
• Landslides are the movement of land
down aslope by gravity
• Landslides are mother nature’s way of
redistributing land
• They can be triggered by rain, floods,
and earthquakes as well as man- made
factors such asslope grading or mining
• Landslides have the potential to
happen anywhere a steep slope is
present
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 Thunder Storms
• Every Thunderstorm produces
lightning
• There is wet thunder and dry
thunder, the difference being
whether or not rain in produced
• Warm humid conditions favor
thunderstorms
• Only 10% of thunderstorms are
classified as severe
• Your chance of being struck by
lightning is 1 in 600,000

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 Tornados
• A tornado is defined as a violently
rotating column of air extending
from a thunderstorm to theground
• Tornados are found in almost every
part of theworld
• Tornados are most common in the
United States, just east of the Rocky
Mountains in an area called Tornad
Ally
• Waterspouts are weak tornados over
water and can move inland an become
tornados

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 Tsunamis
• On the seafloor, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and
even landslides can lead to
tsunamis
• Tsunamis can travel over
300mph
• Tsunamis can have an
amplitude of up to 32ft
• Hawaii is the most vulnerable
place in the world for tsunamis

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 Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are lava filled mountains that erupt when the
pressure becomes to great for them to hold it inside
• The contents that a volcano spews forth is called magma when
it’s below the surface and lava once it reaches the surface
• Only a fraction of the world’s volcanoes are actually on land,
the rest are on theocean floor
• Indonesia has the most volcanoes of all the countries in the
world

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63
64
 UNIT-3
Endogenous Hazards

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66
 INTRODUCTION

Earthquakes constitute one of the worst natural hazards

which often turn into disaster causing widespread
destruction and loss to human life.

The effects of earthquake vary upon the magnitude and

intensity. Earthquakes occur every now and then all
round the world, except in some places where
earthquakes occur rarely. The devastation of cities and
towns is one of the effects of earthquake.

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What is Earthquake?

An Earthquake is the result

of a sudden release of energy
in the earth’s crust that creates
seismic waves.
The seismic activity of an
area refers to the
frequency,type and size of
earthquakes experienced over
a period of time

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 For
If you throw stone in a
example
pond of still water,series of
waves are produced on the
surface : of water,these waves
spread out in all directions from
the point where the stone strikes
the water.

similarly, any sudden

disurbances in the earth’s crust
may produce vibration in the
crust which travel in all direction
from point of disturbances.
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 TERMS RELATED TO EARTHQUAKE

Focus(Hypocenter):
Focus is the point on the fault
where rupture occurs and the
location from which seismic
waves are released.

Epicenter:
Epicenter is the point on the earth’s
surface that is directly above the focus
,the point where an earthquake or
underground explosion originates.

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Cont…
Fault Line:
A Fault line is the surface trace of a
fault, the line of intersection
between the earth’s surface.

Fault plane:
Fault plane are the crackes or
sudden slips of the land .

Fault Scrap:
A Fault scrap is the topographic
expression of faulting attributed
to the displacement of the land
surface by movement along
faults.
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 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

The primary cause of an earthquake is faults on

the crust of the earth.
“A Fault is a break or fracture b/w two blocks of rocks in
response to stress.”

This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an

earthquake or may occur slowly, in the form of creep.

Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the
surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along the
fault to classify faults.
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 Classification of Faults
Normal fault:
a dip-slip fault in which the
block above the fault has
moved downward relative to
the block below.

Thrust (reverse)fault:
a dip-slip fault in which the
upper block, above the fault
plane, moves up and over the
lower block.
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Strike-slip fault:

A left-lateral strike-slip
fault :
It is one on which the
displacement of the far block is
to the left when viewed from
either side.

A right-lateral strike-slip
fault:
It is one on which the
displacement of the far block is
to the right when viewed from
either side.
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Some major causes of earthquakes on basic of its causes
are:
Surface causes
Volcanic causes
Tectonic causes

Surface cause:
Great explosions, landslides, slips on steep coasts, dashing
of sea waves , avalanches , railway trains, heavy trucks, some
large engineering projects cause minor tremors. some of them are
man made, other are natural.
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Volcanic cause:
Volcanic eruptions produce earthquakes. Earthquakes may
precede, accompany and frequently follow volcanic eruptions.
They are caused by sudden displacements of lava within
or beneath the earth crust.

There are two general

categories of earthquakes
that can occur at a volcano:

volcano-tectonic
earthquakes

long period earthquakes.

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 Tectonic cause:
Structural disturbances resulting in the parts of the lithosphere is
the main cause of this type of earthquake. Most of the
disastrous earthquakes belong tothis category and occur in
areas of great faults and fractures. Sudden yielding to strain
produced on the rocks of accumulating stress causes
displacements especially along old fault zones known as great
transform faults.

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 WAVES PRODUCED
DUE TO EARTHQUAKE
Seismic waves produced due to
earthquake are basically divided
into two major types:

Body waves

Surface waves

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Body waves:
Body waves travels through the interior(body) of earth as they leave
the focus. Body waves are further divided into following types:

Primary (P) waves

Secondary(S) waves

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 Primary Waves (P-waves) Secondary Waves(S-wave)

High frequency High frequency

Short Wavelength Short Wavelength

Longitudinal waves Transverse waves

Pass trough both solids and Can not move through liquids
liquids
Move forwards and Move in all direction from
backwards as it compressed their source
and decompressed
P-wave is faster S-wave is more slower than P-
wave
First P-wave arrive After P-wave,S-wave is arrive
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Surface Wave:
Surface waves travels parallel to the earth’s surface and these
waves are slowest and most damaging. Surface wave are divided
into following types:
Love waves
Rayleigh waves

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 Love Waves Rayleigh wave

Guided waves Guided waves

Displacement is parallel to the Displacement is perpendicular

free surface to love-wave displacement

Love wave is faster Rayleigh wave is slower

Causes horizontal shifting of Ground move in circular

the earth surface. motion.

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STRENGTH OF EARTHQUAKE
• The intensity and strength of an earthquake is measured
on Richter scale, the scale invented by Charles Richter
California, USA in 1935. It categories earthquake on the
basis of energy released
Defintion:
“the logarithm to base ten of the maximum seismic-wave
amplitude recorded on a standard seismograph at a distance of
100 kilometers from the earthquake epicenter.”

Scientists measure the strength of earthquakes using

machines known as seismographs.

 Seismology is the scientific study of earthquakes and the

propagation of elastic waves through the Earth. 83
84
Amount of energy released during different
Earthquake:

Intensity Of Earthquake Energy Release (Amount Of

On Richter Scale: TNT):
1.0 170 Grams
2.0 6 Kilogram
3.0 179 Kilogram
4.0 5 Metric Tons
5.0 179 Metric Tons
6.0 5643 Metric Tons
7.0 179100 Metric Tons
7.5 1 Mega Tons
8.0 564300 Metric Tons

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Seismometers- The measurement
of Earthquake
Seismometers are instruments
that measure motions of the
ground, including those
of seismic waves generated
by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and otherseismic
sources.

Seismometers may be
deployed at Earth's surface, in
shallow vaults, in boreholes, or
underwater.
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 Types of Zones
The earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic
zones Based on the observations of the affected area due to
Earthquake india divided into four types of zones:

• Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

• Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.

• Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.

• Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.

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88
 Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake prediction is usually defined as the specification of
the time , location , and magnitude of a future earthquake within
stated limits.
But some evidence of upcoming Earthquake are following:

 Unusual animal behavior

Water level in wells
Large scale of fluctuation of oil flow from oil wells
Foreshocks or minor shocks before major earthquake
Temperature change
Uplifting of earth surface
Change in seismic wave velocity
89
 Effect of Earthquake
Loss of life and property
Damage to transport system i.e. roads, railways, highways,
airports, marine

Damage to infrastructure.
 Chances of Floods – Develop cracks in Dams
Chances of fire short-circuit.
Communications such as telephone wires are damaged.
Water pipes, sewers are disrupted
Economic activities like agriculture, industry, trade and transport
are severely affected.
90
 Cont…

Landslides

Shaking and
ground rapture

91
 Fires

Soil liquefaction

92
Tsunami

Floods

93
Earthquake Safety Rules
If you are in house;
• Don’t use lift for getting down from building.
• Be prepared to move with your family.

If you are in shop ,school or office;

• Don’t run for an exit.
•Take cover under a disk/table.
•Move away from window glass.
•Do not go near electric point and cable. Keep away from weak portion of
the building and false ceiling.
94
If you are outside;
•Avoid high buildings , walls , power lines and other objects
that could fall and create block.
• Don’t run through streets.
•If possible , move on to an open area away from hazard
including trees.

If you are in vehicle;

• Stop in a safe open place.
• Remain inside vehicle.
• Close window , doors and vents.
95
 After An Earthquake
Keep calm, switch on the transistor radio and obey
instructions.
Keep away from96 beaches and low banks of river. A huge
wave may sweep in
Do not re enter badly damaged buildings and do not go
near damage structures.
Turn off the water, gas and electricity.
Do not smoke, light match or use a cigarette lighter
Do not turn on switches there may be gas leak or short
circuit
If there is any fire, try to put it out or call fire brigade.

96
Contd…

Do not drink water from open containers without having

examined it.

If you aware of people have been buried, tell the rescue team. Do
not rush and try not to worsen the situation.
Avoid places where there are loose electric wires and do not
come in contact with any metal object.

Eat something. You will better and more capable of helping

other.
Do not walk around the streets to see what is happening. Keep
the streets clear so rescue vehicles can access the roads easily.

97
 Date Place Scale Damage
Sept 2, Latur 6.3 Large areas of Maharashtra
1993 (maharashtra) rocked. 10,000 people lost lives.

May 22, Jabalpur 6.0 40 person killed and over 100

1997 (Maharashtra) injured.
March 29, Nandprayag 6.8 widespread destruction in chamoli
1999 , rudraprayag and other areas.
Massive loss of human life.

Jan. 26, Bhuj (gujrat) 7.8 Tremors left by India and its
2001 neighboring countries. Over 1 lakh
people killed. Huge loss to
property and infrastructure.

Oct. 8, Muzzaffarabad in 7.4 Heavy damage to life and

2005 Pakistan property.
occupied Death toll about one lakh in
Kashmir Pakistan and nearly 2000 in India.

98
99
disaster picture from Kashmir
earthquake 2005
100
 Earthquake Case study:
Bhuj Earthquake 26th January 2001

• Date: 26th January ,2001

• Origin line: 08 hrs.46 min. 42.9 sec. IST

• Epicenter: Latitude 23.40° N Longitude

70.28°E

• Magnitude: 7.7

• Focal Depth: 25 kms.

101
102
On the morning of January 26, 2001, the Nation’s 52nd
Republic Day, a devastating earthquake occurred in the
Kutchh district of the state of Gujarat.

The earthquake was felt as far away as Delhi in the north,

Kolkata in the east.

Bhuj town and the village Bhachau, 60 km east of Bhuj,

were the worst affected and many other areas of Gujarat
including its state headquarters Ahmedabad, were badly
affected.

103
 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
There were more than 20,000 deaths and 167,000 people injured Four
districts of Gujarat lay in ruin and altogether, 21 districts were affected.

Around 300,000 families and at least 3 million children under 14 aged

were affected.

Around 600,000 people were left homeless.

In the city of Bhuj, more than 3,000 Population of the city lost their
lives; the main hospital was crushed and close to 90% of the buildings
was destroyed.

There was significant damage to infrastructure with facilities such as

hospitals, schools, electric power and water systems, bridges and roads
damaged or destroyed.

104
Damage to high rise
building in Bhuj

105
5 year old girl recovers
at a hospital in Bhuj on
Monday after Friday's
massive earthquake.

106
 LOCAL RESPONSE
The withi India immediate.
nationalrespons n governmentwa
and state The
e
assistanc in many s s includinquickly cash, medica
e forms
communication g sheltersprovide
l
supplies, s
clothing, transport and relief teams, d , food
workers. ,
There were than 185 non-
more government
undertook organizations mostly India
earthquake-related charities,
activities (NGO n whi
s), ch

107
 INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE
Search and Rescue teams soon arrived from Switzerland,
United Kingdom, Russia and Turkey to find and rescue
survivors buried under debris.

Relief teams and supplies soon followed from 38

countries as well as United Nations agencies and many
international NGOs such as the Red Cross.

The world bank and Asian development bank sanction

loans in less than three months after the earthquake.

108
 RELIEF AND RECONSTRUCTION

 Gujarat earthquake emergency reconstruction project

(GEERP) was started by GSDMA(Gujrat State Disaster
Management Authority), with financial help from world
bank, Asian development bank, govt of India and other
donor agencies.

 Several state government came forward to Participate

in, the reconstruction work in different villages.

The UN system, multilateral and bilateral agencies,

NGOs and the corporate sector participated in the relief
and reconstruction work.

109
Government of Gujarat provided assistance in the form of
materials and cash to about 218,000 families.

NGOs supplemented the efforts by providing shelter to

about 7000 families.

About 65 NGOs were active in kutch alone who adopted

211 villages and constructed 32,297 houses at the cost of Rs.
185.80 crores.

The technical support was made available to the owners

who were provided loan to reconstruct the houses.

110
111
Landslides

112
 Main Factors that cause landslides
1. Slope
2. Precipitation
3. Vegetation
4. Soil
 Different Types of Landslides
 Bad Place to Build

113
 Main Factors

• There are four main factors that contribute to a

landslide:

1. Slope
2. Precipitation
3. Vegetation
4. Soil

114
 Slope

• The first factor that contributes to a landslide is

the slope. The slope of a landform is a major
factor in determining whether a landslide is
likely to occur. The steeper the slope, the larger
the threat.

115
 Precipitation

• The second factor that contributes to a landslide

is precipitation. Soil is typically more mobile
when it is wet. This is not always the case, but
most of the time it is. A large amount of
precipitation that a landform is not used to
receiving can trigger a landslide.

116
 Vegetation

• The third factor is vegetation. A slope that has

little to no vegetation is typically less stable.
Large trees and plates act as an anchor on a hill.
They absorb some of the water and also keep the
sediment from eroding down the hill.

117
 Soil

• The fourth and final main factor is soil. There are

some sediments that are typically more mobile
than others. Rocks and sand do not typically
cause landslides. Clay, silt, and mud are
typically the sediments that are most mobile.

118
 Different Kinds of Landslides

 Rotational Slump – very slow to moderate

 Rockslide – very slow to very rapid
 Debris Slide – very slow to very rapid
 Earth Flow – very slow to fast
 Creep – very slow
 Debris Avalanche – moderate to very fast

119
 Bad Place to Build
 This is what happens if slopes are not examined
before cities are built next to them.

120
VOLCANIC ERUPTION

121
 VOLCANO
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust,
which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from
below the surface.
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or
converging. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling
apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by
convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are
usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the
Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the
Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift in North
America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate
hypothesis" volcanism.

122
 ETYMOLOGY

The word volcano is derived from

the name of Vulcano, a volcanic
island in the Aeolian Islands of
Italy whose name in turn originates
from Vulcan, the name of a god of
fire in Roman mythology. The
study of volcanoes is called
volcanology, sometimes spelled
vulcanology.
Volcano's, Aeolian islands. Vulcano's
Island
123
 PLATE TECTONICS
2.1 Divergent plate boundaries
At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates
diverge from one another. New oceanic crust is
being formed by hot molten rock slowly
cooling and solidifying. The crust is very thin
at mid- oceanic ridges due to the pull of the
tectonic plates. The release of pressure due to
the thinning of the crust leads to adiabatic
expansion, and the partial melting of the
mantle causing volcanism and creating new
oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries
are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore most
volcanic activity is submarine, forming new
seafloor. Black smokers or deep sea vents are
an example of this kind of volcanic activity.
Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-
level, volcanic islands are formed, for example,
Iceland.
124
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIE
Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a
continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges
under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. Water
released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the
overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This magma tends to be very viscous
due to its high silica content, so often does not reach the surface and cools at
depth. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples for
this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Convergent plate boundaries125

 HOTSPOTS
"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic provinces postulated to be formed by mantle
plumes. These are postulated to comprise columns of hot material that rise from the core-
mantle boundary. They are suggested to be hot, causing large- volume melting, and to be
fixed in space. Because the tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes
dormant after a while and a new volcano is then formed as the plate shifts over the
postulated plume. The Hawaiian Islands have been suggested to have been formed in such
a manner, as well as the Snake River Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera being the part of
the North American plate currently above the hot spot. This theory is currently under
criticism, however.

126
 VOLCANIC FEATURES
The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and
poisonous gases from a crater at its summit. This describes just one of many types of
volcano, and the features of volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure and
behavior of volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks
formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater, whereas others present landscape
features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (lava, which is what
magma is called once it has escaped to the surface, and ash) and gases (mainly steam and
magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many of these vents give rise to
smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻOʻo on a flank of Hawaii's Kilauea.

Other types of volcano include cry volcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some
moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are formations
often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to
involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes, except when a
mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

127
 FISSURE VENTS
Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear cracks
through which lava emerges.

A fissure vent
opened on
Hawaii's
Kilauea
volcano.

128
 SHIELD VOLCANOES
Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption
of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent, but not generally explode
catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are
more common in oceanic than continental settings.
The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in
Iceland, as well.

Skjaldbreiður, a shield
volcano whose name
means "Ōroad shield’’

129
 LAVA DOMES
Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lavas. They are sometimes
formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint Helens), but
can also form independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like Stratovolcanoes, they can
produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lavas generally do not flow far from the
originating vent.

January 2009 ,the

rhyolitic lava dome of
Chaitén Volcano,
southern Chile during
its 2008–2009
eruption

130
 CRYPTODOMES
Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava forces its way up and causes a bulge. The
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example. Lava was under great pressure and
forced a bulge in the mountain, which was unstable and slid down the north side.

sample of the dacite

Cryptodomes from
the 1980 eruption

131
 VOLCANIC CONES (CINDER CONES)
Volcanic cones or cinder cones are the
result from eruptions that erupt mostly
small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics
(both resemble cinders, hence the name
of this volcano type) that build up around
the vent. These can be relatively short-
lived eruptions that produce a cone-
shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters
high. Most cinder cones erupt only once.
Cinder cones may form as flank vents on
larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.
Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in
Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In
New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic
field of over 60 cinder cones.
Holocene cinder cone volcano on State
Highway 18 near Veyo, Utah
132
STRATOVOLCANOES (COMPOSITE
VOLCANOES)
Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed
of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that give rise to
the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes, created
from several structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite
volcanoes are made of cinders, ash and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of
each other, lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then
the process begins again. Classic examples include Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mayon
Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

In recorded history, explosive eruptions by Stratovolcanoes have posed the

greatest hazard to civilizations, as ash is produced by an explosive eruption. No
supervolcano erupted in recorded history. Shield volcanoes have not an
enormous pressure build up from the lava flow. Fissure vents and monogenetic
volcanic fields (volcanic cones) have not powerful explosive eruptions, as they
are many times under extension. Stratovolcanoes (30–35°) are steeper than
shield volcanoes (generally 5–10°), their loose tephra are material for dangerous
lahars
133
Cross-section through a
Stratovolcanoes (vertical scale is
exaggerated):
1.Large magma 9.Layers of lava
chamber emitted by the
2.Bedrock volcano
3.Conduit (pipe) 10. Throat
4.Base 11. Parasitic cone
5. Sill 12. Lava flow
6.Dike 13. Vent
7.Layers of ash 14. Crater
emitted by the 15. Ash cloud
volcano
8.Flank

134
 SUPER VOLCANO
A super volcano is a large volcano that usually has
a large caldera and can potentially produce
devastation on an enormous, sometimes
continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to
cause severe cooling of global temperatures for
many years afterwards because of the huge
volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They are the
most dangerous type of volcano. Examples
include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone
National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico
(both western United States), Lake Taupo in New
Zealand, Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia and
Ngorogoro Crater in Tanzania, Krakatoa near Java
and Sumatra, Indonesia. Supervolcanoes are hard
to identify centuries later, given the enormous
areas they cover. Large igneous provinces are also
considered supervolcanoes because of the vast super
amount of basalt lava erupted, but are non-
explosive. volcano
135
 SUBMARINE VOLCANOES
Submarine volcanoes are common features on the ocean floor. Some
are active and, in shallow water, disclose their presence by blasting
steam and rocky debris high above the surface of the sea. Many
others lie at such great depths that the tremendous weight of the
water above them prevents the explosive release of steam and gases,
although they can be detected by hydrophones and discoloration of
water because of volcanic gases. Pumice rafts may also appear. Even
large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface. Because
of the rapid cooling effect of water as compared to air, and increased
buoyancy, submarine volcanoes often form rather steep pillars over
their volcanic vents as compared to above-surface volcanoes. They
may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new
islands. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine
volcanoes. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and
some support peculiar ecosystems based on dissolved minerals.

136
Bathymetry data of three submarine volcanoes in the Farallon de pajaros islands

137
 SUBGLACIAL VOLCANOES
Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps.
They are made up of flat lava which flows at the top
of extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. When the
icecap melts, the lavas on the top collapse, leaving a
flat-topped mountain. These volcanoes are also
called table mountains, tuyas or (uncommonly)
mobergs.
Very good examples of this type of volcano can be
seen in Iceland, however, there are also tuyas in
British Columbia. The origin of the term comes
from Tuya Butte, which is one of the several tuyas
in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in
northern British Columbia.
Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed
and so its name has entered the geological literature
for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Grimsvotn volcano, Vatnajokull
Mountains Provincial Park was recently established Ice Cap, Iceland
to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north
of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near
the boundary with the Yukon Territory.
138
 MUD VOLCANOES
Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases,
although there are several processes which may cause such activity. The largest structures
are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.

Mud volcano on
Taman Peninsula,
Russia

139
 ERUPTED MATERIAL
4.1 Lava composition
Another way of classifying volcanoes is by
the composition of material erupted (lava),
since this affects the shape of the volcano.
Lava can be broadly classified into 4
different compositions (Cas & Wright,
1987):
If the erupted magma contains a high
percentage (>63%) of silica, the lava is
called felsic
Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be
highly viscous (not very fluid) and are
erupted as domes or short, stubby flows.
Viscous lavas tend to form Stratovolcanoes
or lava domes. Lassen Peak in California is
an example of a volcano formed from
felsic lava and is actually a large lava Pāhoehoe lava from Kīlauea, Hawaii
dome.
140
Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are
present, which cause the magma to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming
Stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastics flows (ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such
volcanoes, since they are composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go up into the
atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large
eruptions. Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in pyroclastics flows,
which will incinerate everything flammable in their path and thick layers of hot
pyroclastics flow deposits can be laid down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley
of Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an
example of a thick pyroclastics flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough
to be erupted high into the Earth's atmosphere may travel many kilometers before it falls
back to ground as a tuff.

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition.
These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above subduction zones (e.g. Mount
Merapi in Indonesia).

Andesitic lava is typically formed at convergent boundary margins of tectonic

plates, by several processes: Hydration melting of peridotite and fractional
crystallization Melting of subducted slab containing sediments Magma mixing
between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir
prior to emplacement or lava flow. 141
If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called mafic (because it
contains higher percentages of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are
usually much less viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on their eruption temperature;
they also tend to be hotter than felsic lavas. Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings:

At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are pulling apart, basaltic lava rupts as
pillows to fill the gap;

Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both
oceanic and continental crust; As continental flood basalts.

Some erupted magmas contain <=45% silica and produce ultramafic lava. Ultramafic
flows, also known as komatiites, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at the
Earth's surface since the Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or
were) the hottest lavas, and probably more fluid than common mafic lavas.

142
 LAVA TEXTURE
Two types of lava are named according
to the surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced
and Pāhoehoe ([paːˈho.eˈho.e]), both
Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa is ōharaōterized
Ōy a rough, clinkery surface and is the
typical texture of viscous lava flows.

However, even basaltic or mafic

flows ōan Ōe erupted as ʻAʻa flows,
particularly if the eruption rate is high
and the slope is steep.

Pāhoehoe is ōharaōterized Ōy its

smooth and often ropey or wrinkly
surface and is generally formed from
more fluid lava flows. Usually, only
mafiō flows will erupt as Pāhoehoe,
since they often erupt at higher
temperatures or have the proper
Lava texture
chemical make-up to allow them to flow
with greater fluidity. 143
 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
5.1 Popular Classification of Volcanoes
5.1.1 Active

A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes is by their frequency of eruption,

with those that erupt regularly called active, those that have erupted in historical times
but are now quiet called dormant, and those that have not erupted in historical times
called extinct. However, these popular classifications—extinct in particular—are
practically meaningless to scientists. They use classifications which refer to a
particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and resulting shapes, which was
explained above.

There is no real consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano.

The lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to several million years, making such
a distinction sometimes meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or
even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted dozens of
times in the past few thousand years but are not currently showing signs of eruption.
Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they are very active. By human lifespans,
however, they are not. 144
Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is
currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity
or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a volcano active if it
has erupted in Holocene times. Historic times is another timeframe for active. But
it is important to note that the span of recorded history differs from region to
region. In China and the Mediterranean, recorded history reaches back more than
3,000 years but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, it
reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and New Zealand, only around
200 years. The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program's definition of active is
having erupted within the last 10,000 years (the 'holocene' period).

Presently there are about 500 active volcanoes in the world – the majority
following along the Pacific 'Ring of Fire' – and around 50 of these erupt each year.
The United States is home to 50 active volcanoes. There are more than 1,500
potentially active volcanoes. An estimated 500 million people live near active
volcanoes.

145
 Damavand
Mount St. Helens
May 1980
the eruption of 18 fumaroles solfatara

146
 Extinct
Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely
to erupt again, because the volcano no longer has a lava
supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on
the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean,
Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the Zuidwal volcano in the
Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located
atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly
extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"
calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in
millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption
in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered
dormant instead of extinct.

147
Fourpeaked volcano, Alaska, in September 2007, after being thought extinct
for
over 10,000 years
148
 Dormant
It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant one.
Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if there are no written
records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes may remain dormant for a
long period of time. For example, Yellowstone has a repose/recharge
period of around 700 ka, and Toba of around 380 ka. [10] Vesuvius was
described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and
vineyards before its famous eruption of AD 79, which destroyed the
towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before its catastrophic eruption of
1991, Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people
in the surrounding areas. Two other examples are the long-dormant
Soufriere Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be
extinct before activity resumed in 1995 and Fourpeaked Mountain in
Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted
since before 8000 BC and had long been thought to be extinct.

149
 Technical classification of volcanoes
5.2.1 Volcanic-alert level
The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and
some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have announced to the world they
were just pretending. To help prevent citizens from falsely believing they are
not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new
classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.Some
alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages.
Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.

5.2.2 Volcano warning schemes of the United States

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has adopted a common system
nationwide for characterizing the level of unrest and eruptive activity at
volcanoes. The new volcano alert-level system classifies volcanoes now as being
in a normal, advisory, watch or warning stage. Additionally, colors are used to
denote the amount of ash produced. Details of the US system can be found at
Volcano warning schemes of the United States.

150
 Notable Volcanoes
The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:

Avachinsky- Koryaksky, Sakurajima, Kagoshima

Kamchatka, Russia Prefecture, Japan
Nevado de Colima, Jalisco Santa Maria/Santiaguito,
and Colima, Mexico Guatemala
Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy Santorini, Cyclades, Greece
Galeras, Nariño, Colombia Taal Volcano, Luzon,
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, USA Philippines
Mount Merapi, Central Java, Teide, Canary Islands, Spain
Indonesia Ulawun, New Britain, Papua
New Guinea
Mount Nyiragongo,
Democratic Republic of the Mount Unzen, Nagasaki
Congo Prefecture, Japan
Mount Rainier, Washington, Vesuvius, Naples, Italy
USA

151
 Effects of Volcanoes
There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated
activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive
eruption of high- silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of
low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastics flows, lahars (debris flow)
and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a
hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots
and geysers often accompany volcanic activity.

The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably

from one volcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the most
abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide,
hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor
and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and
volatile metal chlorides.
152
Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash
(pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometers (10– 20
mi) above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections come
from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which condenses rapidly
in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The aerosols increase the Earth's
albedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space – and thus cool the
Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from
the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century
have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a
degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years — sulfur dioxide from the
eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601 - 1603.
One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the
supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia. According to the Toba
catastrophe theory to which some anthropologists and archeologists subscribe, it had
global consequences, killing most humans then alive and creating a population
bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today. The 1815 eruption
of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year
Without a Summer" because of the effect on North American and European weather.
Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere,
resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th century.The freezing winter of 1740–
41, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a
volcanic eruption. 153
Solar radiation reduction from volcanic
eruptions
154
It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the End-
Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, Late Devonian mass extinctions, and possibly
others. The massive eruptive event which formed the Siberian Traps, one of the
largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth's
geological history, continued for a million years and is considered to be the
likely cause of the "Great Dying" about 250 million years ago, which is
estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time.

The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces
that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect,
together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon
pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the
aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where
they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation
balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are
dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground
as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it
is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic
eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep
source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.

155
Sulfur dioxide emissions by
156
volcanoes
Rainbow and volcanic ash with sulfur dioxide
emissions from Halema`uma`u ven 157
Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic
activity releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million
short tons) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic eruptions may inject
aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual
effects such as unusually colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly
by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit of adding
nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These
fertile soils assist the growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions
can also create new islands, as the magma cools and solidifies upon contact
with the water.

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft,
especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating
temperature.

Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the eruption of Galunggung in Indonesia,

and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised awareness of
this phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by
the International Civil Aviation Organization to monitor ash clouds and
advise pilots accordingly. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused
major disruptions to air travel in Europe.
158
Average
concentration
of sulfur
dioxide over
the Sierra
Negra Volcano
(Galapagos
Islands) from
October 23 –
November 1,
2005

159
There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield
volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons,
Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These
volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European
Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may
have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar

system because of tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with
volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxideand silicate rock, and as a
result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known
anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K
(1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in
the solar system occurred on Io. Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean
moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its
volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice
on the frigid surface. This process is known as cry volcanism, and is
apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the solar
system.

160
In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed
cry volcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a
moon of Neptune, and in 2005 the
Cassini-Huygens probe photographed
fountains of frozen particles erupting
from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.[27] The
ejecta may be composed of water, liquid
nitrogen, dust, or methane compounds.

Cassini-Huygens also found evidence of a

methane-spewing cry volcano on the
Saturnine moon Titan, which is believed
to be a significant source of the methane
found in its atmosphere. It is theorized
that cry volcanism may also be present on
the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.
The Tvashtar volcano erupts a
A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT- plume 330 km (205 mi) above
7b, which was detected by transit in the surface of Jupiter's moon Io
2009, studied that tidal heating from the
host star very close to the planet and
neighboring planets could generate
intense volcanic activity similar to Io. 161
 Traditional beliefs about Volcanoes
Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes,
such as the actions of gods or demigods. To the ancient Greeks, volcanoes'
capricious power could only be explained as acts of the gods, while
16th/17th-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler believed they were
ducts for the Earth's tears. One early idea counter to this was proposed by
Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of Mount
Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his
view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused
by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal.
Various explanations were proposed for volcano behavior before the modern
understanding of the Earth's mantle structure as a semisolid material was
developed. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive
materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically
discounted. Volcanic action was often attributed to chemical reactions and a
thin layer of molten rock near the surface

162
 UNIT-4
Exogenous
Hazards

163
 Risk Assessment
 Hazard Identification
 Dose-Response Assessment
 Exposure Assessment
 Risk Characterization
 Modeling
 Probability

164
 Major Types of Hazards
 Cultural Hazards
 Chemical Hazards
 Physical Hazards
 Biological Hazards

165
 Chemical Hazards
 Hazardous Chemicals
 Mutagens
 Teratogens
 Carcinogens
 Endocrine disruptors

166
 Hazardous Chemicals
 Flammable or explosive
 Irritant
 Asphixiant
 allergen

167
Common Chemical Agents with
Adverse Health Affects
 Arsenic
 Asbestos
 Benzene
 Chlorine
 Formaldehyde
 Lead
 Mercury
 Dioxins

168
 Biological Agents
 Pathogenicity
 Route of transmission
 Agent stability
 Infectious dose
 Concentration
 Origin
 Data from animal studies
 Prophylaxis

169
 Common Human Diseases
 Lassa Fever
 TB
 Leprosy
 Dengue Fever
 Giardiasis
 Malaria
 Yellow Fever  Salmonella

 Cholera  Plague

 Trypanosomiasis  Encephalitis
 Cryptosporidosis  Ebola
 Anthrax  Influenza
 Encephalitis
 Hepatitis 170
 Toxicity: Determining if a
chemical is harmful
 Size of dose over time
 How often exposure occurs
 Acute vs. chronic
 Age of person exposed
 Adult, very old, child, infant
 State of health
 Immune compromised
 Body fat
 How well body detoxifies
 Lungs, liver, kidnies

171
When does a contaminant become just a
harmless
environmental
tracer
Incidence in lifetime Linear Risk Model

healt
h
studie
s

Response threshold

Exposure

Since we rarely have good data about threshold effects,

we assume they are not present
172
 Tetrachloroethylene (PCE, dry
cleaning fluid) is a common
contaminant
10 -2 maximum contaminant
Incidence of cancer (lifetime)

level
public health
goal
10-4 health
detection studies
limit

10 -6

10-8
0.001 0.1 10 1000
Exposure (ppb PCE in water)

173
Radioactive tritium (3H) is of concern at very low
concentration and is present in the environment at
exceedingly low concentration
1
10-2 maximum contaminant
possible public level
Incidence of cancer (lifetim e)

health goal
10-4

10-6 health
detection studies
10-8 limit

10-10
10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6

Exposure (ppb tritium in water)

174
 Arsenic is an example of a different
pattern where the detection limit is large
compared to possible health goals
1 maximum
contaminant
level
Incidence of outcome (lifetime)

10-2
possible
public
health goal
10-4 health
studies

10-6 detection
limit

10-8
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Exposure (ppb Arsenic in water)

175
 Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds
(EDC) in wastewater are a concern
An environmental endocrine disruptor is defined as an exogenous agent that
interferes with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or
elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for the
maintenance of homeostasis, reproduction, development, and/or behavior."
(EPA 1997)

176
 Nonylphenol (NP) is an important
EDC
NP is a metabolite of alkylphenol ethoxylate (APEO)
surfactants and is commonly detected in treated
wastewater ( g/L).
• APEOs are among the most widely used groups of
surfactants. Worldwide, about 500,000 tons are produced
annually.

OH
(C9H19
)

Nonylphenol OH

HO
17 -
Estradiol
177
 UNIT-5
Emerging Approaches of Disaster
Management

178
 Environment and Disaster
Management

Contents of the presentation:

-Problem Identification
-Natural Disaster, Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk
-Environment and disaster management issues
-Illustrative examples of environment disaster linkages
-Global and local policy environment

179
 What is the problem?
• Environment and disasters are interlinked
• Environmental concerns are not incorporated
in disaster management practices and vice
versa
• Decisions and actions on environment and
disasters are taken separately
• The main issues are:
– Lack of coordination and inter-linkage of policy and plans
– Lack of perception and understanding
– Lack of local actions, and
– Lack of resource distribution
180
 What is a natural disaster?
• A natural disaster is the consequence of an event,
which causes significant loss to human lives and
property
• A Disaster is defined as the interaction between an
event and human activities
• A Disaster is often described as a function of
hazard, risk and vulnerability

181
 Elements of Risk

Hazard X Vulnerability Risk

=
(Mostly Natural) (Man and Built Env.) (Consequence)

Geological Physical Death/Injury

Hydrological Social/ Cultural Financial Loss

Meteorological Economic Social Loss

182
 Goal of Environment and Disaster
Management

• The goal of Environment and Disaster Management

is the safety and sustainability of human lives

• Safety is related to avoiding death and injuries to

human lives during a disaster

• Sustainability is related to livelihood, socio-

economic, cultural, environmental and
psychological aspects
183
 Disaster, Environment,
Development
Disasters Development
- Conflict - Water
- Natural Disasters - Health
- Population - Education
- Reducing Risk - Environment
- Migration
- Enhancing Security - Poverty

Human
Environment
- Built Security
- Air
-Land
-Sea

184
 Disasters and Poverty
• Low-income groups are more vulnerable to natural
disasters
• In general, floods and cyclones cause maximum damages
and casualties in low-income groups, while earthquakes
cause more casualties in middle-income groups
• Drought and flood affect most people in low and middle
income groups
• Lower income groups are more dependent on the
immediate environment
• Understanding how humans use environmental assets is
important for good disaster risk mitigation.

185
Disaster and Development Cycle

186
 Causes
Immediate/ Long -term
Causes Reduced through Population
multi-stakeholder De-forestation
cooperation High Consumption
Climate Change
Causes

Building
disaster The Environment
capacity cause-effect cycle

Effects

Effects
Waste
Coral Reef Damages Coastal
Effects Zone Impacts
Coastal Ground water
Zone Impacts
Reduced through contamination
Ground Siltation issue
water contamination
awareness, Effect onissue
Siltation agriculture land
policies & action Effect on agriculture land

187
 Typhoon 23
(Japan, 2004)

Disaster
Landslide
Extreme rainfall Waste debris
Failure of pump system Electrical waste
Collapse of dyke system Environment Siltation of river and flooding
Critical timing of rainfall Blockage of water passage by
Low evacuation rate uprooted trees
Typhoon
23

Infrastructure Policy, Strategy, Planning Community

Disaster env. Linkages
Plans and programs Perception and Action
Dyke Management
Dissemination Preparedness for
Land-use management
Adaptation Evacuation
River basin management
Implementation Self-reliability
Forest management
Training and Human Public awareness
resource development

188
 Coastal Zone
Management and
Disaster Preparedness

• Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004

• Green belt and mangrove in the coastal zone, coral reef
protection and coastal regulatory zones are considered as
environment protection measures
• However, these elements are strongly linked to tsunami
protection in the coastal areas
• Livelihood support to the fisherman, protection of
environment in the coastal area, and disaster prevention
interface was lacking in most of the places
189
 Integrated Waste Management

• Waste is a resource, and waste prevention is better than

waste regulation and control.
• Disaster and waste management is closely linked
• Waste causes secondary disasters
• Physical and socio-economic conditions of the concerned
communities should be considered in waste management
• Waste management should be part of disaster plans

190
 Climate Change Impacts

• Climate change is considered as an environmental phenomena.

• Climate change impacts are seen in the form of natural disasters like
drought, flood etc.
• Livelihoods of the rural communities are directly affected by the
climate change impacts
• Adaptation to climate change is becoming increasingly recognized as
the key issue (as opposed to mitigation), and it is considered as the
pre-disaster preparedness measures.

191
 Issues in Environment and Disaster
Management (EDM)
What intermediaries What kinds of
and partners are organizations are
being used? doing EDM?

Who are the

What is the Environment target
and Disaster audience?
intended
Management
effect?

What is the scale

How is it of operation?
being
What is the
delivered?
message being
disseminated?

192
 MDG and Disasters: Global Tool

• Millennium Development Goals (MDG) are considered as important

development framework, and disaster should be part of that
framework.

• Increasing destruction from landslides, floods and other disasters

related to environmental and land-use patterns are a clear signal that
massive challenges remain in achieving this MDG in environmental
sustainability.

• For example, the target of achieving a “significant improvement in the

lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2020” will be
almost impossible without developing policies to enhance their ability
to confront high disaster risks associated with earthquakes, tropical
cyclones, flooding,drought etc.

193
 Agenda 21: For Local Actions
Agenda 21 (A21) is an action programme based on contributions from national
governments and international bodies at the Rio Summit of 1991.
• Social and economic dimension of sustainable development
– Policy, poverty, consumption, demography, health, settlement,
environment

• Conservation and management of resources for development

– Atmosphere, land resources, deforestation, desertification, mountain,
agriculture, bio-diversity, bio-technology, ocean, freshwater, toxic, hazardous,
solid, radioactive waste

• Strengthening the role of major groups

– Women, youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities, trade union,
industry, Sc/ Tech, farmers

• Means of implementation
– Finance, Environment Sound Technology (EST), Science, Education,
Cooperation, Institution, Legal and Decision-making
194
 Summary: Environment and Disaster
Management
Why?
– Environment and disaster are interrelated and are linked to the
sustainable development
– A sound environmental practice can lead to proper disaster
mitigation and vice versa
What?
How to integrate environment and disaster issues in the development
practices.
Case Studies on specific issues
– Like effects of typhoons, tsunami
– Waste issues,
– Impact of climate change as disasters
Who?
Development Practitioners, Disaster and environment managers

195