Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Iare DM PPT
Iare DM PPT
(ACE551) IARE-R16
B.Tech V SEM
Prepared By:
Mr. S. Varadarajan
Asst. Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
COURSE OUTLINE
UNIT TITLE CONTENTS
Meaning of Environmental hazards,
Environmental
Disasters and Environmental stress.
I Environmental Conceptof Environmental Hazards,
Hazards & Environmental stress &Environmental
Disasters: Disasters.
2. Emergency Stage
3. Post Disaster stage-Rehabilitation
4
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
AND
DISASTERS
The surroundings or conditions in which a
person, animal or plant lives or operates is termed
as ‘ENVIRONMENT’
HAZARDS
HAZARDS: Any phenomenon that has the potential to
cause disruption or damage to people & the environment.
11
DEFINITIONS OF DISASTER
12
CHARACTERISTIC OF DISASTER
Predictability
Controllability
Speed ofonset
Length of
forewarning
Duration of impact
Scope and intensity
of impact
13
PHASES OF DISASTER
Pre-impact
phase
Impact
phase
Post-impact
phase
14
15
PRINCIPLES OFDISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Disaster management is the
responsibility of all spheres of
government
16
Contd….
Disaster management planning should recognize the difference between
incidents and disasters.
Disaster management operational arrangements are additional to and do
not replace incident management operational arrangements
17
PHASES OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Disaster Preparedness
Disaster impact
Disaster Response
Rehabilitation
Disaster Mitigation
18
Disaster Preparedness
Preparedness should be in the form of money, manpower and
materials
Evaluation from past experiences about risk
Location of disaster prone areas
Organization of communication, information and
warning system
Ensuring co-ordination and response mechanisms
Development of public education programme
Co-ordination with media
National & international relations
Keeping stock of foods, drug and other essential commodities.
19
E.g.: Indian Meteorological department (IMD) plays a key role in
forewarning the disaster of cyclone-storms by detection tracing. It
has 5 centres in Kolkata, Bhubaneswar, Vishakapatanam, Chennai
& Mumbai. In addition there are 31 special observation posts setup
a long the east coast of India.
21
T ria ge
Golden hour
Immediate or high priority:
Delayed or medium priority:
Minor or minimal or ambulatory patients:
Expectant or least priority:
Colour code:
22
D i s a s t e r response
Epidemiologic surveillance and disease
control
Vaccination
Nutrition
23
R e h a b i l i t a t i o n phase
Water supply
Food safety
Housing
24
D i s a s t e r mi t i g a t i o n
This involves lessening the likely effects of
emergencies. These include depending upon the
disaster, protection of vulnerable population and
structure.
25
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
26
DISASTER-EFFECTS
Deaths
Disability
Increase in communicable disease
Psychological problems
Food shortage
Socioeconomic losses
Shortage of drugs and medical supplies.
Environmental disruption
27
DISASTER DRILL
• A disaster drill is an exercise in which people
simulate the circumstances of a disaster so
that they have an opportunity to practice
their responses.
28
ROLE OF NURSE IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
To facilitate preparation with community
To provide updated record of vulnerable
populations within community
Nurse leads a preparedness effort
Nurse play multiroles in community
Nurse should have understanding of community
resources
Disaster Nurse must be involved in community
organization
29
DISASTER RESPONSE
30
DISASTER RECOVERY
Successful Recovery
Preparation
Be vigilant in Health teaching
Psychological support
Referrals to hospital as needed
Remain alert for environmental
health
Nurse must be attentive to the
danger
31
UNIT-2
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL
HAZARDS & DISASTERS
32
Natural Disasters
33
Why is this important?
Natural disasters are important, because they don’t only effect
buildings and land, they affect human beings. They can severely
injure or kill. They tare families apart.
34
Who is effected?
Natural disasters can effect everyone, everywhere. Even if it
didn’t happen in your state or area, the cost effects the nation as a
whole.
In 2009, natural disasters cost insurers about $110 billion. In
2010, the cost was double that, at $218 billion.
35
The Effects
10,000 people have died in Japan’s latest
Tsunami/earthquake
36
There were about 454,000
living in metropolitan New
Orleans in 2001. Only this
year has New Orleans
recently surpassed 350,000
citizens.
37
How to Prevent
• Natural disaster are something that can not be stopped, or
prevented, but we can do some thing's before and after
disasters to help reduce the amount of trauma caused by
these disasters.
Ways to Help:
• Donate to organizations that deal with natural disaster relief
• Volunteer with these organizations
• Help rebuild cities
• Many organizations that
are based around helping,
supporting, and rescuing
victims, are places that
you can donate to and
where they raise money.
38
The Aftermath
Natural disasters don't just create damage when it hits. The
effects after can be worse. Many of them can cause lose
ground, creating landslides. Some can start fires in your
homes, also it can cause the loss of everything you know.
39
The Cost of Disasters
This year Obama has set aside $850 billion for natural disasters.
In the past $3 trillion budget intended for an infrequent purpose:
federal dollars to help victims of floods, hurricanes, tornadoes
and other natural disasters
40
Something needs to be done…
41
42
MAN MADE DISASTERS
We are now living in a civilized society. The days of illiteracy and ignorance
have gone. Man has made much progress in the field of science and technology.
Man has created wealth out of natural resources for his comfortable living. Man
has cut forests recklessly to clear the land for cultivation and along with this
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION has taken place, which also affects his
life. Man is becoming his own enemy because he has also created weapons of
mass destruction and these weapons are used against humanity, which further
brings sorrow, and suffering to mankind. This is just example of manmade
43
disaster which shows in daily news paper and well known to people
TYPES OF MAN MADE DISASTERS
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
CHEMICHAL DISASTERS
BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
GLOBAL WARMING
TERRORIST ATTACKS
POLLUTION
44
BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Biological disaster spreads through the organism that is developed in the form
of BACTERIA or MICROBES. Biological agent spread fast in the
environment and then makes an attack on the human beings. The people inhale
these microbes. When these microbes find themselves a host body, they start
affecting the immune systems of the body. Microbes’ also entire human body
through open wounds or cuts.
The attack of these microbes is generally slow but once they are spread in the
body, it becomes different to control them. It takes the life of the affected
persons. Many a time, it becomes difficult to diagnose the illness caused by
these microbes and it proves to be fatal.
Whenever we learn or hear of type of danger of communicable
diseases through official announcements on radio or TV, then we can
adequate preventive and protective measures.
We aware that you are one of few, who have quite often tried to help in taking
this type of noble cause and solve the problem of affected people, please let us
to help in certain time of disaster or create fund for this uncertain event.
Therefore we have taken the liberty of appealing to you that if any kind of
donation or charity for such type future uncertain event we would be than
thank full
45
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century,
Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-
thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90 certain that it
is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human
activities such as the burning of fossil
fuels and deforestation.
These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized
nations The effects of an increase in global temperature include arise in sea levels and a
change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of
subtropical deserts.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the
continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming
include a more frequent occurrence of extreme- weather events including heat waves,
droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting
temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from
decreasing crop yields and the loss of habit from industrialized nations
46
TERRORIST ATTACKS
terrorist act can be defined as the calculated use of violence (or the
threat of violence) against civilians in order to attain goals that are
political or religious or ideological in nature; this is done through
intimidation or coercion or instilling fear
47
WORST TERRORIST ATTACKS
Mumbai terrorist attack is also referred to as November 26 or 26/11 and this terrorist attack
targeted India’s largest city Mumbai. It was actually a series of 10 coordinated shooting and
bombing attacks across Mumbai by Islamic terrorists who are believed to have come from
Pakistani Seawaters and backed by ISI, Pakistani secret service agency. It affected the Indo-Pak
relation immensely and the bilateral relations were debilitated which have never returned to
normalcy since
There was a series of coordinated attacks by Al-Qaeda on America on September 11, 2001. Four
commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked by 19 Al-Qaeda members and they
intentionally steered two of the planes towards the Twin Towers of World Trade Center,
consequently bringing them down to earth. The third airliner was crashed into The Pentagon in
Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. and the fourth one crashed into a field near
Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania. There were no survivors from any of the flights. This event
triggered many changes in the world as a whole and was the beginning of a very horrendous
film for the humans across the globe because humans had to pay a very heavy price of this
terrorist attack and this fact is conspicuous from the current state of affairs
This incident took place on April 19, 1995 and it was an attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in downtown Oklahoma City. It was the most deadly terrorist attack on the American
soil until 9/11,and it claimed 168 lives, including 19 children under the age of 6,[1] and injured
more than 680 people.
48
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural
environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances or energy such as noise, heat or
light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either
foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring
contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or
nonpoint source pollution.
49
FORMS OF AIR POLLUTION
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminant
relevant to each of them:
• Air pollution:- the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by
their micro meter size PM10 to PM2.5.
• Light pollution:- includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
• Littering:- the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, un removed,
on to public and private properties.
• Noise pollution:- which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
as well as high-intensity sonar.
• Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or
underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
50
hydrocarbons.
• Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research,
manufacture and deployment.
• Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines,
motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage
of trash, municipal solid waste or space debris.
51
SOME MAN MADE
DISASTERS
In October 2001, there was a danger of anthrax germs being used as biological
weapons. Anthrax was the cause of death for some people in USA.US authorities
also confirmed that a postal worker in the city of Washington DC was tested positive
for anthrax infection. Anthrax is a deadly disease caused by bacillus, most common
in sheep and cattle but also communicable to mankind.
In December 1984, the leakage of gas from the Union Carbide factory at Bhopal in
Madhya Pradesh caused 2,500 deaths and more than 3 lakes people of Bhopal
suffered the disastrous effects of the poisonous gas.
The worst type of man-made disaster is caused by the use of nuclear weapons. If we
go back to the history of 1945, we come to know the history of 1945; we come to
know the worst type of nuclear disaster the world had witnessed. On August 6, 1945
an atom bomb was dropped on HIROSHIMA in Japan, which devastated the entire
town killing 66,000 people and injuring nearly 69,000. On August 9, 1945 another
atom bomb was dropped on NAGASAKI. This bomb killed nearly 39,000 people
and injured more than 25,000.
52
NATURAL DISASTERS
53
Disaster Database
• Avalanche
• Earthquakes
• Hurricanes
• Landslides
• Thunderstorms
• Tornados
• Tsunami
• Volcanoes
54
AVALANCHES
• Avalanches Happen on every continent
• Avalanche “eason is during the “winter time”
or December-April in the United States
• A large scale can release up to 300,000 cubic
yards of snow
• Avalanches are more commonly released by
recreationists than by natural causes
• The biggest factor of avalanche possibility is
the accumulation snow over the winter season
– More snow = bigger avalanche
55
Earthquakes
• Earthquakes are caused by the release
of built up pressure caused by the
shifting of tectonicplates
• Earthquakes usually occur on fault
lines, or areas where tectonic plates
meet
• The size of an earthquake is
measured using the logarithmic
based Richter scale
56
Hurricanes
• A hurricane is a tropical storm
with winds over74mph
• Hurricanes occupy the most
intense level of the three
levels of tropical storms
• Hurricanes rotate or circulate
counter-clockwise in the
northern hemisphere
• Hurricanes can only occur
over the Atlantic ocean,
Caribbean sea, and gulf of
Mexico
57
Landslides
• Landslides are the movement of land
down aslope by gravity
• Landslides are mother nature’s way of
redistributing land
• They can be triggered by rain, floods,
and earthquakes as well as man- made
factors such asslope grading or mining
• Landslides have the potential to
happen anywhere a steep slope is
present
58
Thunder Storms
• Every Thunderstorm produces
lightning
• There is wet thunder and dry
thunder, the difference being
whether or not rain in produced
• Warm humid conditions favor
thunderstorms
• Only 10% of thunderstorms are
classified as severe
• Your chance of being struck by
lightning is 1 in 600,000
59
Tornados
• A tornado is defined as a violently
rotating column of air extending
from a thunderstorm to theground
• Tornados are found in almost every
part of theworld
• Tornados are most common in the
United States, just east of the Rocky
Mountains in an area called Tornad
Ally
• Waterspouts are weak tornados over
water and can move inland an become
tornados
60
Tsunamis
• On the seafloor, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and
even landslides can lead to
tsunamis
• Tsunamis can travel over
300mph
• Tsunamis can have an
amplitude of up to 32ft
• Hawaii is the most vulnerable
place in the world for tsunamis
61
Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are lava filled mountains that erupt when the
pressure becomes to great for them to hold it inside
• The contents that a volcano spews forth is called magma when
it’s below the surface and lava once it reaches the surface
• Only a fraction of the world’s volcanoes are actually on land,
the rest are on theocean floor
• Indonesia has the most volcanoes of all the countries in the
world
62
63
64
UNIT-3
Endogenous Hazards
65
66
INTRODUCTION
67
What is Earthquake?
68
For
If you throw stone in a
example
pond of still water,series of
waves are produced on the
surface : of water,these waves
spread out in all directions from
the point where the stone strikes
the water.
Focus(Hypocenter):
Focus is the point on the fault
where rupture occurs and the
location from which seismic
waves are released.
Epicenter:
Epicenter is the point on the earth’s
surface that is directly above the focus
,the point where an earthquake or
underground explosion originates.
70
Cont…
Fault Line:
A Fault line is the surface trace of a
fault, the line of intersection
between the earth’s surface.
Fault plane:
Fault plane are the crackes or
sudden slips of the land .
Fault Scrap:
A Fault scrap is the topographic
expression of faulting attributed
to the displacement of the land
surface by movement along
faults.
71
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the
surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along the
fault to classify faults.
72
Classification of Faults
Normal fault:
a dip-slip fault in which the
block above the fault has
moved downward relative to
the block below.
Thrust (reverse)fault:
a dip-slip fault in which the
upper block, above the fault
plane, moves up and over the
lower block.
73
Strike-slip fault:
A left-lateral strike-slip
fault :
It is one on which the
displacement of the far block is
to the left when viewed from
either side.
A right-lateral strike-slip
fault:
It is one on which the
displacement of the far block is
to the right when viewed from
either side.
74
Some major causes of earthquakes on basic of its causes
are:
Surface causes
Volcanic causes
Tectonic causes
Surface cause:
Great explosions, landslides, slips on steep coasts, dashing
of sea waves , avalanches , railway trains, heavy trucks, some
large engineering projects cause minor tremors. some of them are
man made, other are natural.
75
Volcanic cause:
Volcanic eruptions produce earthquakes. Earthquakes may
precede, accompany and frequently follow volcanic eruptions.
They are caused by sudden displacements of lava within
or beneath the earth crust.
volcano-tectonic
earthquakes
77
WAVES PRODUCED
DUE TO EARTHQUAKE
Seismic waves produced due to
earthquake are basically divided
into two major types:
Body waves
Surface waves
78
Body waves:
Body waves travels through the interior(body) of earth as they leave
the focus. Body waves are further divided into following types:
79
Primary Waves (P-waves) Secondary Waves(S-wave)
Pass trough both solids and Can not move through liquids
liquids
Move forwards and Move in all direction from
backwards as it compressed their source
and decompressed
P-wave is faster S-wave is more slower than P-
wave
First P-wave arrive After P-wave,S-wave is arrive
80
Surface Wave:
Surface waves travels parallel to the earth’s surface and these
waves are slowest and most damaging. Surface wave are divided
into following types:
Love waves
Rayleigh waves
81
Love Waves Rayleigh wave
82
STRENGTH OF EARTHQUAKE
• The intensity and strength of an earthquake is measured
on Richter scale, the scale invented by Charles Richter
California, USA in 1935. It categories earthquake on the
basis of energy released
Defintion:
“the logarithm to base ten of the maximum seismic-wave
amplitude recorded on a standard seismograph at a distance of
100 kilometers from the earthquake epicenter.”
85
Seismometers- The measurement
of Earthquake
Seismometers are instruments
that measure motions of the
ground, including those
of seismic waves generated
by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and otherseismic
sources.
Seismometers may be
deployed at Earth's surface, in
shallow vaults, in boreholes, or
underwater.
86
Types of Zones
The earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic
zones Based on the observations of the affected area due to
Earthquake india divided into four types of zones:
87
88
Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake prediction is usually defined as the specification of
the time , location , and magnitude of a future earthquake within
stated limits.
But some evidence of upcoming Earthquake are following:
Damage to infrastructure.
Chances of Floods – Develop cracks in Dams
Chances of fire short-circuit.
Communications such as telephone wires are damaged.
Water pipes, sewers are disrupted
Economic activities like agriculture, industry, trade and transport
are severely affected.
90
Cont…
Landslides
Shaking and
ground rapture
91
Fires
Soil liquefaction
92
Tsunami
Floods
93
Earthquake Safety Rules
If you are in house;
• Don’t use lift for getting down from building.
• Be prepared to move with your family.
96
Contd…
If you aware of people have been buried, tell the rescue team. Do
not rush and try not to worsen the situation.
Avoid places where there are loose electric wires and do not
come in contact with any metal object.
97
Date Place Scale Damage
Sept 2, Latur 6.3 Large areas of Maharashtra
1993 (maharashtra) rocked. 10,000 people lost lives.
Jan. 26, Bhuj (gujrat) 7.8 Tremors left by India and its
2001 neighboring countries. Over 1 lakh
people killed. Huge loss to
property and infrastructure.
98
99
disaster picture from Kashmir
earthquake 2005
100
Earthquake Case study:
Bhuj Earthquake 26th January 2001
• Magnitude: 7.7
103
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
There were more than 20,000 deaths and 167,000 people injured Four
districts of Gujarat lay in ruin and altogether, 21 districts were affected.
In the city of Bhuj, more than 3,000 Population of the city lost their
lives; the main hospital was crushed and close to 90% of the buildings
was destroyed.
104
Damage to high rise
building in Bhuj
105
5 year old girl recovers
at a hospital in Bhuj on
Monday after Friday's
massive earthquake.
106
LOCAL RESPONSE
The withi India immediate.
nationalrespons n governmentwa
and state The
e
assistanc in many s s includinquickly cash, medica
e forms
communication g sheltersprovide
l
supplies, s
clothing, transport and relief teams, d , food
workers. ,
There were than 185 non-
more government
undertook organizations mostly India
earthquake-related charities,
activities (NGO n whi
s), ch
107
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE
Search and Rescue teams soon arrived from Switzerland,
United Kingdom, Russia and Turkey to find and rescue
survivors buried under debris.
108
RELIEF AND RECONSTRUCTION
109
Government of Gujarat provided assistance in the form of
materials and cash to about 218,000 families.
110
111
Landslides
112
Main Factors that cause landslides
1. Slope
2. Precipitation
3. Vegetation
4. Soil
Different Types of Landslides
Bad Place to Build
113
Main Factors
1. Slope
2. Precipitation
3. Vegetation
4. Soil
114
Slope
115
Precipitation
116
Vegetation
117
Soil
118
Different Kinds of Landslides
119
Bad Place to Build
This is what happens if slopes are not examined
before cities are built next to them.
120
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
121
VOLCANO
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust,
which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from
below the surface.
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or
converging. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling
apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by
convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are
usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the
Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the
Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift in North
America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate
hypothesis" volcanism.
122
ETYMOLOGY
126
VOLCANIC FEATURES
The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and
poisonous gases from a crater at its summit. This describes just one of many types of
volcano, and the features of volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure and
behavior of volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks
formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater, whereas others present landscape
features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (lava, which is what
magma is called once it has escaped to the surface, and ash) and gases (mainly steam and
magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many of these vents give rise to
smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻOʻo on a flank of Hawaii's Kilauea.
Other types of volcano include cry volcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some
moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are formations
often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to
involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes, except when a
mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.
127
FISSURE VENTS
Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear cracks
through which lava emerges.
A fissure vent
opened on
Hawaii's
Kilauea
volcano.
128
SHIELD VOLCANOES
Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption
of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent, but not generally explode
catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are
more common in oceanic than continental settings.
The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in
Iceland, as well.
Skjaldbreiður, a shield
volcano whose name
means "Ōroad shield’’
129
LAVA DOMES
Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lavas. They are sometimes
formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint Helens), but
can also form independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like Stratovolcanoes, they can
produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lavas generally do not flow far from the
originating vent.
130
CRYPTODOMES
Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava forces its way up and causes a bulge. The
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example. Lava was under great pressure and
forced a bulge in the mountain, which was unstable and slid down the north side.
131
VOLCANIC CONES (CINDER CONES)
Volcanic cones or cinder cones are the
result from eruptions that erupt mostly
small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics
(both resemble cinders, hence the name
of this volcano type) that build up around
the vent. These can be relatively short-
lived eruptions that produce a cone-
shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters
high. Most cinder cones erupt only once.
Cinder cones may form as flank vents on
larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.
Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in
Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In
New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic
field of over 60 cinder cones.
Holocene cinder cone volcano on State
Highway 18 near Veyo, Utah
132
STRATOVOLCANOES (COMPOSITE
VOLCANOES)
Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed
of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that give rise to
the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes, created
from several structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite
volcanoes are made of cinders, ash and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of
each other, lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then
the process begins again. Classic examples include Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mayon
Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.
134
SUPER VOLCANO
A super volcano is a large volcano that usually has
a large caldera and can potentially produce
devastation on an enormous, sometimes
continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to
cause severe cooling of global temperatures for
many years afterwards because of the huge
volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They are the
most dangerous type of volcano. Examples
include Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone
National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico
(both western United States), Lake Taupo in New
Zealand, Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia and
Ngorogoro Crater in Tanzania, Krakatoa near Java
and Sumatra, Indonesia. Supervolcanoes are hard
to identify centuries later, given the enormous
areas they cover. Large igneous provinces are also
considered supervolcanoes because of the vast super
amount of basalt lava erupted, but are non-
explosive. volcano
135
SUBMARINE VOLCANOES
Submarine volcanoes are common features on the ocean floor. Some
are active and, in shallow water, disclose their presence by blasting
steam and rocky debris high above the surface of the sea. Many
others lie at such great depths that the tremendous weight of the
water above them prevents the explosive release of steam and gases,
although they can be detected by hydrophones and discoloration of
water because of volcanic gases. Pumice rafts may also appear. Even
large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface. Because
of the rapid cooling effect of water as compared to air, and increased
buoyancy, submarine volcanoes often form rather steep pillars over
their volcanic vents as compared to above-surface volcanoes. They
may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new
islands. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine
volcanoes. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and
some support peculiar ecosystems based on dissolved minerals.
136
Bathymetry data of three submarine volcanoes in the Farallon de pajaros islands
137
SUBGLACIAL VOLCANOES
Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps.
They are made up of flat lava which flows at the top
of extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. When the
icecap melts, the lavas on the top collapse, leaving a
flat-topped mountain. These volcanoes are also
called table mountains, tuyas or (uncommonly)
mobergs.
Very good examples of this type of volcano can be
seen in Iceland, however, there are also tuyas in
British Columbia. The origin of the term comes
from Tuya Butte, which is one of the several tuyas
in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in
northern British Columbia.
Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed
and so its name has entered the geological literature
for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Grimsvotn volcano, Vatnajokull
Mountains Provincial Park was recently established Ice Cap, Iceland
to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north
of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near
the boundary with the Yukon Territory.
138
MUD VOLCANOES
Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases,
although there are several processes which may cause such activity. The largest structures
are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.
Mud volcano on
Taman Peninsula,
Russia
139
ERUPTED MATERIAL
4.1 Lava composition
Another way of classifying volcanoes is by
the composition of material erupted (lava),
since this affects the shape of the volcano.
Lava can be broadly classified into 4
different compositions (Cas & Wright,
1987):
If the erupted magma contains a high
percentage (>63%) of silica, the lava is
called felsic
Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be
highly viscous (not very fluid) and are
erupted as domes or short, stubby flows.
Viscous lavas tend to form Stratovolcanoes
or lava domes. Lassen Peak in California is
an example of a volcano formed from
felsic lava and is actually a large lava Pāhoehoe lava from Kīlauea, Hawaii
dome.
140
Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are
present, which cause the magma to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming
Stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastics flows (ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such
volcanoes, since they are composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go up into the
atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large
eruptions. Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in pyroclastics flows,
which will incinerate everything flammable in their path and thick layers of hot
pyroclastics flow deposits can be laid down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley
of Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an
example of a thick pyroclastics flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough
to be erupted high into the Earth's atmosphere may travel many kilometers before it falls
back to ground as a tuff.
If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition.
These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above subduction zones (e.g. Mount
Merapi in Indonesia).
At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are pulling apart, basaltic lava rupts as
pillows to fill the gap;
Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both
oceanic and continental crust; As continental flood basalts.
Some erupted magmas contain <=45% silica and produce ultramafic lava. Ultramafic
flows, also known as komatiites, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at the
Earth's surface since the Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or
were) the hottest lavas, and probably more fluid than common mafic lavas.
142
LAVA TEXTURE
Two types of lava are named according
to the surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced
and Pāhoehoe ([paːˈho.eˈho.e]), both
Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa is ōharaōterized
Ōy a rough, clinkery surface and is the
typical texture of viscous lava flows.
Presently there are about 500 active volcanoes in the world – the majority
following along the Pacific 'Ring of Fire' – and around 50 of these erupt each year.
The United States is home to 50 active volcanoes. There are more than 1,500
potentially active volcanoes. An estimated 500 million people live near active
volcanoes.
145
Damavand
Mount St. Helens
May 1980
the eruption of 18 fumaroles solfatara
146
Extinct
Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely
to erupt again, because the volcano no longer has a lava
supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on
the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean,
Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the Zuidwal volcano in the
Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located
atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly
extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"
calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in
millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption
in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered
dormant instead of extinct.
147
Fourpeaked volcano, Alaska, in September 2007, after being thought extinct
for
over 10,000 years
148
Dormant
It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant one.
Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if there are no written
records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes may remain dormant for a
long period of time. For example, Yellowstone has a repose/recharge
period of around 700 ka, and Toba of around 380 ka. [10] Vesuvius was
described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and
vineyards before its famous eruption of AD 79, which destroyed the
towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before its catastrophic eruption of
1991, Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people
in the surrounding areas. Two other examples are the long-dormant
Soufriere Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be
extinct before activity resumed in 1995 and Fourpeaked Mountain in
Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted
since before 8000 BC and had long been thought to be extinct.
149
Technical classification of volcanoes
5.2.1 Volcanic-alert level
The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and
some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have announced to the world they
were just pretending. To help prevent citizens from falsely believing they are
not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new
classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.Some
alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages.
Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.
150
Notable Volcanoes
The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:
151
Effects of Volcanoes
There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated
activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive
eruption of high- silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of
low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastics flows, lahars (debris flow)
and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a
hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots
and geysers often accompany volcanic activity.
The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces
that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect,
together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon
pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the
aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where
they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation
balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are
dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground
as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it
is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic
eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep
source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.
155
Sulfur dioxide emissions by
156
volcanoes
Rainbow and volcanic ash with sulfur dioxide
emissions from Halema`uma`u ven 157
Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic
activity releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million
short tons) of carbon dioxide each year. Volcanic eruptions may inject
aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual
effects such as unusually colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly
by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit of adding
nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These
fertile soils assist the growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions
can also create new islands, as the magma cools and solidifies upon contact
with the water.
Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft,
especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating
temperature.
159
There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield
volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons,
Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These
volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European
Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may
have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.
160
In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed
cry volcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a
moon of Neptune, and in 2005 the
Cassini-Huygens probe photographed
fountains of frozen particles erupting
from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.[27] The
ejecta may be composed of water, liquid
nitrogen, dust, or methane compounds.
162
UNIT-4
Exogenous
Hazards
163
Risk Assessment
Hazard Identification
Dose-Response Assessment
Exposure Assessment
Risk Characterization
Modeling
Probability
164
Major Types of Hazards
Cultural Hazards
Chemical Hazards
Physical Hazards
Biological Hazards
165
Chemical Hazards
Hazardous Chemicals
Mutagens
Teratogens
Carcinogens
Endocrine disruptors
166
Hazardous Chemicals
Flammable or explosive
Irritant
Asphixiant
allergen
167
Common Chemical Agents with
Adverse Health Affects
Arsenic
Asbestos
Benzene
Chlorine
Formaldehyde
Lead
Mercury
Dioxins
168
Biological Agents
Pathogenicity
Route of transmission
Agent stability
Infectious dose
Concentration
Origin
Data from animal studies
Prophylaxis
169
Common Human Diseases
Lassa Fever
TB
Leprosy
Dengue Fever
Giardiasis
Malaria
Yellow Fever Salmonella
Cholera Plague
Trypanosomiasis Encephalitis
Cryptosporidosis Ebola
Anthrax Influenza
Encephalitis
Hepatitis 170
Toxicity: Determining if a
chemical is harmful
Size of dose over time
How often exposure occurs
Acute vs. chronic
Age of person exposed
Adult, very old, child, infant
State of health
Immune compromised
Body fat
How well body detoxifies
Lungs, liver, kidnies
171
When does a contaminant become just a
harmless
environmental
tracer
Incidence in lifetime Linear Risk Model
healt
h
studie
s
Response threshold
Exposure
level
public health
goal
10-4 health
detection studies
limit
10 -6
10-8
0.001 0.1 10 1000
Exposure (ppb PCE in water)
173
Radioactive tritium (3H) is of concern at very low
concentration and is present in the environment at
exceedingly low concentration
1
10-2 maximum contaminant
possible public level
Incidence of cancer (lifetim e)
health goal
10-4
10-6 health
detection studies
10-8 limit
10-10
10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6
174
Arsenic is an example of a different
pattern where the detection limit is large
compared to possible health goals
1 maximum
contaminant
level
Incidence of outcome (lifetime)
10-2
possible
public
health goal
10-4 health
studies
10-6 detection
limit
10-8
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Exposure (ppb Arsenic in water)
175
Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds
(EDC) in wastewater are a concern
An environmental endocrine disruptor is defined as an exogenous agent that
interferes with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or
elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for the
maintenance of homeostasis, reproduction, development, and/or behavior."
(EPA 1997)
176
Nonylphenol (NP) is an important
EDC
NP is a metabolite of alkylphenol ethoxylate (APEO)
surfactants and is commonly detected in treated
wastewater ( g/L).
• APEOs are among the most widely used groups of
surfactants. Worldwide, about 500,000 tons are produced
annually.
OH
(C9H19
)
Nonylphenol OH
HO
17 -
Estradiol
177
UNIT-5
Emerging Approaches of Disaster
Management
178
Environment and Disaster
Management
179
What is the problem?
• Environment and disasters are interlinked
• Environmental concerns are not incorporated
in disaster management practices and vice
versa
• Decisions and actions on environment and
disasters are taken separately
• The main issues are:
– Lack of coordination and inter-linkage of policy and plans
– Lack of perception and understanding
– Lack of local actions, and
– Lack of resource distribution
180
What is a natural disaster?
• A natural disaster is the consequence of an event,
which causes significant loss to human lives and
property
• A Disaster is defined as the interaction between an
event and human activities
• A Disaster is often described as a function of
hazard, risk and vulnerability
181
Elements of Risk
=
(Mostly Natural) (Man and Built Env.) (Consequence)
182
Goal of Environment and Disaster
Management
Human
Environment
- Built Security
- Air
-Land
-Sea
184
Disasters and Poverty
• Low-income groups are more vulnerable to natural
disasters
• In general, floods and cyclones cause maximum damages
and casualties in low-income groups, while earthquakes
cause more casualties in middle-income groups
• Drought and flood affect most people in low and middle
income groups
• Lower income groups are more dependent on the
immediate environment
• Understanding how humans use environmental assets is
important for good disaster risk mitigation.
185
Disaster and Development Cycle
186
Causes
Immediate/ Long -term
Causes Reduced through Population
multi-stakeholder De-forestation
cooperation High Consumption
Climate Change
Causes
Building
disaster The Environment
capacity cause-effect cycle
Effects
Effects
Waste
Coral Reef Damages Coastal
Effects Zone Impacts
Coastal Ground water
Zone Impacts
Reduced through contamination
Ground Siltation issue
water contamination
awareness, Effect onissue
Siltation agriculture land
policies & action Effect on agriculture land
187
Typhoon 23
(Japan, 2004)
Disaster
Landslide
Extreme rainfall Waste debris
Failure of pump system Electrical waste
Collapse of dyke system Environment Siltation of river and flooding
Critical timing of rainfall Blockage of water passage by
Low evacuation rate uprooted trees
Typhoon
23
188
Coastal Zone
Management and
Disaster Preparedness
190
Climate Change Impacts
191
Issues in Environment and Disaster
Management (EDM)
What intermediaries What kinds of
and partners are organizations are
being used? doing EDM?
192
MDG and Disasters: Global Tool
193
Agenda 21: For Local Actions
Agenda 21 (A21) is an action programme based on contributions from national
governments and international bodies at the Rio Summit of 1991.
• Social and economic dimension of sustainable development
– Policy, poverty, consumption, demography, health, settlement,
environment
• Means of implementation
– Finance, Environment Sound Technology (EST), Science, Education,
Cooperation, Institution, Legal and Decision-making
194
Summary: Environment and Disaster
Management
Why?
– Environment and disaster are interrelated and are linked to the
sustainable development
– A sound environmental practice can lead to proper disaster
mitigation and vice versa
What?
How to integrate environment and disaster issues in the development
practices.
Case Studies on specific issues
– Like effects of typhoons, tsunami
– Waste issues,
– Impact of climate change as disasters
Who?
Development Practitioners, Disaster and environment managers
195