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12th Business Mathematics Statistics EM WWW - Tntextbooks.in
12th Business Mathematics Statistics EM WWW - Tntextbooks.in
in
GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
AND
STATISTICS
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
ii
HOW TO USE
THE BOOK ?
Book for References List of related books for further studies of the topic
iii
CAREER OPTIONS IN
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS and STATISTICS
Higher Secondary students who have taken commerce with Business Mathematics
and Statiscs can take up careers in BCA, B.Com., and B.Sc. Statistics. Students
who have taken up commerce stream, have a good future in banking and financial
institutions.
A lot of students choose to do B.Com with a specialization in computers. Higher Secondary
Commerce students planning for further studies can take up careers in professional fields such as
Company Secretary , Chartered Accountant (CA), ICAI and so on. Others can take up bachelor’s
degree in commerce (B.Com), followed by M.Com, Ph.D and M.Phil. There are wide range of career
opportunities for B.Com graduates.
After graduation in commerce, one can choose MBA, MA Economics, MA Operational and
Research Statistics at Postgraduate level. Apart from these, there are several diploma, certificate and
vocational courses which provide entry level jobs in the field of commerce.
Career chart for Higher Secondary students who have taken commerce with Business
Mathematics and Statistics.
iv
CONTENTS
Application of Integration in
3.2 65 July
Economics and Commerce
4 Differential Equations 80-103
4.1 Formation of ordinary differential equations 81 July
Answers 265-280
Tables 281-287
As the Statistics component of this text book involves problems based on numerical
calculations, Business Mathematics and Statistics students are advised to use calculator
1 Applications of
Matrices and Determinants
Introduction
I
n our daily life, We
use Matrices for taking seismic
surveys. They are used for plotting graphs,
statistics and also to do Scientific studies in almost different
fields. Matrices are used in representing the real world data
Brahmagupta like the traits of people’s population, habits etc..
(c.598 AD(CE) - c.668 AD(CE)) Determinants have wonderful algebraic properties and
occupied their proud place in linear algebra, because of their
role in higher level algebraic thinking.
Learning Objectives
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Order of A is 3 × 3 . Solution:
1 2 −1 3
∴ r( A) ≤ 3 Let A = 2 4 1 −2
Consider the third order minor 3 6 3 −7
0 −1 5
Order of A is 3 × 4
2 4 −6 = 6 ≠ 0
1 1 5 ∴ r( A) ≤ 3.
There is a minor of order 3, which is not
zero Consider the third order minors
∴r( A) = 3.
1 2 −1
1 −1 3
2 4 1 = 0, 2 1 −2 = 0
Example 1.4
3 6 3 3 3 −7
5 3 0
Find the rank of the matrix 1 2 −4
1 2 3 2 −1 3
−2 −4 8
2 4 −2 = 0, 4 1 −2 = 0
Solution:
5 3 0 3 6 −7 6 3 −7
Let A = 1 2 −4
−2 −4 8 Since all third order minors vanishes,
r( A) ≠ 3.
Order of A is 3 × 3 .
Now, let us consider the second order
∴ r( A) ≤ 3. minors,
Consider the third order minor Consider one of the second order minors
5 3 0
2 −1
1 2 −4 = 0 =6≠0
4 1
−2 −4 8
There is a minor of order 2 which is not
Since the third order minor vanishes, zero.
therefore r( A) ≠ 3 ∴r ( A) = 2.
Consider a second order minor
5 3
=7≠0
1 2 A is a square matrix of order 3.
There is a minor of order 2, which is not If A is of rank 2, then adj
zero. A is of rank 1.
∴ r( A) = 2.
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1.1.2 E
lementary Transformations and Let us transform the matrix A to an
Equivalent matrices echelon form by using elementary
transformations.
Elementary transformations of a matrix
(i) Interchange of any two rows (or columns): Elementary
Matrix A
Ri ↔ R j (or Ci ↔ C j ) . Transformation
1 2 3
(ii) M
ultiplication of each element of a row
(or column) by any non-zero scalar k : A = 2 3 4
Ri → kRi ( or Ci → kCi ) 3 5 7
1 2 3
(iii) Addition to the elements of any row (or
column) the same scalar multiples of ~ 0 −1 −2 R 2 → R 2 − 2R1
corresponding elements of any other row 0 −1 −2 R 3 → R 3 − 3R1
(or column):
1 2 3
Ri → Ri + kR j .(or Ci → Ci + kC j )
~ 0 −1 −2
Equivalent Matrices 0 0 0 R3 → R3 − R2
Two matrices A and B are said to be The above matrix is
equivalent if one is obtained from the another in echelon form
by applying a finite number of elementary The number of non zero rows is 2
transformations and we write it as A ~ B or ∴ Rank of A is 2.
BA.
r( A) = 2.
1.1.3 E
chelon form and finding the rank of
the matrix (upto the order of 3×4)
Note
A matrix A of order m × n is said to be in
echelon form if A row having atleast one non-zero
very row of A which has all its entries 0
(i) E
element is called as non-zero row.
occurs below every row which has a non-
zero entry. Example 1.7
(ii) Th
e number of zeros before the first non-
zero element in a row is less then the Find the rank of the matrix
number of such zeros in the next row. 0 1 2 1
Example 1.6 A = 1 2 3 2
3 1 1 3
1 2 3
Solution:
Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 3 4
The order of A is 3 × 4.
3 5 7
∴ r( A) ≤ 3.
Solution :
Let us transform the matrix A to an
The order of A is 3 × 3 . echelon form
∴ r( A) ≤ 3 .
4 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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}
0 0 2 2 ax + by = h
(1)
The number of non zero rows is 3. cx + dy = k
∴ r( A) = 3.
Where a, b, c, d, h and k are real constants
Example 1.8 1 1 1 1 and neither a and b nor c and d are both zero.
Find the rank of the matrix A = 3 4 5 2
2 3 4 0 For any tow given lines L1 and L2, one
Solution: and only one of the following may occur.
The order of A is 3 × 4.
∴ r( A) ≤ 3. L1 and L2 intersect at exactly one point
Let us transform the matrix A to an
echelon form L1 and L2 are coincident
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(a) A
system of equations with exactly
Y
one solution
Consider the system 2 x − y = 1, 3x + 2 y = 12 L1
which represents two lines intersecting at (2, 3)
L2
i.e (2, 3) lies on both lines. So the equations are
consistent and have unique solution.
(b) A
system of equations with infinitely
0 X
many solutions (c) No solution
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P3 P3
P2
P1
P1
P2
P2
P3
P1
Fig.1.2
(a) A Unique solution (b) Infinitely many solutions (c) No solution
coefficient matrix.
Note
Consider the following system of
Every system of linear equations has no equations
solution, or has exactly one solution or
x + y + 2z = 9
has infinitely many solutions.
2 x + 4 y − 3z = 1
An arbitrary system of ‘m’ linear 3 x + 6 y − 5z = 0
equations in ‘n’ unknowns can be written as
a11 x1 + a 12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1 1 1 2 x 9
a21 x1 + a 22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
2 4 −3 y = 1
3 6 −5 z 0
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm A X = B
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( )
(ii) I f r A, B = r ( A ) = n , then the
x+ y=5
y=2
(1)
equations are consistent and have unique
solution. ∴ (1) ⇒ x + 2 = 5
( )
(iii) If r A, B = r ( A ) < n , then the x=3
equations are consistent and have infinitely Solution is x = 3, y = 2
many solutions.
( )
(iv) I f r A, B ≠ r ( A ) then the equations
Example 1.10
Show that the equations 2 x + y = 5 , 4 x + 2 y = 10
are inconsistent and has no solution.
2 x + y = 5 , 4 x + 2 y = 10 are consistent and solve them.
Example 1.9
Show that the equations x + y = 5, 2 x + Solution:
y=8
x + y = 5, 2 x + y = 8 are consistent and solve them. The matrix equation corresponding to
Solution: the system is
The matrix equation corresponding to 2 1 x 5
the given system is
4 2 y = 10
1 1 x 5 A X = B
2 1 y = 8
Augmented matrix Elementary
A X = B Matrix A
[A,B] Transformation
2 1 2 1 5
Augmented matrix Elementary 4 2
Matrix A 4 2 10
[A,B] Transformation
1 1 1 1 5 2 1 2 1 5
2 1 0 0 R2 → R2 − 2R1
2 1 8 0 0 0
1 1 r ( A) = 1 r ([ A, B ]) = 1
1 1 5
0 −1 0 −1 −2 R → R − 2R
2 2 1
r ( A) = 2 r ([ A, B ]) = 2 (
r ( A) = r [ A, B ] ) = 1 < number of
unknowns
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⇒ 2x + k = 5 Solution:
1 The matrix equation corresponding to
x = (5 − k )
2 the given system is
1 2 1 1 x 5
x = (5 − k ) , y = k for all k ∈ R 1 1 1 y = 4
2
1 −1 2 z 1
Thus by giving different values for k, we
get different solution. Hence the system has A X = B
infinite number of solutions.
Elementary
Augmented matrix [A,B]
Transformation
Example 1.11
1 1 5
Show that the equations 3x − 2 y = 6, 6 x − 4 y = 10 2
3x − 2 y = 6, 6 x − 4 y = 10 are inconsistent. 1 1 1 4
1 −1 2 1
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding 1 1 1 4
R1 ↔ R2
to the given system is 2 1 1 5
3 −2 x 6 1 −1 2 1
6 −4 y = 10
1 1 1 4
AX = B
0 −1 −1 −3 R2 → R2 − 2R1
0 −2 1 −3 R3 → R3 − R1
Augmented matrix Elementary
Matrix A
[A,B] Transformation
1 1 1 4
3 −2
3 −2 6
6 −4 0 −1 −1 −3
6 −4 10 0 0 3 3 R3 → R3 − 2R2
3 −2 3 −2 6
0 0
0 0 −2 R2 → R2 − 2R1 r ( A) = 3, r ([ A, B ]) = 3
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x+ y+z=4 (1)
(
r ( A ) = r A, B = 2 < Number )
y+z=3 (2) of unknowns.
3z = 3 (3) The given system is consistent and has
(3) ⇒ z = 1
infinitely many solutions.
(2) ⇒ y = 3 − z = 2
The given system is equivalent to the
(1) ⇒ x = 4 − y − z matrix equation,
x =1
1 1 1 x 6
∴ x = 1, y = 2, z = 1
0 1 2 y = 8
Example 1.13
0 0 0 z 0
Show that the equations x + y + z = 6, x + 2 y + 3z = 14, x + 4 y + 7 z = 30
x + y + z = 6, x + 2 y + 3z = 14, x + 4 y + 7 z = 30 are
consistent and solve them. x+ y+z=6 (1)
Solution: y + 2z = 8 (2 )
The matrix equation corresponding to
(2) ⇒ y = 8 − 2z ,
the given system is
(1) ⇒ x = 6 − y − z = 6 − (8 − 2z ) − z = z − 2
1 1 1 x 6
1 2 3 y = 14 Let us take z = k , k ∈ R , we get
x = k − 2, y = 8 − 2k , Thus by giving different
1 4 7 z 30
values for k we get different solutions. Hence
A X = B the given system has infinitely many solutions.
Elementary
Augmented matrix [A,B]
Transformation Example 1.14
1 1 1 6 Show that the equations are inconsistent:
1 2 3 14 x − 4 y + 7 z = 14, 3x + 8 y − 2z = 13, 7 x − 8 y + 26z = 5
1 4 7 30
x − 4 y + 7 z = 14, 3x + 8 y − 2z = 13, 7 x − 8 y + 26z = 5
1 1 1 6 Solution:
R2 → R2 − R1 The matrix equation corresponding to
0 1 2 8
0 2 4 16 R3 → R3 − R2 the given system is
1 −4 7 x 14
1 1 1 6 3 8 −2 y = 13
0 1 2 8 7 −8 26 z 5
0 0 0 0 R3 → R3 − 2R2 A X = B
r ( A) = 2, r ([ A, B ]) = 2 Augmented matrix [A,B]
Elementary
Transformation
Obviously the last equivalent matrix is in 1 −4 7 14
the echelon form. It has two non-zero rows.
3 8 −2 13
∴ ( )
r A, B = 2, r ( A) = 2 7 −8 26 5
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Example 1.19 10 5
Solve the equations 2x + 3y = 7, 3x + 5y D= = 75 ≠ 0
9 12
= 9 by Cramer’s rule.
125 5 10 125
Solution: Dx = = 750 D y = = 375
150 12 9 150
The equations are
∴ By Cramer’s rule
2x + 3 y = 7
Dx 750 Dy 375
3x + 5 y = 9 x = = = 10 y = = =5
D 75 D 75
2 3
Here D = =1 The price of the share A is `10 and the
3 5 price of the share B is `5.
≠0
Example 1.21
∴ we can apply Cramer’s Rule The total cost of 11 pencils and 3 erasers
7 3 2 7 is ₹ 64 and the total cost of 8 pencils and 3
Now Dx = = 8 Dy = = −3 erasers is ₹49. Find the cost of each pencil and
9 5 3 9
each eraser by Cramer’s rule.
∴ By Cramer’s rule
Dx 8 Dy −3 Solution:
x= = =8 y= = = −3 Let ‘x’ be the cost of a pencil
D 1 D 1
∴ Solution is x = 8, y = −3 Let ‘y’ be the cost of an eraser
∴ By given data, we get the following
Example 1.20
equations
The following table represents the
11x + 3 y = 64
number of shares of two companies A and B
during the month of January and February and 8 x + 3 y = 49
it also gives the amount in rupees invested by
11 3
Ravi during these two months for the purchase D= = 9 ≠ 0. It has unique solution.
of shares of two companies. Find the the price
8 3
per share of A and B purchased during both the 64 3 11 64
months.
Dx = = 45 D y = = 27
49 3 8 49
Number of Shares of the Amount invested ∴ By Cramer’s rule
Months company by Ravi
(in `) Dx 45 Dy 27
A B x = = =5 y = = =3
D 9 D 9
January 10 5 125
∴ The cost of a pencil is ₹ 5 and the cost of
February 9 12 150 an eraser is ₹ 3.
Solution:
Example 1.22
Let the price of one share of A be x
Solve by Cramer’s rule x + y + z = 4, 2 x − y + 3z = 1, 3
Let the price of one share of B bex y+ y + z = 4, 2 x − y + 3z = 1, 3x + 2 y − z = 1
∴ By given data, we get the following Solution:
equations 1 1 1
10 x + 5 y = 125 Here D = 2 −1 3 = 13 ≠ 0
9 x + 12 y = 150 3 2 −1
Applications of Matrices and Determinants 15
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∴ By Cramer’s rule
If |A|=0, then the system of Dx −240
=x = = 120
equations has either no solution D −2
Dy −300 Dz −360
or infinitely many solutions. y= = = 150 z = = = 180
D −2 D −2
Example 1.23 ∴ The cost of a Business Mathematics book
The price of 3 Business Mathematics is ₹120, the cost of a Accountancy book is ₹150
books, 2 Accountancy books and one and the cost of a Commerce book is ₹180.
Commerce book is ₹ 840. The price of 2 Business
Example 1.24
Mathematics books, one Accountancy book and
An automobile company uses three
one Commerce book is ₹ 570. The price of one
types of Steel S1, S2 and S3 for providing three
Business Mathematics book, one Accountancy
different types of Cars C1, C2 and C3. Steel
book and 2 Commerce books is ₹ 630. Find the
requirement R (in tonnes) for each type of car
cost of each book by using Cramer’s rule.
and total available steel of all the three types are
Solution: summarized in the following table.
Let ‘x’ be the cost of a Business Types of Car
Types of Total Steel
Mathematics book Steel C1 C2 C3 available
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Find the weights assigned to the three Determine the market share of each brand
varieties by using Cramer’s Rule. in equilibrium position.
6. A
total of ` 8,500 was invested in three
Solution:
interest earning accounts. The interest
rates were 2%, 3% and 6% if the total Transition probability matrix
simple interest for one year was ₹380 and A B
the amount invested at 6% was equal to A 0.9 0.1
the sum of the amounts in the other two T=
B 0.3 0.7
accounts, then how much was invested in
each account? (use Cramer’s rule). At equilibrium, ( A B) (
T= A B )
where A + B = 1
1.3 Transition Probability Matrices
1.3.1 Forecasting the succeeding state when 0.9 0.1
the initial market share is given ( A B ) 0.3 0.7
(
= A B )
One stage Transition Probability
0.9 A + 0.3B = A
The Occurrence of an event at a specified
point in time, put the system in state Sn; if after 0.9 A + 0.3 (1 − A ) = A
the passage of one unit of time, another event
occurs, that is the system moved from the 0.9 A − 0.3 A + 0.3 = A
state Sn to Sn+1. This movement is related to a
probability distribution, there is a probability 0.6A + 0.3 = A
associated with each (move) transition from
0.4A = 0.3
event Sn to Sn+1. This probability distribution is
called one stage transition probability. 0.3 3
A = =
0.4 4
Transition Matrix 3 1
B = 1 − =
The transition Probabilities Pjk satisfy 4 4
Pjk > 0, ∑
Pjk = 1 for all j Hence the market share of brand A is 75%
k and the market share of brand B is 25%
These probabilities may be written in the
matrix form P P P 11 12 13 Example 1.26
P P22 P23 Parithi is either sad (S) or happy (H) each
21
P= day. If he is happy in one day, he is sad on the
next day by four times out of five. If he is sad
on one day, he is happy on the next day by two
This is called the transition probability times out of three. Over a long run, what are the
matrix. chances that Parithi is happy on any given day?
Example 1.25
Solution:
Consider the matrix of transition
The transition porbability matrix is
probabilities of a product available in the market
in two brands A and B. 1 2
A B 3
T =3
A 0.9 0.1 4 1
5 5
B 0.3 0.7
18 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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19.
For the system of equations Miscellaneous problems
x + 2 y + 3z = 1, 2 x + y + 3z = 2 1. Find the rank of the matrix
5x + 5 y + 9z = 4 1 −3 4 7 .
(a) there is only one solution A=
(b) there exists infinitely many solutions 9 1 2 0
(c) there is no solution 2. Find the rank of the matrix
(d) None of these −2 1 3 4 .
A= 0 1 1 2
20. If A ≠ 0, then A is
1 3 4 7
(a) non- singular matrix
3. Find the rank of the matrix
(b) singular matrix
4 5 2 2 .
(c) zero matrix
(d) none of these A = 3 2 1 6
4 4 8 0
21.
The system of linear equations
x + y + z = 2, 2 x + y − z = 3, 3x + 2 y + k = 4 4. Examine the consistency of the system of
has unique solution, if k is not equal to equations:
(a) 4 (b) 0 x + y + z = 7 , x + 2 y + 3z = 18 , y + 2z = 6
(c) –4 (d) 1
5. Find k if the equations 2 x + 3 y − z = 5 , 3x − y + 4 z = 2 , x
3 y − z = 5 , 3x − y + 4 z = 2 , x + 7 y − 6z = k are
x + an
22. Cramer’s rule is applicable only to2get
unique solution when consistent.
(a) Dz ≠ 0 (b) Dx ≠ 0 6. Find k if the equations x + y + z = 1, 3x − y − z = 4, x + 5 y
(c) D ≠ 0 (d) D y ≠ 0 x + y + z = 1, 3x − y − z = 4, x + 5 y + 5z = k are
a1 b1 a b inconsistent.
23. If + = c1 , 2 + 2 = c2 ,
x y x y 7.
Solve the equations x + 2 y + z = 7, 2 x − y + 2 z = 4,
a1 b1 b1 c1 c1 x a+1 2 y + z = 7, 2 x − y + 2z = 4, x + y − 2z = −1 by using
∆1 = , ∆2 = ∆3 = Cramer’s rule.
a2 b2 b2 c2 c2 a2
8. The cost of 2kg. of wheat and 1kg. of sugar
then ( x , y ) is is `100. The cost of 1kg. of wheat and 1kg.
of rice is `80. The cost of 3kg. of wheat, 2kg.
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
(a) 2 , 3 (b) 3 , 2 of sugar and 1kg of rice is `220. Find the
∆1 ∆1 ∆1 ∆1 cost of each per kg., using Cramer’s rule.
∆1 ∆1 −∆ −∆ 9.
A salesman has the following record of
(c) , (d) 1 , 1
∆2 ∆3 ∆2 ∆3 sales during three months for three items
A, B and C, which have different rates of
24. If An×n = 3 and adjA = 243 then the commission.
value n is
Sales of units Total commission
(a) 4 (b) 5 Months
A B C drawn (in `)
(c) 6 (d) 7
January 90 100 20 800
25. Rank of a null matrix is
(a) 0 (b) –1 February 130 50 40 900
(c) ∞ (d) 1 March 60 100 30 850
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Find out the rate of commission on the items others do not. From this mailing list, 60% of
A, B and C by using Cramer’s rule. those who already subscribe will subscribe
again while 25% of those who do not now
10. The subscription department of a magazine subscribe will subscribe. On the last letter
sends out a letter to a large mailing list it was found that 40% of those receiving it
inviting subscriptions for the magazine. ordered a subscription. What percent of
Some of the people receiving this letter those receiving the current letter can be
already subscribe to the magazine while expected to order a subscription?
Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of:
zz Rank of a matrix
The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of A
zz The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of A
zz r( A) ≥ 0
zz If A is a matrix of order m × n , then r( A) ≤ minimum of {m, n}
zz The rank of a zero matrix is ‘0’
zz The rank of a non- singular matrix of order n × n is ‘n’
zz Equivalent Matrices
Two Matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained from another
by a finite number of elementary transformations and we write it as A ~ B .
zz Echelon form
A matrix of order m × n is said to be in echelon form if the row having all its entries
zero will lie below the row having non-zero entry.
zz A system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one set of solution.
Otherwise, it is said to be inconsistent
( )
If r A, B = r ( A) , then the equations are consistent.
( )
If r A, B = r ( A) = n , then the equations are consistent and have unique
solution.
( )
If r A, B = r ( A) < n , then the equations are consistent and have infinitely
many solutions.
( )
If r A, B ≠ r ( A) then the equations are inconsistent and has no solution.
n −1
zz adjA = A
zz If A = 0 then A is a singular matrix. Otherwise, A is a non singular matrix.
zz In AX = B if A ≠ 0 then the system is consistent and it has unique solution.
zz Cramer’s rule is applicable only when ∆ ≠ 0 .
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GLOSSARY
Augmented மிகுதிப்படுத்திய, விரிவுபடுத்தப்பட்ட
Commodities ப�ொருட்கள்
Commuters பயணிகள்
Consistent ஒருங்கமைவு
Determinant அணிக்கோவை
Echelon form ஏறுபடி வடிவம்
Elementary Transformations அடிப்படை உருமாற்றங்கள்
Equilibrium சமநிலை
Homogenerous சமப் படித்தான
Inconsistent ஒருங்கமைவு அற்ற
Intersecting வெட்டிக்கொள்ளும்
Linear equations நேரிய சமன்பாடுகள்
Matrix அணி
Matrix equation அணி சமன்பாடு
Non homogeneous அசமப் படித்தான
Non- Singular matrix பூஜ்ஜியமற்ற க�ோவை அணி
Non trivial solution வெளிப்படையற்ற தீர்வு
Order வரிசை
Production உற்பத்தி
Rank தரம்
Singular matrix பூஜ்ஜியக் க�ோவை அணி
Square matrix சதுர அணி
Subsequent த�ொடர்ச்சியான
Transit system ப�ோக்குவரத்து அமைப்பு
Transition நிலை மாற்றம்
Trivial solution வெளிப்படைத் தீர்வு
Unique solution ஒரே ஒரு தீர்வு
Unknown தெரியாத
Variables மாறிகள்
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ICT Corner
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics & Statistics” will open. In the work book
there are two Volumes. Select “Volume-1”.
Step 1
Step 2
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2 Integral Calculus – I
Introduction
G
eorg Friedrich
Bernhard Riemann (Nineteenth
century) was an inspiring German
mathematician. He was very much recognised for his
contribution in calculus.
The word ‘integrate’ literally means that ‘to find the sum’. So, we believe that
the name “Integral Calculus” has its origin from this process of summation.
Calculus is the mathematical tool used to test theories about the origins of
the universe, the development of tornadoes and hurricanes. It is also used to
find the surplus of consumer and producer, identifying the probability density
function of a continuous random variable, obtain an original function from its
marginal function and etc., in business applications.
In this chapter, we will study about the concept of integral and some types of method of
indefinite and definite integrals.
XII Std - Business Maths & Stat EM Chapter 2.indd 26 2/28/2020 5:37:20 PM
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Integral Calculus – I 27
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Note
Here, we discuss only the first three methods of
integration, because the method of integration
by successive reduction is beyond the scope of ∫ dx = x + c
the syllabus.
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Example 2.2 x3 1
= + 2x − +c
Evaluate ∫ 2 x + 1 dx 3 x
Solution: 1 Example 2.5
∫ (x )( )
2
∫ 2 x + 1 dx = ∫ (2 x + 1) dx Evaluate 3
+ 7 x − 4 dx
3
Solution:
(2 x + 1)
2
= +c
∫ (x )( )
3
3
+ 7 x − 4 dx
∫ (x )
4
= − 4 x 3 + 7 x − 28 dx
∫ a (ax + b) dx = ∫ (ax + b ) d (ax + b )
n n
x5 7x
2
=
( ax + b )
n+1
+c
= −x
4
+ − 28 x + c
5 2
n +1
Example 2.6
2 x 2 − 14 x + 24
Example 2.3
dx
Evaluate ∫ x − 3 dx
Evaluate ∫ (2x + 3)2
Solution: Solution:
dx −2 By factorisation,
∫ (2x + 3)2 ∫ = (2 x + 3) dx
2 x 2 − 14 x + 24 = ( x − 3) (2 x − 8)
1
−
= +c
2(2 x + 3)
2 x 2 − 14 x + 24 ( x − 3) (2x − 8) dx
∫ x − 3 dx = ∫ x −3
= (2x − 8) dx
∫
1 1 = x 2 − 8 x + c
(i) ∫ dx = − +c , n ≠1
x n
(n − 1) x n −1 Example 2.7
x+2
a d (ax + b ) Evaluate ∫ dx
(ii)
∫ (ax + b)n dx = ∫ (ax + b)n 2x + 3
Solution:
1
=− +c , n ≠1
(n − 1) (ax + b)n−1 Split into simple integrands
x+2
=
1
2 (2 x + 4 )
1
2x + 3
(2 x + 3 )
2
Example 2.4 2
1
Evaluate ∫ x + dx
x (
1 2 x + 3 + 1
=
)
Solution: 1
2
(2 x + 3 )
2
2
1 2 1
∫ x + x
dx = ∫ x + 2 + 2 dx
x 1
1
− 12
= (2 x + 3) + (2 x + 3)
2
1 2
∫ ∫ ∫ x 2 dx
2
= x dx + 2 dx +
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Example 2.9
1
− 1
x+2 1 2 3x 2 + 2 x + 1
∫ 2 ( ) ( ) dx
2
∫ dx = 2 x + 3 + 2 x + 3 Evaluate ∫ dx
2x + 3 x
Solution:
3
3x 2 + 2 x + 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ 3x + 2 + dx
2 1
= 1
( 2 x +3 ) + ( 2 x +3 )
2
+c x x
2 3 2
3x
= + 2 x + log x + c
2
Example 2.8
1 Example 2.10
2
Evaluate ∫ x +2 − x −2
dx Evaluate ∫ 3x + 5 dx
Solution: Solution:
2 1
By rationalisation, ∫ 3x + 5 dx = 2 ∫ 3x + 5 dx
2
1
=
1
×
x +2 + x −2 = log 3x + 5 + c
x +2 − x −2 x +2 − x −2 x +2 + x −2 3
x +2 + x −2
=
4 a d (ax + b )
1 ∫ ax + b ∫ ax + b
dx =
∫ x +2 − x −2
dx
= log ax + b + c
x +2 + x −2
=
∫ 4
dx Example 2.11
x 2 + 2x + 3
3 3 Evaluate ∫ dx
2 x +1
= 1 ( x +2 ) + ( x −2 ) + c
2
6 Solution:
Split into simple integrands
Exercise 2.1
( 2
x 2 + 2x + 3 x + 2x + 1 + 2
=
)
Integrate the following with respect to x. x +1 x +1
2
4 2
1. 3x + 5 2. 9 x 2 − 2 = ( x + 1) +
x x +1
3. (3 + x ) (2 − 5x ) 3
4. x x − 2 x + 3( ) x 2 + 2x + 3 2
8 x + 13 1 ∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ ( x + 1) + x + 1 dx
5. 6.
4x + 7 x +1 + x −1 x2
= + x + 2 log x + 1 + c
7. I f f ′( x ) = x + b, f (1) = 5 a n d f (2) = 13, 2
then find f ( x ) Example 2.12
x 3 + 5x 2 − 9
8. If f ′( x ) = 8 x 3 − 2 x and f (2) = 8 , then Evaluate ∫ dx
find f ( x )
x+2
Solution:
Type: II By simple division,
1
(i) ∫ dx = log x + c
x1 x 3 + 5x 2 − 9 3
1 = x 2 + 3x − 6 +
(ii) ∫ dx = log ax + b + c x+2 x+2
ax + b a
30 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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x 3 + 5x 2 − 9 2 3 8
∫ x + 2 dx = ∫ x + 3x − 6 + x + 2 dx = −11 log x − 2 + + 11 log x − 3 + c
x −2
x −3 8
x 3 3x 2 = 11 log + +c
= + − 6 x + 3 log x + 2 + c x −2 x −2
3 2
Example 2.13 Example 2.15
7x − 1 3x 2 + 6 x + 1
Evaluate ∫
2
dx Evaluate ∫ ( x + 3)( x 2 + 1) dx
x − 5x + 6
Solution: Solution:
By partial fractions, By partial fractions,
7x − 1 A B 3x 2 + 6 x + 1 A Bx+C
= + = + 2
2
x − 5x + 6 x − 3 x − 2 ( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1) (
( x + 3) x + 1 )
7x − 1 20 13 2
3x + 6 x + 1 1 2x
⇒ 2 = − ⇒ = + 2
x − 5x + 6 x − 3 x − 2 ( x + 3) ( x 2 + 1) (
( x + 3) x + 1 )
7x − 1 20 13
∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 dx = ∫ x − 3 − x − 2 dx 3x 2 + 6 x + 1
∫ ( x + 3)( x 2 + 1) dx
dx dx
= 20 ∫ x − 3 − 13∫ x − 2 1 2x
= ∫ + 2 dx
= 20 log x − 3 − 13 log x − 2 + c
( x + 3) x + 1
( )
dx 2x
= ∫ +∫ 2 dx
Example 2.14
3x + 2
( x + 3) x + 1 ( )
∫ ( x − 2)2 ( x − 3) dx
2
Evaluate = log x + 3 + log x + 1 + c
Solution: = (
log ( x + 3) x 2 + 1 + c )
By partial fractions, = log x 3 + 3x 2 + x + 3 + c
3x + 2 A B C
= + + Exercise 2.2
( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
( x − 2 ) ( x − 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
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1 mx +n x
= a + c , a > 0 and a ≠ 1 8. If f ′( x ) = e and f (0) = 2, then find f ( x )
log a
Type: IV
Example 2.17
Evaluate
ex + 7
∫ e x dx ∫
(i) sin x dx = − cos x + c
1
Solution: (ii) ∫ sin(ax + b) dx = − cos (ax + b ) + c
a
ex + 7
∫ e x dx = ∫ 1 + 7e dx
−x
( ) (iii) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
= x − 7e − x + c
1
(iv) ∫ cos(ax + b) dx = sin(ax + b) + c
a
(v) ∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
2
1
∫ (2ax + b) e
ax 2 +bx + c
dx (vi) ∫ sec2 (ax + b) dx = tan(ax + b) + c
= ∫ e ax +bx +c d (ax 2 + bx + c )
2 a
(vi) ∫ cosec x dx = − cot x + c
2
2 +bx + c
= e ax +k 1
(viii) ∫ cosec2 (ax + b ) dx = − cot (ax + b ) + c
Example 2.18 a
5 + 5e 2 x
Evaluate ∫ e x + e − x dx Example 2.20
Solution: Evaluate ∫ (2 sin x − 5 cos x ) dx
5 + 5e 2x
(
ex e−x + ex )dx Solution:
∫ e x + e − x dx = 5∫ ex + e−x
∫ (2 sin x − 5 cos x ) dx = 2∫ sin x dx − 5∫ cos x dx
= 5∫ e x dx
x
= 5e + c = −2 cos x − 5 sin x + c
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∫ sin ∫ cos
2 3
Evaluate x dx Evaluate x dx
Solution: Solution:
Change into simple integrands Change into simple integrands
cos 2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
1 1
∴ sin2 x = (1 − cos 2 x ) cos3 x = [cos 3x + 3 cos x ]
2 4
1 1 3
∫ sin ∫ 2 (1 − cos 2x ) dx = cos 3x + cos x
2
x dx =
4 4
1
dx − ∫ cos 2 x dx
2 ∫
=
∫ cos
3
x dx
1 sin 2 x
= x − +c 1 3
2
4∫ 4∫
2 = cos 3 x dx + cos x dx
Example 2.22
cos 2 x sin 3x 3 sin x
Evaluate ∫ sin2 x cos2 x dx =
12
+
4
+c
Solution:
Exercise 2.4
Change into simple integrands
cos 2 x cos2 x − sin2 x Integrate the following with respect to x.
=
sin2 x cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x 1. 2 cos x − 3 sin x + 4 sec2 x − 5 cosec2 x
1 1
= 2 −
sin x cos2 x 2. sin3 x
= cosec2 x − sec2 x cos 2 x + 2 sin2 x
3.
cos2 x
∫ (cosec )
cos 2 x 2
∫ sin2 x cos2 x dx = x − sec2 x dx
1
4. Hint : sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
= − cot x − tan x + c sin x cos x
2 2
Example 2.23
5. 1 − sin 2 x
Evaluate ∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx
2.1.4 Integration by parts
Solution:
Type: V
Change into simple integrands
(1) We know that, if u and v are two
1 + sin 2 x = sin2 x + cos2 x + 2 sin x cos x differentiable functions of x , then
( )
2
= sin x + cos x d dv du
(uv ) = u +v .
dx dx dx
∫ (sin x + cos x )
2
∫ 1 + sin 2 x dx = dx Integrate on both sides with respect to x .
`
d dv du
= ∫ (sin x + cos x ) dx ∫ dx (uv) dx = ∫ u dx dx + ∫ v dx dx
= − cos x + sin x + c
⇒ ∫ d (uv ) = ∫ u dv + ∫ v du
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Example 2.25
uv = ∫ udv + ∫ vdu
∫ xe
x
Evaluate dx
∴ ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu Solution:
Take u = x
This method is very useful when the and dv = e x dx
integrand is a product of two different types of Differentiate
Integrate
functions or a function which is not directly
du = dx v = ex
integrable. The success of this method depends
on the proper choice of u . So we can choose the
∫ xe
dx = ∫ udv x
function u by using the following guidelines.
(i) If the integrand contains only a function = uv − ∫ vdu
which is directly not integrable, then take = xe x − ∫ e x dx
this as u.
= xe x − e x + c
(ii) If the integrand contains both directly
= e x ( x − 1) + c
integrable and non integrable functions,
then take non integrable function as u. Example 2.26
∫ x e dx
(iii) If the integrand contains both the functions 3 x
Evaluate
are integrable and one of them is of the
Solution:
form x n , n is a positive integer, then take
this x n as u. Successive derivatives Repeated integrals
(iv) for all other cases, the choice of u is ours and dv = e x dx
(Or) we can also choose u as the function Take u = x 3 v = ex
which comes first in the word “I L A T E”
u ′ = 3x 2 v1 = e x
Where,
u ′′ = 6 x v2 = e x
I stands for the inverse trigonometric function
L stands for the logarithmic function u ′′′ = 6 v3 = e x
A stands for the algebraic function
∫ x e dx = ∫ udv
3 x
T stands for the trigonometric function
E stands for the exponential function and take
the remaining part of the function and dx as = uv − u ′v1 + u ′′v2 − u ′′′v3 + ...
dv. = x 3e x − 3x 2 e x + 6 xe x − 6e x + c
(2) If u and v are functions of x , then
∫ udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 − u′′′v3 + ...
(
= e x x 3 −3x 2 +6 x −6 + c )
where u ′, u ′′, u ′′′, . . . are the successive Example 2.27
derivatives of u and v1 , v2 , v3 , . . . are the
∫x
3
Evaluate log x dx
repeated integrals of v.
Solution:
Note
Take u = log x and dv = x 3dx
� The above mentioned formula is well Differentiate Integrate
known as Bernoulli’s formula.
1 x4
� Bernoulli’s formula is applied when du = dx v=
u = x n where n is a positive integer. x 4
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Solution:
∫x
3
log x dx = ∫ udv
Successive derivatives Repeated integrals
= uv − vdu ∫
x4 1 and dv = e − x dx
= log x − ∫ x 3 dx
4 4 Take u = x 2 − 2 x + 5 v = − e−x
x4 1 x4
= log x − + c u′ = 2x − 2 v1 = e − x
4 4 4
4
x 1 u ′′ = 2
= log x − + c v2 = −e − x
4 4
∫ ( x − 2 x + 5) e
2 −x
Example 2.28 dx
2
Evaluate ∫ (log x ) dx = ∫ udv
Solution: = uv − u ′v1 + u ′′v2 − u ′′′v3 + ...
Take u = (log x )2 and dv = dx
( )( )
= x 2 − 2 x + 5 − e − x − (2 x − 2 ) e − x + 2 − e − x + c ( )
Differentiate Integrate
= e − x ( − x 2 −5) + c
1 v =x
du = (2 log x ) dx
x Exercise 2.5
2
∫ (log x ) dx = ∫ udv Integrate the following with respect to x.
= uv − ∫ vdu 1. xe − x 2. x 3e 3 x 3. log x
2
4. x log x 5. x n log x 6. x 5e x
= x (log x ) − 2 ∫ log x dx ... (*)
2
2. f ′( x )
= x ( log x ) − 2 x log x + 2 x + c ∫
2
dx = log f (x ) + c
f (x )
= x ( log x ) − log x 2 + 2 + c
2 f ′( x )
3. ∫ f (x )
dx = 2 f (x ) + c
Example 2.29
∫ e f (x) + f ′(x) dx = e f (x) + c
x x
4.
∫ (x )
− 2 x + 5 e − x dx
2
Evaluate
∫ e a f (x) + f ′(x) dx = e f (x) + c
ax ax
5.
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Example 2.30
x
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 1 dx
Solution: nax n−1 (
d ax n + b )
∫ ax n + b
dx = ∫
ax n + b
Take f ( x ) = x 2 + 1
= 2 ax n + b + c
∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x
x 1 2x Example 2.32
∫ x2 + 1 dx =
2 ∫ x2 + 1
dx
Evaluate ∫x x 2 + 1 dx
1 f ’(x )
= ∫ dx Solution:
2 f (x )
1 Take f ( x ) = x 2 + 1
= log [ f (x )] + c
2
1 ∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x
= log x 2 + 1 + c
2 1
1
( )
2
∫x x 2 + 1 dx =
2 ∫ x2 + 1 (2x ) dx
nax n−1 d ax n + b ( ) 1 2
= ∫ f ( x ) f ′(x ) dx
1
∫ ax n + b dx = ∫ ax n + b
2
3
= log ax n + b + c
1 [ f ( x )]
2
= +c
2 3
2 3
Example 2.31 1 2
( )
2
x = x +1 + c
Evaluate ∫ x +1 2
dx 3
Example 2.33
Solution: x3
Evaluate ∫ dx
( x + 1)
2 3
2
Take f ( x ) = x + 1
∴ f ′( x ) = 2 x Solution:
x 1 2x Take z = x2 + 1
∫ 2
x +1
dx = ∫
2 2
x +1
dx
∴ x 2 = z − 1 and
1 f ′( x ) dz = 2 x dx
2 ∫ f (x )
= dx
dz
⇒ = x dx
2
1
= 2 f (x ) + c x3 x2
2 ∫ dx = ∫ x dx
( x + 1) ( x + 1)
3 3
2 2
= x2 + 1 + c 1 z −1
2 ∫ z3
= dz
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1 1 1
= ∫
2 z 2
− 3 dz
z =
1 z
e (z − 1) + c [By applying
2
Integration
1 1 1
= − + 2 + c by parts]
2 z 2z
1
1 1 = e ( x 2 − 1) + c x2
= − +c 2
(2
4 x +1
2
2)x 2
(+ 1 ) Example 2.36
Example 2.34
dx Evaluate ∫e
x
(x 2
+ 2 x dx)
Evaluate ∫ x ( x 3 + 1) Solution:
Solution:
Take f ( x ) = x 2
Take z = x 3 By partial fractions,
1 A B ∴ f ′ (x ) = 2x
2 = +
∴ dz = 3x dx z ( z + 1) z z + 1
⇒
dz
= x 2 dx 1 1 1 ∫e
x
(x 2
)
+ 2 x dx = ∫ e x f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) dx
⇒ = −
3 z ( z + 1) z z + 1 = e x f (x ) + c
dx x2 = ex x2 + c
∫ x ( x 3 + 1) = ∫ x 3 ( x 3 + 1) dx
Example 2.37
1 1 xe x
= ∫ dz Evaluate ∫ (1 + x )2 dx
3 z ( z + 1)
1 1 1 Solution:
= ∫ −
3 z z + 1
dz
By partial fractions, Take
1 x A B f (x ) =
1
= log z − log z + 1 + c = + 1+ x
3 (1 + x )2 1 + x (1 + x )2
−1
1 z x 1 −1 ∴ f ′ (x ) =
= log +c ⇒ = + (1 + x )2
3 z +1 (1 + x ) 2
1 + x (1 + x )2
1 x3
= log 3 +c xe x
3 x +1 ∫ (1 + x )2 dx
Example 2.35
1
3 x2 = ∫ e x + −1 dx
Evaluate ∫x e dx
1 + x (1+ x )2
Solution:
Take z = x 2
() ()
= ∫ e x f x + f ′ x dx
∴ dz = 2 x dx = e x f (x ) + c
dz
⇒ = x dx ex
2 = +c
1+ x
2 2
∫ x e dx = ∫ x e (x dx)
3 x 2 x
Example 2.38
2x − 1
1
∫e
2x
= ∫ z e z dz Evaluate 4 x 2 dx
2
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2x − 1 1 −1
Take a = 2, Integrate the following with respect to x.
= +
4x 2 2x 4 x 2 1 2x + 5 e 3 log x
1 1 −1 f (x ) = 1. 2.
= 2 + x x 2 + 5x − 7 x4 + 1
4 x x2 1
∴ f ′ (x ) = − 2 e2x ( log x )
3
x 3. 2 x 4.
e −2 x
6x + 7
2x − 1 5. 6. ( 4 x + 2) x 2 + x + 1
∫ e 4 x 2 dx
2x 2
3x + 7 x − 1
x e −1 + e x −1
( )
5
8 9
1 1 −1 7. x 1 + x 8.
= ∫ e 2 x 2 + 2 dx xe + ex
4 x x 1 x
9. 10.
1 x log x 2 x 4 − 3x 2 − 2
= ∫ e ax a f (x ) + f ′(x ) dx
4
1
11. e x (1+ x ) log xe x ( ) 12.
(
1
x x2 + 1 )
= e ax f (x ) + c
4 1 2 x −1
1 2x 13. e x 2 − 3 14. e x 3
= e +c x x (x + 1)
4x
3x − 1
Example 2.39 15. e 3 x 2
9x
1 1
Evaluate ∫ log x (log x )2 dx
− 2.1.6 Some special types of Integrals
Solution: Type: VII
To
evaluate the integrals of the
Take z = log x dx
1 dx
form ∫ 2 , ∫ and
∴ dz = dx ax + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
x
⇒ dx = e z dz x = e z
1 ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx , first we have to express
and f (z ) = ax 2 + bx + c as the sum or difference of two
z 1
∴ f ′ (z ) = − 2 square terms [completing the squares],
z
that is ( x + α ) + β (or ) ( x + α ) − β 2 (or )
2 2 2
∫ log x − (log x )2 dx
from the formulae given below.
1 1 z dx 1 a+x
= ∫ − 2 e dz 1. ∫ a2 − x 2 2a a − x + c
= log
z z
= ∫ e z f (z ) + f ′(z ) dz dx 1 x −a
2. ∫ x 2 − a2 = 2a log x + a +c
= e z f (z ) + c
1 dx
= ez + c 3. ∫ 2 2
= log x + x 2 − a2 + c
z x −a
x dx
=
log x
+c 4. ∫ x +a2 2
= log x + x 2 + a2 + c
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x 2 2 a2 Solution:
∫ x − a dx = x − a − log x + x 2 − a2 + c
2 2
5.
2 22 By completing the squares
x a
6. ∫ x 2 + a2 dx = x 2 + a2 + log x + x 2 + a2 + c
2 2 2 + x − x 2 = 2 − x 2 − x
Example 2.40 1
2
1
dx = 2 − x − −
2 4
Evaluate ∫ 16 − x 2
2 2
3
1
Solution: = −x −
2 2
dx dx
∫ 16 − x 2 = ∫ 42 − x 2
dx dx
∫ 2 + x − x2 = ∫ 3 2 1 2
1 4+x
= log +c 2 − x − 2
2 (4) 4−x
1 4+x 3+ x − 1
= log +c 1 2 2
8 4−x = log +c
2 3 3 − x − 1
Example 2.41 2 2 2
dx 1 2 + 2x
Evaluate ∫ 1 − 25x 2 =
3
log
4 − 2x
+c
Solution: 1 1+ x
= log +c
dx 1 dx 3 2−x
∫ 1 − 25x 2 = 25 ∫ 1 2 Example 2.43
2 dx
5 − x Evaluate ∫ 4x2 − 1
Solution:
1
+x dx dx
1
=
1
log 5 +c ∫ 4x2 − 1 = ∫ 2 1
25 1 1 4 x −
−x
2 5 5 4
1 dx
= ∫
4 2 1 2
1 1 + 5x x −
= log +c 2
10 1 − 5x
1
1 1 x−
= log 2 +c
4 1 1
x+
2 2 2
dx = ∫ 2 ( ) 2
m d mx 1 2x − 1
∫ 2 = log
+c
( mx )
a2 − a −( mx ) 4 2x + 1
1
= 2a log aa+−mx
mx
+c
dx = ∫ ( 2 ) 2
m d mx
∫
Example 2.42 ( mx ) −a
2 2
( mx ) −a
1 −a + c
dx = 2a log mx
Evaluate ∫ 2 + x − x2 mx +a
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d (mx )
2
2 3 9 m
x − 3x + 2 = x − − + 2
2 4 ∫ dx = ∫
2 (mx )2 − a2 (mx )2 − a2
3 1
= x − −
2 4
2 2
= log mx + (mx )2 − a2 +c
3 1
= x − −
2 2
Note
dx dx
∫ x 2 − 3x + 2 = ∫ 3 2 1 2 m log n ± k = c
x − 2 − 2
Example 2.47
dx
3 1
x− −
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 3x + 2
1 2 2 Solution:
= log +c
1 3 1 By completing the squares
2
2 x − 2 + 2
2
2 3 9
2x − 4 x − 3x + 2 = x − − + 2
= log +c 2 4
2x − 2 2 2
3 1
x −2 = x − −
= log +c 2 2
x −1
40 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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dx dx
Example 2.50
∫ =∫ x 3dx
2
x − 3x + 2
2
3 1
x − 2 − 2
2
Evaluate ∫ x8 + 1
Solution:
x 3dx 4 x 3dx
2 2
= log x − 3 + x − 3 − 1 + c 1
2
2 2 ∫ = ∫
x8 + 1 4
(x )
2
4
+ 12
3
= log x − + x 2 − 3x + 2 + c 1
(x )
2
2 = log x 4 + 4
+ 12 + c
Example 2.48 4
dx 1
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 25
=
4
log x 4 + x 8 + 1 + c
Solution: Example 2.51
dx dx
∫ 2
x + 25
=∫
2
x +5 2
Evaluate ∫ x 2 − 16 dx
Solution:
2 2 2
= log x + x + 5 + c = log x + x + 25 + c
∫ x 2 − 16 dx = ∫ x 2 − 42 dx
x 2 2 42
Example 2.49 = x − 4 − log x + x 2 − 42 + c
2 2
dx
Evaluate ∫ x2 + 4x + 8
=
x 2
x − 16 − 8 log x + x 2 − 16 + c
2
Solution: Example 2.52
By completing the squares
Evaluate ∫ x 2 + 5 dx
x 2 + 4 x + 8 = ( x + 2) − 4 + 8
2
Solution:
( 5)
2
∫ x 2 + 5 dx = ∫ x 2 + dx
= ( x + 2) + 2
2 2
( ) ( )
2
5
dx x
( )
2 2
dx = x2 + 5 + log x + x 2 + 5 + c
∫ =∫
2 2
x2 + 4x + 8 ( x + 2)2 + 22
x 5
= x2 + 5 + log x + x 2 + 5 + c
= log ( x + 2) + 2 2
( x + 2) 2
+2 2
+c
= log ( x + 2) + x 2 + 4 x + 8 + c
mx a2
= (mx ) + a2 +
2
log mx + (mx )2 + a2 +c
d (mx )
2 2
m
∫ dx = ∫
(mx )2 + a2 (mx )2 + a2 Example 2.53
Evaluate ∫ 4 x 2 + 9 dx
∫ 4 x 2 + 9 dx
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1 Exercise 2.7
=
2∫
(2x )2 + 32 d (2x )
Integrate the following with respect to x
1 2x 32 1 1
= (2x ) + 32 + 2 log 2x + (2x )2 + 32 + c
2
1. 2.
2 2 9 − 16 x 2 9 − 8x − x 2
x 9 1 1
= 4 x 2 + 9 + log 2 x + 4 x 2 + 9 + c 3. 2
4. 2
2 4 2x − 9 x −x −2
Example 2.54 1 1
5. 2
6. 2
x + 3x + 2 2x + 6x − 8
∫
2
Evaluate x − 4 x + 3 dx
ex 1
7. 8.
Solution: e2x − 9 9x 2 − 7
1 1
By completing the squares 9. 10.
x 2 + 6 x + 13 x 2 − 3x + 2
x 2 − 4 x + 3 = ( x − 2) − 4 + 3
2
x3
11. 12. 1 + x + x2
= ( x − 2) − 1
2 2 x8 − 1
XII Std - Business Maths & Stat EM Chapter 2.indd 42 2/28/2020 5:39:48 PM
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∫ (e )
b
x
⇒ ∫ f (x ) dx = F (b) − F (a) Evaluate − 4a x + 2 + 3 x dx
a 0
Solution: 1
1 x
4
∫( ) a x 3
Example 2.56 x x x
e − 4a + 2 + x dx = e − 4
3
+ 2x + 3
1 log a 4
∫ (x )
3 2 0
0
Evaluate + 7 x − 5x dx
0 4a 3 4
= e − +2+ −1+
Solution: log a 4 log a
We have already learnt about the 4 (1 − a )
∫( )
7
evaluation of the integral x 3 + 7 x 2 − 5x dx = e + +
log a 4
in the previous section.
Example 2.59
4 3 2 p
(
∴ ∫ x + 7 x − 5x dx =
3
1
x
2
4
+
7x
3
−
5x
2
+c) Evaluate
3
∫p sin x dx
(
Now, ∫ x 3 + 7 x 2 − 5x dx ) 6
x 4 7 x 3 5x
0 2 1
= + − Solution:
4 3 2 0 p
p
3
= [ − cos x ]
3
1 7 5 0 0 0
= + − − + − ∫p sin x dx p
4 3 2 4 3 2 6
6
p p
1 7 5 1 = − cos − cos
= + − = 3 6
4 3 2 12
( )
1
= 3 −1
2
Example 2.57
dy 2x Example 2.60
Find the integration for = 2 with p
dx 5x + 1 2
∫ cos
2
limiting values as 0 and 1 Evaluate x dx
0
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Solution: Solution:
3
x4 + 1 3
∫ ∫ (x )
2
Change into simple integrands 2
dx = + x −2 dx
2
x 2
cos 2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 3
x3 1
= −
1 3 x 2
∴ cos2 x = [1 + cos 2 x ]
2
1 8 1 13
= 9 − − − =
p p 3 3 2 2
2
1 2
Example 2.63
∫ ∫ 2 [1 + cos 2x] dx
2
cos x dx = 1
∫ (x ) (x )
0 0 3
3
p Evaluate + 3x 2 2
+ 2 x dx
= 1 x + sin 2 x 2 −1
2 2
0 Solution:
4 1
1 3
1 x + 3x
2
( )
∫ (x )( )
3
1 p p
3
+ 3x 2 x 2 + 2 x dx=
3 4
= + 0 = −1
−1
2 2 4
n
∫ [ f (x )] f ′(x ) dx =
[ f (x )]n+1 + c
Note n +1
1
e a log x = x a = (64 − 4 )
3
= 20
Example 2.61 Example 2.64
b
1 log x
Evaluate ∫ e a log x + e x log a dx
Evaluate ∫ x
dx a, b > 0
a
0 Solution:
1
Solution: b
log x
b 2
dx
1 1 ∫ x
dx = ∫ (log x ) x
∫ (
e a log x + e x log a dx = ∫ x a + a x dx ) a
3
a
b
( log x )
2
0 0
1 = 2
x a +1 ax 3
= +
a + 1 log a 0
a
n
∫ [ f (x )] f ′(x ) dx =
[ f (x )]n+1 + c
1 a 1 n +1
= + − 0+
a + 1 log a log a
2 3 3
1 a 1 = ( log b ) 2 − ( log a ) 2
= + − 3
a + 1 log a log a
= 1 +
(a − 1)
a + 1 log a 3
3
log b 2 = log b but,
3
2
3
Example 2.62 (log b)2 ≠ log b Further,
3 2
x4 + 1 3
∫ b2
3 3
Evaluate dx (log b) − (log a ) ≠ log
x2
2 2
2 a
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Example 2.65 ∞ ∞
1 dt
∫x dx = ∫ e −t
2 − x3
e
Evaluate ∫x x + 1 dx
0 10
3
∞
= −e − t
−1
Solution:
3 0
Take t = x + 1 −1
dt = dx
=
3
[0 − 1]
and 1
x –1 1 =
3
t 0 2
Example 2.68
2
1 2 1
∫ x x + 1 dx = ∫ (t − 1) t dt Evaluate ∫ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) dx
−1 0 1
2 3 Solution:
1
= ∫ t2 −t2 dt By partial fractions,
0
2 1 A B
5 3
+ =
2t 2 2t 2
= −
( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
5 3 ⇒
1
=
1
−
1
0 ( x + 1) ( x + 2) x + 1 x + 2
8 2 4 2
= − 2
1
2
1 1
5 3 ∫ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) dx = ∫ x + 1 − x + 2 dx
1 1
4 2
= 2
15 = log x + 1 − log x + 2
1
Example 2.66 3 2
∞
−
x = log − log
4 3
Evaluate ∫e 2 dx
9
0 = log
Solution: 8
∞
∞
−
x
− x Example 2.69
∫e 2 dx = − 2 e 2 e
0 0 Evaluate logx dx ∫
= − 2 [0 − 1] = 2 Solution:
1
3x 2 dx = dt ∫ logx dx = ∫ u dv
1 1 ee
dt = [uv ] − ∫ vdu
⇒ x 2 dx = and 1
3 1 e
1
∞ = [ x log x ]1 − ∫ x
e
x 0 dx
t 0 ∞ 1
x
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(
= e log e − 1 log 1 − [ x ]1 ) e b
∫
Now, x dx = 1
= (e − 0) − (e − 1) a
b
x2
=1 = 1
2 a
Example 2.70 p
2 b2 − a2 = 2
Evaluate ∫ x sin x dx (b + a ) (b − a ) = 2
0
Solution:
Take u = x b + a = 2 … (2) b − a = 1
and dv = sin x dx
Differentiate Integrate (1) + (2) ⇒ 2b = 3
du = dx v = − cos x 3
∴ b =
2
3
− a = 1 from (1)
p p
2 2
Now,
2
∫ x sin x dx = ∫ udv p ∴ a =
1
0 0
p
2
2
= [uv ] − ∫ vdu
2
0
0 p Example 2.73
p 2
2
4
= − x cos x + ∫ cos x dx
0
0 Evaluate f ( x ) dx , where
∫
p
1
= 0 + [sin x ]0 =1
2
7 x + 3, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
f (x ) =
Example 2.71 8 x , if 3 ≤ x ≤ 4
a
Solution:
If ∫ 3x 2 dx = −1 , then find the value of a, a ∈ R . 4 3 4
1
Solution: a
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
1 1 3
∫ 3x dx = –1
2
Given that
3 4
1 a = ∫ (7 x + 3) dx + ∫ 8 x dx
x 3 = –1
1 1 3
3 4
7x2 8x 2
a3 − 1 = –1 = + 3x +
2 1 2 3
a3 = 0 ⇒ a = 0
63 13
Example 2.72 = +9 − + 64 − 36
b b 2 2
∫
If dx = 1 and ∫ x dx = 1, then find a and b = 62
a a
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1. 5
=−
2
+ 6=
2 ∫ dx = b − a
1 1. 5 a
(iv) ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x )dx
−2 −2
1. 5
1 2.2.2 Properties of definite integrals
b b
=3+ ∫ xdx using (i)
1
2 1. 5
(i) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t )dt
x a a
= 3+ b a
∫ f ( x ) dx = −∫ f ( x )dx
2 1
(ii)
2.25 1 1.25
= 3+ − =3+ = 3.625 a b
2 2 2
3 2 3 (iii) If f ( x ) and g ( x ) are continuous functions
(v) ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x ) dx
in a , b , then
1 1 2
b b b
3 −3
= +
2 2
= 0 using (ii) and (iii) ∫ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
a a a
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a a a
R.H.S. ∫
= f (a − x )dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx
0 0 0
0
[using the Property (i)]
= ∫ f (t )(−dt )
a
a
a
= ∫ f (t )dt
= 2 ∫ f (x) dx
0
0
a b) If f(x) is
an odd function, then
= ∫ f (x)dx [using the Property (i)] f (− x ) = − f (x ) …(2)
0
a 0 a
= L.H.S.
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
(vi) (a) If f ( x ) is an even function, then −a −a 0
0 a
∫ − f (− x) dx + ∫ f (x ) dx using (2)
a a
=
∫ f (x )dx = 2 ∫ f (x )dx
−a 0
−a 0
Take − x = t ⇒ dx = −dt
(b) If f ( x ) is an odd function, then
a x –a 0
∫ f (x )dx = 0 t a 0
−a
Apply the above mentioned substitution
Proof :
only in first part of integral of the R.H.S.
(a) If f ( x ) is an even function, then
a 0 a
f ( x ) = f ( − x ) …(1) ∴ ∫ f (x ) dx = − ∫ f (t ) ( −dt ) +
a 0 a
∫ f (x) dx
−a a 0
∫ f (t ) dt + ∫ f ( x ) dx
b
=
0 0
= ∫ f ( x ) dx [using the Property (i)]
a
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b b Example 2.77
1
∴ ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f (a + b − x ) dx ∫ (x )
2
Evaluate + x dx
a a
−1
Evaluate the following using properties of Solution:
1 1 1
∫ (x )
definite integrals:
∫x dx + ∫ x dx
2 2
+ x dx =
Example 2.75 −1 −1 −1
1 5 1
x dx
Evaluate ∫ a2 − x 2 = 2 ∫ x 2 dx + 0 [ x 2 is
−1 0
Solution: an even function and x is an odd function]
x5 1
Let f ( x ) =
x3 1
a2 − x 2 =2 = 2 3 − 0
f ( − x ) =
(−x ) 5
3 0
a2 − ( − x )
2
2
=
−x5 3
= 2 Example 2.78
a − x2 p
2
= − f ( x ) sin x
Here f (–x) = − f ( x )
Evaluate ∫ sin x + cos x dx
0
Solution:
p
∴ f (x ) is an odd function 2
1
x 5 dx sin x
⇒ ∫ 2 2
=0 Let I = ∫ sin x + cos x dx … (1)
−1
a − x 0
p
Example 2.76 p
2 sin − x
p 2
2 = ∫ p p
dx
Evaluate ∫p cos x dx 0 sin − x + cos − x
2 2
−
2
a a
Solution: ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (a − x )dx
0
Let f ( x ) = cos x
p 0
2
cos x
f ( − x ) = cos ( − x ) = cos x = ∫ cos x + sin x dx …(2)
⇒ f ( − x )
0
=− f ( x )
(1) + (2) ⇒
∴ f ( x ) is an even function
p
p p
2
2 2 sin x cos x
∴ ∫p cos x dx = 2 ∫ cos x dx 2I = ∫
sin x + cos x
+
cos x + sin x
dx
−
0 p 0
2 2 p
p
= 2 sin x 2
2
p
= [x ]
0
= ∫ dx =
p 0
0 2
= 2 sin − sin 0
2 p
=2 ∴ I =
4
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Example 2.79 5
First, let us know about the concepts of
x indefinite integrals, proper definite integrals
Evaluate ∫ x + 7−x
dx
and improper definite integrals.
2
Solution:
5
x Indefinite integral:
Let I = ∫ x + 7−x
dx …(1) An integral function which is expressed
2
without limits, and so containing an arbitrary
5
I = 2 + 5− x constant is called an indefinite integral
∫ dx
2 2 + 5 − x + 7 − (2 + 5 − x ) Example: ∫ e −t dt
b b
∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (a + b − x )dx Proper definite integral:
a a
Proper definite integral is an integral
5
7−x function, which has both the limits a and b are
I = ∫ 7−x + x
dx …(2)
finite and the integrand f(x) is continuous in [a, b].
2 1
(1) + (2) ⇒ Example: ∫e
−t
dt
5 x 7−x 0
2I = ∫ + dx
2 x + 7−x 7 − x + x Improper definite integral:
5 x + 7−x An improper definite integral is an integral
= ∫ dx function, in which the limits either a or b or both
x + 7 − x
2
are infinite, or the integrand f(x) becomes infinite
5 5
at some points of the interval [a, b].
= dx = [ x ]
∫ = 3 ∞
2
∫e
2 −t
Example: dt
3
∴ I = 0
2
Definition 2.3
Exercise 2.9
∞
∫x
n −1 − x
Evaluate the following using properties of For n > 0, e dx is known known as
definite integrals: 0
Properties:
2.2.3 Gamma Integral
Gamma integral is an important result 1. G (n) = (n − 1) G (n − 1) , n > 1
which is very useful in the evaluation of a 2. G (n + 1) = n G (n) , n > 0
particular type of an improper definite integrals.
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3. G (n + 1) = n ! , n is a positive integer. 1
Put n = , we have
2
4. G ( 12 ) = p 1 2
∞
G = 2∫ e − x dx
2
0 ∞
2
⇒ p = 2∫ e − x dx
G (1) = 1 ∞ 0
− x2 p
∴∫ e dx =
0
2
=
5 3 3
G ∫ f (x)dx
2 2 2 0
0 2 r =1
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Example 2.81 2
1n 2r
Evaluate the integral as the limit ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∑ 3 +
1 n→∞ r =1 n n
1
of a sum: ∫ x dx n 3 2r
0 = lim ∑ + 2
Solution: n→∞ r =1 n n
b n 3 n 2 n
∫ f ( x ) dx =
lim ∑ h f (a + rh ) = lim ∑ 1 + 2 ∑ r
n→∞ r =1 n→∞ n r =1
a h →0 n r =1
b − a 1− 0 1 3 2 n (n + 1)
Here a = 0, b = 1, h = = =
= lim (n) + 2
n n n
and f ( x ) = x n← ∞ n
n 2
r r r
Now f (a + rh ) = f 0 + = f = 1
n n n = 3 + lim 1 +
On substituting in (1) we have 2 n→∞ n
1
n 1 r ∫ f ( x ) dx = 3 + 1 = 4
∫ x dx = lim ∑ .
n→∞ r =1 n n
1
0
1 n Example 2.83
= lim 2 ∑ r
n→∞ n r =1 2 Evaluate the integral as the limit of a sum:
1 n (n + 1) ∫x
2
dx
= lim 2 1
n→∞ n 2
1 Solution:
n2 1 + b
1 n n
= lim 2 ⋅ ∫ f ( x ) dx =
lim ∑ h f (a + rh )
n→∞ n 2 a
n→∞ r =1
h →0
1+ 0 1 b − a 2 −1 1
= = Here a = 1, b = 2, h = = = and
1 2 2 n n n
1
∴ ∫x dx = f (x ) = x2
0
2 r r
2
Now f (a + rh ) =
f 1 + = 1 +
Example 2.82 n n
2 Evaluate the integral as the limit of a sum: 2
2r r
= 1+ +
∫ (2x + 1) dx 2
n n2
n 1
1 2r r 2
Solution: ∴ ∫ x dx = lim ∑ 1 + + 2
2
n→∞ r =1 n n n
b 1
n
f ( x ) dx = lim ∑ h f (a + rh )
∫ n→∞ r =1 1 2r r 2
n
a h →0 = lim ∑ + 2 + 3
n→∞ r =1 n n n
b − a 2 −1 1
Here a = 1, b = 2, h = = = 1 n 2 n 1 n
n n n = lim ∑ 1 + 2 ∑ r + 3 ∑ r 2
r n→∞ n r =1 n r =1 n r =1
and f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 , f (a + rh ) = f 1 +
n 1 2 n (n + 1) 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
= lim (n) + 2 + 3
r n←∞ n n 2 n 6
= 2 1 + + 1
n 1 1
= 2+
2r
+1 1 1 + n 2 + n
n = lim 1 + 1 + +
2r n→∞ n 6
f (a + rh ) = 3 +
n
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(1)(2) ex
= 1 + 1 +
6
6. ∫ 1 + exx
dx is
2 e
7 (a) +c (b) 2 1 + e x + c
∴ ∫ x 2 dx = 1 + ex
1
3
Exercise 2.11 (c) 1 + ex + c (d) e x 1 + e x + c
∫ (2x + 3) dx ∫x
2
3. 4. dx
∫e
2x 2
1 0
8. [2x + 2 x]dx
Exercise 2.12 (a) e 2 x x 2 + c (b) xe 2 x + c
2 2 x 2e x
Choose the correct answer: (c) 2 x e + c (d) +c
1 2
1. ∫ 3 dx is ex
x 9. ∫ x dx is
−3 −1 e +1
(a) 2 + c (b) +c
x 2x 2 ex ex + 1
−1 −2 (a) log x + c (b) log x + c
(c) +c (d) 2 + c e +1 e
3x 2 x
(c) log e x + c (d) log e x + 1 + c
∫ 2 dx
x
2. is
(a) 2 x log 2 + c (b) 2 x + c 9 1
2x
log 2
10. ∫ x − 3 − x + 1 dx is
(c ) +c (d) +c
log 2 2x (a) log x − 3 − log x + 1 + c
sin 2 x (b) log x − 3 + log x + 1 + c
3. ∫ 2 sin x dx is
1 (c) 9 log x − 3 − log x + 1 + c
(a) sin x + c (b) sin x + c
2 (d) 9 log x − 3 + log x + 1 + c
1
(c) cos x + c (d) cos x + c
2 2x 3
sin 5x − sin x 11. ∫ 4 + x 4 dx is
4. ∫ cos 3x
dx is
1
(a) log 4 + x 4 + c log 4 + x 4 + c
(b)
(a) − cos 2x + c (b) − cos 2x + c 2
1 1 2x 3
(c) log 4 + x 4 + c (d) log +c
(c) − cos 2 x + c (d) −4 cos 2 x + c 4 4 + x4
4
log x dx
5. ∫ dx , x > 0 is
x 12. ∫ 2
x − 36
is
1 2 1 2
(a) ( log x ) + c (b) − ( log x )
2 2 (a) x 2 − 36 + c
2 2
(c) 2 + c (d) +c (b) log x + x 2 − 36 + c
x x2
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1
(c) log x − x 2 − 36 + c
x 4 (1 − x ) dx is
2
20. ∫
0
(d) log x 2 + x 2 − 36 + c 1 −7 7 −1
(a) 12
(b) 12
(c) 12
(d) 12
2x + 3
13. ∫ dx is 1
f ( x ) dx = 1,
1
∫ x f ( x ) dx = a , then ∫ (a − x ) f ( x ) dx is
2 2 2
0 0
(b) 2 x 2 + 3x + 2 + c 2
(a) 4 a (b) 0 (c) 2 a 2 (d) 1
(c) log x + 3x + 2 + c ( 2
) 3 3
∫ f (5 − x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx is
3
22. The value of
2 2
( )
2
(d) x + 3x + 2 +c 2 2
3 (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1 (d) 5
1
14. ∫ (2x + 1) dx is 4
1
0 23. ∫ x+ dx is
x
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 0
4
dx 20 21 28 1
(a) (b) (c) (d )
15. ∫ x is 3 3 3 3
2 p
(a) log 4 (b) 0 (c) log 2 (d) log 8 3
∞ 24. ∫ tan x dx is
∫e
−2 x
16. dx is 0
0 1 (a) log 2 (b) 0 (c) log 2 (d) 2 log 2
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d)
1 2 25.
Using the factorial representation of the
4
∫ x e dx is
3 x
17. gamma function, which of the following is
1
−1 4 4
the solution for the gamma function
(a) 1 (b) 2 x 3 e x dx ∫ (c) 0 (d) e x
G (n) when n = 8
0
18. If f ( x ) is a continuous function and (a) 5040 (b) 5400 (c) 4500 (d) 5540
c b
a < c < b ,then ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx is 26. G (n) is
a c
b c (a) (n − 1) ! (b) n!
(a ) ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx (c) n G (n) (d) (n − 1) G (n)
a a
27. G (1) is
c b
(b) ∫ f ( x ) dx − ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) n (d) n!
b
(c) ∫ f ( x ) dxp (d) 0
28. If n > 0, then G (n) is
a
1 1
2
∫ ∫e
− x n −1 −x n
(a) e x dx x dx
19. The value of ∫p cos x dx is 0
(b)
0
− ∞ ∞
2
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3
29. G
2
4. ∫ 2 x 2 − 3 dx
(a) p (b)
p
(c) 2 p (d)
3 5. ∫ 9 x 2 + 12 x + 3 dx
∞ 2 2
∫x e ∫ ( x + 1)
4 −x 2
30. dx is 6. log x dx
0
∫ log ( x − )
(a) 12 (b) 4 (c) 4! (d) 64
7. x 2 − 1 dx
Miscellaneous problems 1
∫x e −2 x dx
2
x+2 − x+3 9.
dx −1
2. ∫ 3
2 − 3x − 2 x 2 x dx
dx
10. ∫ x + 1 + 5x + 1
3. ∫ x 0
e + 6 + 5e − x
Summary
In this chapter, we have acquired the knowledge of
zz The relation between the Primitive function and the derived function:
A function F ( x ) is said to be a primitive function of the derived function f ( x ) , if
d
dx
[ F ( x )] = f ( x )
zz Integration of a function:
The process of determining an integral of a given function is defined as integration of a function
zz Properties of indefinite integrals:
∫ a f (x) dx = a ∫ f (x) dx
∫ f (x ) ± g (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g (x) dx
zz Standard results of indefinite integrals:
x n+1 1
1. ∫ x dx = n
+ c 2. ∫ dx = log x + c
n +1 x
1
3. ∫ e x dx = e x + c 4. ∫ a x
dx = a x + c, a > 0 and a ≠ 1
log a
5. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c 6.
∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
∫ sec ∫ cosec x dx = − cot x + c
2 2
7. x dx = tan x + c 8.
n [ f ( x )]
n+1
9. ∫ f ( x ) f ′(x) dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1
f ′( x ) f ′( x )
10. ∫ f (x ) ∫
dx = log f (x ) + c 11.
f (x )
dx = 2 f (x ) + c
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∫
12. udv = uv − vdu 13. ∫
udv = uv − u ′v1 + u ′′v2 − u ′′′v3 + ... ∫
dx 1 a+x dx 1 x −a
14. ∫ a2 − x 2 =
2a
log
a−x
+c 15. ∫ x 2 − a2 = 2a log x + a +c
dx dx
16. ∫ 2
x −a 2
= log x + x 2 − a2 + c 17. ∫ x +a 2 2
= log x + x 2 + a2 + c
∫
18. e x f ( x ) + f ′( x ) dx = e x f ( x ) + c 19. ∫e
ax ax
a f (x ) + f ′(x ) dx = e f (x ) + c
x 2 a2
∫
2 2
20. x − a dx = x − a − log x + x 2 − a2 + c
2
2 22
x a
21. ∫ x 2 + a2 dx =
2
x 2 + a2 + log x + x 2 + a2 + c
2
zz Definite integral:
a a b b
(v) ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (a − x)dx (vi) ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (a + b − x) dx
0 0 a a
a a
(vii) a) If f ( x ) is an even function, then ∫ f (x )dx = 2 ∫ f (x )dx
−a 0
a
b) If f ( x ) is an odd function, then ∫ f (x )dx = 0
−a
zz Particular case of Gamma Integral:
∞
If n is a positive integer, then n!
∫ x e dx =
n − ax
an +1
0
zz Properties of gamma function:
(i) G (n) = (n − 1) G (n − 1) , n > 1 (ii) G (n + 1) = n G (n) , n > 0
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zz Results:
n (n + 1) n
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ......n = = ∑ r
2 r =1
n (n + 1) (2n + 1) r =n
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + ......n2 = = ∑ r2
6 r =1
n (n + 1)
2
r =n
(iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + ......n3 = = ∑r
3
2 r =1
GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Abscissa மட்டாயம் / கிடை தூரம்
Abstract value நுண்ம மதிப்பு / புலனாகாத மதிப்பு
Algebraic function அறமச் சார்பு / இயற் கணிதச் சார்பு
Anti derivative எதிர்மறை வகையீடு
Approaches அணுகுதல் / நெருங்குதல்
Approximate த�ோராயம்
Arbitrary ஏதேனும�ொரு / தன்னிச்சையான
Between the specified limits குறிப்பிடப்பட்ட எல்லைகளுக்குள்
Bounded region வரம்புள்ள பகுதி
Certain நிச்சயமான / உறுதியான
Change of variable மாறியின் மாற்றம்
Closed interval மூடிய இடைவெளி
Completing the square வர்க்க நிறைவாக்கல்
Concept கருத்துரு
Constant of integration த�ொகையிடல் மாறிலி
Constant term மாறா உறுப்பு
Continuous function த�ொடர்ச்சியான சார்பு
Decomposition பிரித்தல் / கூறாக்கல்
Definite integral வரையறுத்த த�ொகை / வரையறுத்த த�ொகையீடு
Derived function வருவித்தச் சார்பு
Differentiable function வகையிடத்தக்கச் சார்பு
Differential coefficient வகைக்கெழு / வகையீட்டு கெழு
Differentiation வகையிடல்
Directly integrate நேரிடையாக த�ொகையிட
Exponential function அடுக்கைச் சார்பு / அடுக்குகுறிச் சார்பு
Family of curves வளைவரைகளின் த�ொகுதி
Indefinite integral அறுதியிடப்படாத த�ொகையீடு / வரையறாத் த�ொகையீடு
Infinity முடிவிலி / கந்தழி / எண்ணிலி
Inscribe உள்வரை
Instantaneous உடனடியாக
Integral Calculus – I 57
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ICT Corner
Step – 1 :
Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work Book named
“12th Standard Business Mathematics & Statistics ” will open. In the work book there are two Volumes.
Select “Volume-1”.
Step - 2 :
Select the worksheet named“ Integration-Gamma Integral”. There is a problem based on Gamma Integral
and Improper definite Integral. Move the sliders to change “a” and “n” value. Observe the graph.
Step 1 Step 2
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3 Integral Calculus – II
Introduction
H
istory of integration
begins over 2500 years ago.
The first Greek Mathematician Antiphon
(around 430 BC (BCE)).
introduced the “method of exhaustion” to find areas of simple
polygons and more complicated curves. (method of exhaustion
Archimedes means dividing the given area into infinite number of triangles).
(287 BC(BCE)-217 BC(BCE)) Though Antiphon invented the method of exhaustion to find area
bounded by complicated curves, the mathematician Eudoxus
did the logical development in this method of exhaustion. Later
Euclid used this method to calculate the area of circle.
Using the same method of exhaustion Archimedes (287
BC(BCE)-217 BC(BCE)) find the area bounded by parabola.
Thus using integration area bounded by curves is developed.
We will see the method of finding area by using integration in this chapter.
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x=a
Q
x=b
f(x)
X A
O y = f(x) B
a = x0 b = xn
Dx Fig.3.3
Fig. 3.1
(ii) The area of the region bounded by the
Now from the definition of definite curve x = f ( y ) between the limits
integral, if f ( x ) is a function defined on y = c and y = d with y − axis and
[a, b] with a < b then the definite integral is the area lies lies to the right of y- axis, is
b d d
lim n
∫ f ( x ) dx =
∆xi → 0 ∑ f ( xi′) ∆xi A = xdy
∫ = ∫ f ( y )dy
a i =1 c c
Y
The area under the curve is exhausted by y=d
D B
increasing the number of rectangular strips to ∞
x = f(y)
Thus the geometrical interpretation of
definite integral is the area under the curve C A
y=c
between the given limits.
Fig.3.4 X
The area of the region bounded by the
(iii)
The area bounded by the curve
curve y=f(x), with x- axis and the ordinates at
x = f ( y ) between the limits
x = a and x = b given by
y = c and y = d with y − axis and
b
the area lies to the left of y- axis, is
Area A = ydx ∫ d d
a
A = ∫ − xdy = − ∫ f ( y )dy
b c c
= ∫ f (x)dx B y=d
Y
a D
Y
y = f(x) B x = f(y)
A
A C
x=b
x=a
y=c
C X
D X Fig.3.5
Fig.3.2
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Y
y = g(x)
y=5
y = f(x)
0
=
y=2
– 12
2y
x–
o x=a x = bX
Fig.3.6 O X
Fig.3.8
Example 3.1
Find the area bounded by y = 4 x + 3
Required Area
with x- axis between the lines x = 1 and x = 4 5
= ∫ x dy
Solution:
2
5
5
Y = ∫ (2 y + 12) dy = y 2 + 12 y
2
+3
2
4x
y=
= (25 + 60) − ( 4 + 24 ) = 57 sq.units
O x=1 x=4 X
The area bounded by the line
Fig.3.7
y = mx+c with x-axis between lines
4 x = 0 and x = a is
Area = ydx ∫ 1
= | [a][(value of y at x = 0) + [(value
1 2
of y at x = a)]|
4
= ∫ ( 4 x + 3) dx
Example 3.3
1
4
Find the area of the region bounded by
= 2 x 2 + 3x = 32 + 12 − 2 − 3 the parabola y = 4 − x 2 , x − axis and the lines
1
x = 0, x = 2 .
= 39 sq.units
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Solutions: Solution
y = 4 − x2 y 2 = 8 x (1)
Y Comparing this with the standard form
2
y = 4ax ,
4a = 8
a= 2
Equation of latus rectum is x = 2
o x=2 X Since equation (1) is symmetrical about
x- axis
Y
Fig. Fig.3.9
2 2
∫ ydx = ∫ (4 − x
2
Required area= )dx F(2, 0) X
0 0
3 2
x 8
= 4 x − =8 −
0
3 3
16
= sq.units Fig.3.11
3
Required Area = 2[Area in the first
Example 3.4
quadrant between the limits x = 0 and x = 2]
Find the area bounded by y = x between
2
the lines x = −1and x = 2 with x -axis.
∫
= 2 y dx
Solution: 0
Y 2 2
( )∫ x
1
2∫ 8 xdx = 2 2 2 2 dx
0 0
2
x = –1 3 3
0 x=2 2x
2 2 2
X = 4 2 = 4 2 ×2×
3 3
0
32
= sq. units.
3
Fig.3.10
0 2
Example 3.6
Required area = ∫ − xdx + ∫ x dx 0 Sketch the graph y = x + 3 and evaluate
−1 0
x2
0
x2 1 4
2 ∫ x + 3 dx .
−6
= − + = − 0 − + − 0
2 −1 2 0 2 2 Solution:
5 x + 3 if x ≥ − 3
= sq.units y = x + 3 =
2 − ( x + 3) if x < −3
Example 3.5 a 0
Find the area of the parabola y = 8 x 2
Required area = ∫ ydx = ∫ ydx
bounded by its latus rectum. b −6
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a
Y
∫
= 4 y dx
0
a a
x a2 x
y= = 4∫ 2 2
a − x dx = 4 2
a −x + 2
sin −1
3 2 2 a 0
–(
x+ x+ 0
3) y=
a2 a a2 a2 p
= 4 0 + sin −1 = 4 sin −1 (1) = 4 .
2 a 2 2 2
–6 –3 0 X = pa 2 sq. units
Fig.3.12
−3 0 Example 3.8
= ∫ y dx + ∫ ydx Using integration find the area of the
−6 −3 region bounded between the line x = 4 and the
−3 0
parabola y 2 = 16 x.
= ∫ − ( x + 3) dx + ∫ (x + 3) dx
−6 −3 Solution:
−3 2 0 The equation y 2 = 16 x represents a
( x + 3) ( x + 3)
2
x + y 2 = a2 (1)
2
b
put y = 0, x2 = a2
⇒ x = ±a
Required Area = 2 ydx ∫
a
4
Since equation (1) is symmetrical about
both the axes
=2 ∫ 16 x dx
Y 0
4
3
4 1
x 2 16 3 128
= 8 ∫ x 2 dx = 8 =
3 3 ( 4 ) 2 = 3. sq. units
0
–a 0 a 2 0
X′ X
Exercise 3.1
Y′
Fig.3.13 1. Using Integration, find the area of the region
bounded the line 2 y + x = 8, the x axis and
The required area = 4 [Area in the
the lines x = 2, x = 4.
first quadrant between the limit 0 and a.]
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2.
Find the area bounded by the lines Where k is the constant of integration
y − 2 x − 4 = 0 , y = 1, y = 3 and the y-axis which is to be evaluated,
3. Calculate the area bounded by the parabola C
Average cost function AC = , x≠0
y 2 = 4ax and its latusrectum. x
Example 3.9
4. Find the area bounded by the line y = x, the
The marginal cost function of
x-axis and the ordinates x = 1, x = 2.
manufacturing x shoes is 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 . The
5. Using integration, find the area of the region cost producing a pair of shoes is ₹12. Find the
bounded by the line y − 1 = x , the x axis total and average cost function.
and the ordinates x = –2, x = 3.
Solution:
6. Find the area of the region lying in the first Given,
quadrant bounded by the region Marginal cost MC = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2
2
y = 4 x , x = 0, y = 0 and y = 4.
∫ MC dx + k C =
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+ 250
= 100 x + 90 e − x
0
27 = 400 + 90 e −4
− (0 + 90)
= 1875 + 1125 − 125 + 250
= 400 + 90(0.018) − 90
C = ₹3,125 = 311.62 units
= ∫ (2 + 5e x ) dx + k
Solution:
Let p be the additional product produced
= 2 x + 5e x + k
for additional of x labour,
dp 2
x = 0 ⇒ C = 100 , = 300 − 5x 3
dx
2 (0 ) + 5 e 0 + k
100 = ( ) 64 2
p = ∫ 300 − 5x 3 dx
k = 95 0
64
C = 2 x + 5 e x + 95. 5
C 2 x + 5e x + 95 = 300 x − 3x 3
Average cost = = 0
x x
5 e x 95 5
AC = 2 + + . = 300 × 64 − 3 (64 ) 3
x x
= 16128
Rate of growth or sale
If the rate of growth or sale of a function ∴ The number of additional units produced
is a known function of t say f (t) where t is a 16128.
time measure, then total growth (or) sale of a Total number of units produced by 264 workers
product over a time period t is given by,
r = 50,000 + 16,128 = 66128 units.
Total sale = ∫ f (t ) dt , 0 ≤ t ≤ r Example 3.14
0
Example 3.12 The rate of change of sales of a company
after an advertisement campaign is represented
The rate of new product is given by
as, f (t ) = 3000e −0.3t where t represents the
f (x ) = 100 − 90 e − x where x is the number of
number of months after the advertisement.
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Integral Calculus – II 67
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∫ (10 + e ) dx
∴ Profit is maximum when x = 500 and R = −0.05 x
− 200
0
100
e −0.05 x
100 = 10 x +
= 5000 – 2500 – 200 −0.05 0
= 2300 e −5 100
Profit = 2,300. = 1000 − − 0 −
0.05 5
Example 3.19
= 1000 + 20 − (20 × 0.0067)
The marginal cost and marginal revenue
= 1019.87
with respect to commodity of a firm are given
by C ′ ( x ) = 8 + 6 x and R ′ ( x ) = 24. Find the Total revenue = 1019.87 × 1000
total Profit given that the total cost at zero = `10,19,870
output is zero.
Solution: Example 3.21
Given MC = 8 + 6x The price of a machine is `5,00,000 with
an estimated life of 12 years. The estimated
(8 + 6x ) dx + k1
C(x) = ∫ salvage value is ₹30,000. The machine can be
8 x + 3x 2 + k1 (1)
= rented at ₹72,000 per year. The present value of
But given when x = 0, C = 0 ⇒ k1 = 0 the rental payment is calculated at 9% interest
rate. Find out whether it is advisable to rent the
∴ 8 x + 3x 2 (2)
C(x) =
machine. (e −1.08 = 0.3396) .
Given that MR = 24
Solution:
MR dx + k2
R(x) = ∫ The present value of t
payment for t year = ∫ 72000 e −0.09 t dt
= ∫
24 dx + k2 0
= 24x + k2 Present value of 12
∫ 72000 e
−0.09 t
payment for12 years = dt
Revenue = 0, when x = 0 ⇒ k2 = 0 0 12
e −0.09 t
R(x) = 24x (3) = 72000
−0.09
0
Total Profit functions P(x) = R(x) – C(x)
72000 −0.09 (12) 0
24 x − 8 x − 3x 2
P(x) = = e −e
−0.09
16 x − 3x 2
= = − 8, 00, 000 e −1.08 −e0
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17. The marginal cost function of a commodity Mathematically the Consumer’s Surplus
14000 (CS) can be defined as
is given by MC = and the fixed
7x + 4
cost is ₹18,000. Find the total cost and CS = (Area under the demand curve from
x = 0 to x = x0 ) – (Area of the rectangle OAPB)
average cost. x0
18. If the marginal cost (MC) of a production CS = ∫ f (x) dx − x0 p0
of the company is directly proportional to 0
the number of units (x) produced, then find
Example 3.27
the total cost function, when the fixed cost
The demand function of a commodity
is ₹ 5,000 and the cost of producing 50 units
is y = 36 − x 2 . Find the consumer’s surplus for
is ₹ 5,625.
y0 = 11 .
19. If MR = 20 − 5x + 3x 2 , find total revenue
function. Solution:
that the people would buy at a given price. It can (Price × quantity demanded)
be expressed as p = f ( x ) 5
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called the producer’s surplus. It is represented in ps = 2 x − 3 . Find the consumer’s surplus and
the following diagram.
producer’s surplus at equilibrium price.
Y PS
B P
The point of intersection of
Price
P0
demand and supply curves is
called equilibrium point.
At equilibrium point qd = qs
O X0 A X
Quantity Solution:
Fig. 3.17 2
Given Pd = 18 − 2 x − x ; Ps = 2 x − 3
Mathematically, producer’s surplus (PS) We know that at equilibrium prices pd = ps
can be defined as,
18 − 2 x − x 2 = 2x – 3
PS = (Area of the rectangle OAPB) −
x 2 + 4 x − 21 = 0
(Area below the supply function from
x = 0 to x = x 0 ) (x − 3) (x + 7) = 0
x0
x = –7 or 3
PS = x0 p0 – ∫ g (x)dx
0 The value of x cannot be negative, x = 3
Example 3.28 When x 0 = 3
Find the producer’s surplus defined by
the supply curve g(x) = 4x+8 when xo= 5. 18 − 2(3) −(3)2 = 3
∴ p0 =
x
Solution: CS = f ( x ) dx − x0 p 0
∫
g(x) = 4x + 8 and x0 = 5 0
p0 = 4(5) + 8 = 28 3
∫ (18 − 2x − x ) dx − 3 × 3
= 2
x0
PS = x0 p0 – ∫ g (x)dx 0
3
0 2− x
3
5 18 x − x
= −9
3 0
= ∫
(5 × 28) − (4 x + 8)dx
2 3
0 3
5 18(3) − (3) − − 9
=
x2 3
= 140 − 4 + 8 x CS = 27 units
2 0 x
= 140 – (50 + 40) x0 P0 − g (x ) dx
PS = ∫
= 50 units 0
3
Hence the producer’s surplus = 50 units. (3 × 3) − (2 x − 3) dx
= ∫
0
Example 3.29
( )
3
9 − x 2 − 3x
=
The demand and supply function of a 0
= 9 units
commodity are pd = 18 − 2 x − x 2 and
Hence at equilibrium price,
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(i) the consumer’s surplus is 27 units 11. Find the consumer’s surplus and producer’s
(ii) the producer’s surplus is 9 units. surplus for the demand function
pd = 25 − 3x and supply function
Exercise 3.3 ps = 5 + 2 x.
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6. Th
e demand and supply functions are given hen x 0 = 5 and p0 = 3 the consumer’s
13. W
by D ( x ) = 16 − x 2 and S ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 4 are surplus for the demand function
under perfect competition, then the pd = 28 − x 2 is
equilibrium price x is 250
(a) 250 units (b) units
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 3
251 251
(c) units (d) units
7. Th
e marginal revenue and marginal cost 2 3
functions of a company are MR = 30 − 6 x hen x0 = 2 and P0 = 12 the producer’s
14. W
and MC = −24 + 3x where x is the surplus for the supply function Ps = 2 x 2 + 4
product, then the profit function is is
2 2 31 31
(a) 9 x + 54 x (b) 9 x − 54 x (a) units (b) units
5 2
9x 2 9x 2 32 30
(c) 54 x − (d) 54 x − +k (c) units (d) units
2 2 3 7
8. The given demand and supply function are 15. Area bounded by y = x between the lines
given by D ( x ) = 20 − 5x and S ( x ) = 4 x + 8 if y = 1, y = 2 with y = axis is
they are under perfect competition then the 1 5
(a) sq.units (b) sq.units
equilibrium demand is
2 2
3
41 40 41 (c) sq.units (d) 1 sq.unit
(a) 40 (b)
(c) (d) 2
2 3 5 16.
The producer’s surplus when the supply
9. If the marginal revenue MR = 35 + 7 x − 3x 2 , function for a commodity is
then the average revenue AR is P = 3 + x and x0 = 3 is
7x2 7x 5 9 3 7
(a) 35x + − x 3 (b) 35 + − x2 (a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 2 2 2 2
7x
(c) 35 + + x 2 (d) 35 + 7 x + x 2 17. The marginal cost function is MC = 100 x.
2 find AC given that TC =0 when the out put
10. The profit of a function p(x) is maximum is zero is
when 200
1
200 2
3
12.
The demand function for the marginal 19.
The demand and supply function of a
function MR = 100 − 9 x 2 is commodity are D ( x ) = 25 − 2 x and
10 + x
(a) 100 − 3x 2 (b) 100 x − 3x 2 S (x ) = then the equilibrium price
4
(c) 100 x − 9 x 2 (d) 100 + 9 x 2 P0 is
(a) 5 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 10
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20. If MR and MC denote the marginal revenue of producing x units of the commodity. If
and marginal cost and the fixed cost is ₹ 250 what is cost of
2
MR − MC = 36 x − 3x − 81 , then the producing 15 units
maximum profit at x is equal to
(a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 9 (d)5 3. The marginal revenue function for a firm is
2 2x
21. If the marginal revenue of a firm is constant, given by MR= − + 5. Show
x + 3 ( x + 3)2
then the demand function is 2
that the demand function is P = + 5.
(a) MR (b) MC (c) C ( x ) (d) AC x+3
22.
For a demand function 4. F
or the marginal revenue function
dp dx MR = 6 − 3x 2 − x 3 , Find the revenue
p, if
p∫= k∫
x
then k is equal to
function and demand function.
−1 1
(a) hd (b) −hd (c) (d)
hd hd 5. The marginal cost of production of a firm is
x
given by C ′ ( x ) = 20 +
20 the marginal
x
23. Area bounded by y = e between the limits
0 to 1 is revenue is given by R ′ ( x ) = 30 and the
(a)( e − 1 ) sq.units (b)( e + 1 ) sq.units fixed cost is ₹ 100. Find the profit function.
1 1
(c) 1 − sq.units (d) 1 + sq.units 6.
The demand equation for a product is
e e
p d = 20 − 5x and the supply equation is
24. The area bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4 x ps = 4 x + 8. Determine the consumer’s
bounded by its latus rectum is surplus and producer’s surplus under
16 8 market equilibrium.
(a) sq.units (b) sq.units
3 3
72 1 company requires f(x) number of hours
7. A
(c) sq.units (d) sq.units to produce 500 units. It is represented by
3 3
f ( x ) = 1800 x −0.4 . Find out the number of
25. Area bounded by y = x between the limits
hours required to produce additional 400
0 and 2 is
units. [(900)0.6=59.22, (500)0.6=41.63]
(a) 1sq.units (b) 3 sq.units
(c) 2 sq.units (d) 4 sq.units 8.
The price elasticity of demand for a
p
commodity is . Find the demand
Miscellaneous problems x3
function if the quantity of demand is 3,
1. A
manufacture’s marginal revenue function when the price is ₹2.
is given by MR= 275 − x − 0.3x 2 . Find the 9. F
ind the area of the region bounded by the
increase in the manufactures total revenue curve between the parabola
if the production is increased from 10 to 20 2
y = 8 x − 4 x + 6 the y-axis and the
units. ordinate at x = 2.
2. A
company has determined that marginal 10. Find the area of the region bounded by the
cost function for x product of a curve y 2 = 27 x 3 and the lines x = 0, y = 1
particular commodity is given by and y = 2.
x2
MC = 125 + 10 x − . Where C is the cost
9
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Summary
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) between limits x = a and x = b
b
with x –axis if area lies above x-axis is = y dx . ∫
a
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) between the limits x = a and
b
x = b with x − axis if area lies below x − axis is = ∫ − ydx
a
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve x = g ( y ) between te limits y = c and
d
y = d with y - axis if the area lies to the right of y- axis is = x dy ∫
c
zz The area of the region bounded by the curve x = g ( y ) between the limits y=d and y=e
e
with y-axis if the area lies to the left of y- axis is = − x dy ∫
d
zz The area between the two given curves y=f(x) and y=g(x) from x = a to x = b ,
b
is ∫ ( f ( x ) − g ( x )) dx.
a
zz If the rate of growth or sale of a function is a known function of t say f(t) where t is a
time measure, then total growth (or) sale of a product over a time period t is given by,
r
Total sale = ∫ f (t ) dt , 0 ≤ t ≤ r
0 − p dx
zz Elasticity of demand is hd =
x dp
T
zz Total inventory carrying cost = c1 ∫ I ( x ) dx
0 N
∫ pe
rt
zz Amount of annuity after N Payment is A = dt
∫ ( MC ) dx + k.
o
zz Cost function is C =
C
zz Average cost function is AC = ,x ≠ 0
x
zz Revenue function is R = ∫( )
MR dx + k.
R
zz Demand function is P =
x
zz Profit function is =MR–MC = R ′ ( x ) − C ′ ( x )
x0
zz Consumer’s surplus = ∫ f ( x )x dx − x0 p0
0 0
zz Producer’s surplus = x0 p0 − ∫ p ( x ) dx
0
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GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Annuity பங்கீட்டு தவணைத்தொகை
Average cost function சராசரி செலவுச்சார்பு
Consumer’s surplus நுகவர்வோர் உபரி
Cost function செலவுச்சார்பு
Demand function தேவைச்சார்பு
Equilibrium சமநிலை
Fixed cost மாறாச்செலவு
Integration த�ொகையீடல்
Inventory சரக்குஇருப்பு
Manufacturer உற்பத்தியாளர்
Marginal cost function இறுதிநிலை செலவுச்சார்பு
Marginal revenue function இறுதிநிலை வருவாய்ச்சார்பு
Maximum Profit அதிகபட்ச இலாபம்
Out put வெளியீடு
Producer’s surplus உற்பத்தியாளர் உபரி
Production உற்பத்தி
Profit இலாபம்
Reveunue function வருவாய்ச்சார்பு
Supply function அளிப்புச்சார்பு
ICT Corner
Step 1
Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below
(or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work Book named
“12th Standard Business Mathematics and Statistics”
will open. In the work book there are two Volumes.
Select “Volume-1”.
Step 2
Select the worksheet named“ Consumers’ Surplus”.
There is a problem based on Consumers’ Surplus using
Integration. Move the point “A” on the curve. Observe
the graph, formula applied and the result.
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4 Differential Equations
Introduction
D
ifferential equations, began with
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. He was a Germen
Philosopher, mathematicians, and logician.
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Differential Equations 81
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y=
–2
this, differentiate equation (1) with respect to the
x+
c
independent variable occur in the equation. Fig. 4.1
Eliminate the arbitrary constant c1 from (1)
(ii) c is an arbitrary constant
and its derivative. Then we get the required dy
Differentiating (1), we get =m
differential equation. dx
Suppose we have f ( x , y , c1 , c2 ) = 0 . Here ere c is eliminated from the given
H
we have two arbitrary constants c1 and c2 . So, equation
find the first two successive derivatives. Eliminate
dy
∴ = m is the required
differential
c1 and c2 from the given function and the dx
successive derivatives. We get the required equation.
differential equation. y
Note
The order of the differential equation x
to be formed is equal to the number
of arbitrary constants present in the
equation of the family of curves. Fig. 4.2
y
y= –2
–x
–2
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Example 4.3 d2 y dy
Find the differential equation of the family ⇒ − 3 − 4 y = 0, which is the
a dx 2
dx
of curves y = + b where a and b are arbitrary
constants.
x required differential equation.
Solution:
a Example 4.5
Given y= +b
x Find the differential equation of the family
Differentiating w.r.t x , we get
of curves y = e x (a cos x + b sin x ) where a and
dy −a
= b are arbitrary constants.
dx x 2
dy Solution :
x2 = −a
dx y = e x (a cos x + b sin x ) (1)
Again differentiating w.r.t x we get Differentiating (1) w.r.t x, we get
d y 2
dy dy
x2 + 2x = 0 = e x (a cos x + b sin x ) + e x ( −a sin x + b cos x )
dx 2
dx dx
d2 y dy e x (a cos x + b sin x ) + e x ( −a sin x + b cos x )
⇒ x 2 + 2 = 0 which is = y + e x ( −a sin x + b cos x )
dx dx
(from (1))
the required differential equation dy
⇒ − y = e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) (2)
dx
Example 4.4 Again differentiating, we get
d 2 y dy
Find the differential equation − =
4x −x
corresponding to y = ae + be where a, b dx 2 dx
are arbitrary constants, e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) + e x (−a cos x − b sin x )
Solution: d 2 y dy
Given y = ae 4 x + be − x . (1) − =
dx 2 dx
Here a and b are arbitrary constants
e x (−a sin x + b cos x ) − e x (a cos x + b sin x )
dy
From (1), = 4ae 4 x − be − x (2) d 2 y dy dy
dx − = − y − y (from (1) and (2))
2
dx dx dx
d2 y
and = 16ae 4 x + be − x (3) d2 y dy
dx 2 ⇒ − 2 + 2 y = 0, which is the requited
dx 2 dx
dy
(1)+(2) ⇒ y+ = 5ae 4 x (4) differential equation.
dx
dy d 2 y Exercise 4.1
(2)+(3) ⇒ + 2 = 20ae 4 x
dx dx
= 4 5ae 4 x ( ) 1. Find the order and degree of the following
differential equations.
dy dy
= 4 y +
(i) + 2 y = x3
dx dx
dy d 2 y dy 3
+ 2 = 4y + 4 d3 y dy dy
dx dx dx (ii) + 3 + 2 = 0
dx 3
dx dx
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(vi) (2 − y ′′ ) = y ′′ + 2 y ′
2 2
5. F
orm the differential equation that Example 4.6
represents all parabolas each of which has a Solve: ( x 2 + x + 1)dx + ( y 2 − y + 3)dy = 0
latus rectum 4a and whose axes are parallel
Solution:
to the x axis.
Given ( x 2 + x + 1)dx + ( y 2 − y + 3)dy = 0
6. F
ind the differential equation of all circles
It is of the form f ( x )dx + g ( y )dy = 0
passing through the origin and having their
centers on the y axis. Integrating , we get
∫ (x + x + 1)dx + ∫ ( y 2 − y + 3) dy = c
2
7. F
ind the differential equation of the family
of parabola with foci at the origin and axis
along the x-axis. x
3 2
x y3 y2
3 + + x +
3 − + 3 y = c
2 2
Solution of a Differential Equation:
The relation between the dependent and Example 4.7
independent variables not involving derivatives dy x−y
is called the solution of the differential equation.
Solve =e + x 2e − y
dx
Solution :
Solution of the differential equation must
contain the same number of arbitrary constants dy
= e x − y + x 2e − y = e − y e x + e − y x 2
Given
as the order of the equation. Such a solution dx
is called General (complete) solution of the = e − y e x + x 2 ( )
differential equation.
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( )
log 1 + e x tan y = log c
3
Example 4.11
dx dx
Solve : x − y = a x2 +
dy dy
(1 + e x )3 tan y = c (1) Solution:
p dx dx
π
Given y (0) = 4 (i .e ) y = at x = 0 Given x − y = a x2 +
4 dy dy
p dx dx
(1) ⇒ (1 + e 0 )3 tan = c x − y = ax 2 + a
4 dy dy
23 (1) = c dx dx
x − ax 2 = a +y
⇒ c = 8 dy dy
dx
Hencethe required solution is x (1 − ax ) = (a + y )
x 3
(1 + e ) tan y = 8. dy
By separating the variables
Example 4.9
Solve sec2 x tan ydx + sec2 y tan xdy = 0 dx dy
we get, =
Solution: x(1 − ax ) a + y
Separating the variables, we get a 1 dy
sec2 x sec2 y − + dx =
dx + dy = 0 1 ax x a+ y
tan x tan y
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a 1 dy Solution:
Integrating, ∫ + dx =
1 − ax x a+ y Slope of the normal at any point
dx
− log (1 − ax ) + log x = log(a + y ) + logc P (x, y ) = −
dy
x Let Q be (1,0)
log = log (c (a + y ))
1 − ax y2 − y1
Slope of the normal PQ is
x x2 − x1
c (a + y )
= y −0 y
1 − ax i.e., =
x −1 x −1
x = (1 − ax )(a + y )c which is the required dx y dx y
solution. ∴ − = ⇒ = , which is the
dy x − 1 dy 1 − x
Example 4.12 differential equation
The marginal cost function of
i.e., (1 − x )dx = ydy
manufacturing x gloves is 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 . The
total cost of producing a pair of gloves is `100. ∫ (1 − x ) dx2 = ∫ ydy +c
Find the total and average cost function. x y 2
x− = +c (1)
Solution: 2 2
Given MC = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 Since it passes through (1,2)
dc 1 4
i.e., = 6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 1− = + c
dx 2 2
dc = (6 + 10 x − 6 x 2 )dx 1 3
c = − 2 = −
2 2
∫ dc = ∫ (6 + 10x − 6x ) dx + k
2
−3
Put c = in (1)
x 2
x 3 2
c = 6 x + 10 −6 +k x2 y2 3
2 3 x − = −
2 3 2 2 2
c = 6 x + 5x − 2 x + k (1)
2 x − x 2 = y 2 − 3
Given c = 100 when x = 2
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Example 4.15 v c
=
Solve the differential equation 1 + 2v x
2 2
y dx + (xy + x ) dy = 0 y
Replace v = we get
Solution y x
y 2dx + (xy + x 2 ) dy = 0 x c
=
2y x
(xy + x 2 ) dy = − y 2dx 1+
x
dy − y2
= 2 (1) y x
dx xy + x = c
It is a homogeneous differential equation, x + 2y
same degree in x and y y 2x
= k
dy dv x + 2y
Put y = vx and =v+x
dx dx where k = c2
∴ (1) becomes
dv −v 2 x 2 Note
v + x =
dx x vx + x 2 1+ v
=
−v 2 ∫ v 2 + 2v dv can be done by the
v +1 method of partial fraction also.
dv −v 2
x = − v
dx v +1
−v 2 − v 2 − v Example 4.16
=
v +1 Solve the differential equation
x
dv
=
− v + 2v 2 ( ) dy x − y
= .
dx x + y
dx 1+ v
Now, separating the variables Solution:
1+ v −dx dy x − y
dv = = (1)
v (1 + 2v ) x dx x + y
(1 + 2v ) − v dv = −dx
This is a homogeneous differential
equation.
v (1 + 2v ) x
dy dv
( 1 + v = 1 + 2v − v ) Now put y = vx and
dx
=v+x
dx
1 1 −dx
− dv = dv x − vx
v 1 + 2v x ∴ (1) ⇒ v + x =
dx x + vx
On Integration we have 1− v
=
1 1 dx 1+ v
∫ v 1 + 2v
− dv = − ∫x dv 1− v
1 x = −v
log v − log (1 + 2v ) = − log x + log c dx 1+ v
2
v 1 − 2v − v 2
c =
log = log 1+ v
1 + 2v x
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Differential Equations 91
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Given output is 1 unit and revenue is ₹5 Equation (1) is linear in y. The solution is
given by ye ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫ dx + c . Here e ∫
pdx pdx pdx
∴ (2) ⇒ 1 + 25 = c ⇒ c = 26
∴ The total revenue fonction is is known as an integrating factor and is denoted
2 2 3 by I.F.
total revenue function is q + y = 26q
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tan x
tan x e tan x − e
= +c
2
− + 2 y2 = 0
dx dx Solution:
is not linear. The given equation can be reduced to
dy 2x 4x2
+ y = 2
Example 4.21 dx x 2 + 1 x +1
dy
Solve cos2 x + y = tan x dy
dx It is of the form + Py = Q
dx
Solution:
2x 4x2
Here P= 2 ,Q = 2
The given equation can be written as x +1 x +1
dy 1 tan x
+ y= 2x
dx cos x 2
cos2 x ∫ Pdx = ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = log( x 2 + 1)
dy
+ y sec2 x = tan x sec2 x
dx I.F = e∫
pdx
=e
(
log x 2 +1) = x2 + 1
dy
It is of the form + Py = Q
dx The required solution is
I.F = e ∫
pdx
= e tan x 2 4x3
y(x + 1) = +c
3
The required solution is
Example 4.23
y ( I .F ) = ∫ Q ( I .F ) dx + c dy
Solve − 3 y cot x = sin 2 x given that
dx
ye tan x = ∫ tan x sec2 x e tan x dx + c p
y = 2 when x =
2
Put tan x = t
Solution:
dy
sec xdx = dt
Then 2 Given − (3 cot x ) . y = sin 2 x
dx
dy
It is of the form + Py = Q
∴ye tan x = ∫ te
t
dt + c dx
Here PP==−−33cot
cotxx,,QQ==sin
sin22xx
∫
= td(e t ) + c
te t − e t + c
=
Differential Equations 93
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1 dC
∫ Pdx = ∫ −3 cot xdx = −3 log sin x = − log sin x = log
3
It is of the form + PC = Q
sin3 x dx
1 1 3
−3 cot xdx = −3 log sin x = − log sin3 x = log Here, P= ,Q= 2
sin3 x x x
1
log
sin3 x 1 1
I.F. =e = ∫ Pdx = ∫ x dx = log x
sin3 x
= e∫
pdx
The required solution is
I.F = e log x = x
y (I .F ) = ∫ Q(I .F )dx + c The Solution is
1 1 C(I.F) = Q ( I .F ) dx + k
y 3 = ∫ sin 2 x
sin x sin3 x
dx + c ∫ where k is
constant
1 1 3
y 3 = ∫ 2 sin x cos x × 3 dx + c
sin x sin x
Cx = ∫ x 2 xdx + k
1 cos x 1
= 2∫ × dx + c = 3∫ dx + k
sin x sin x x
= 2 ∫ cos ecx cot xdx + c Cx = 3log x + k (1)
1 Given C = 2 When x = 1
y = −2cos ecx + c (1)
sin3 x (1) ⇒ 2×1= k ⇒ k = 2
p
Now y = 2 when x = ∴ The relationship between C and x is
2
1 Cx = 3 log x + 2
(1) ⇒ 2 = −2 × 1 + c ⇒ c = 4
1
1 Exercise 4.4
∴ (1) ⇒ y 3 = −2 cos ecx + 4
sin x
Solve the following:
Example 4.24 dy y
1. − =x
A firm has found that the cost C of dx x
dy
producing x tons of certain product by the 2. + y cos x = sin x cos x
dC 3 dx
equation x = − C and C = 2 when x = 1.
dx x dy
3. x + 2y = x4
Find the relationship between C and x. dx
dy 3x 2 1 + x2
4. + y=
Solution: dx 1 + x 3 1 + x3
dC 3
x = −C
dx x dy y
5. + = xe x
dC 3 C dx x
= −
dx x2 x dy
+ y tan x = cos3 x
6.
dC C 3 dx
+ =
dx x x2 dy p
7. If + 2 y tan x = sin x and if y = 0 when x =
dC 1 3 dx 3
i.e., + CIf =dy +22 y tan x = sin x and if y = 0 when x = p express y in terms of x
dx x dx x 3
94 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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Differential Equations 95
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2
x
m = 1, 2
The C.F. is ( Ax + B ) e
3
2
x
C.F = Ae t + Be 2t
The general solution is y = ( Ax + B ) e
3
(i.e.) x = e2t–et
m − 2 = ± −1
Type II : f ( x ) = e ax ( i.e )φ ( D ) y = e ax
2 ± i , it is if the form α ± iβ
m = 1 ax
P.I = e
f (D )
∴ C.F = e 2 x A cos x + B sin x
Replace D by a, provided f ( D ) ≠ 0 when D = a
The general solution is
y = e 2 x A cos x + B sin x If f ( D ) = 0 when D = a, then
1
P.I = x e ax
Example 4.28 f′ (D )
d 2 x 3dx Replace D by a, provided f ′ ( D ) ≠ 0
Solve − + 2 x = 0 given that when
dt 2 dt when D = a
dx
t = 0, x = 0 and =1
dt If f ′ ( D ) = 0 when D = a, then
1
Solution: P.I = x 2 e ax and so on
f ′′ ( D )
d2x dx
2
− 3 + 2 x = 0
dt dt Example 4.29
Given (D 2 − 3D + 2) x = 0 where D =
d
dt
( )
Solve : D 2 − 4 D − 1 y = e −3 x
Solution:
A.E is m2 − 3m + 2 = 0
(
D 2 − 4 D − 1 y = e −3 x )
(m − 1)(m − 2) = 0
The auxiliary equation is
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m2 − 4m − 1 = 0 1
Now, e2x P .I1 = 2
D − 2D + 1
(m − 2)2 − 4 − 1 = 0 1
= e2x
4 − 4 +1
(m − 2)2 = 5
(replace D by 2)
m − 2 = ± 5
e2x
=
1
m = 2 ± 5 and P .I 2 = ex
2
D − 2D + 1
C.F = Ae
(2+ 5 )x + Be(2− 5 )x 1
= ex
PI =
1
f (x )
(D − 1) 2
= 1
e −3 x Replace D by 1. (D − 1) = 0 when D = 1
( −3)2
− 4 ( −3) − 1 1
(replace D by −3) ∴ P .I 2 = x2 ex
2
1 The general solution is
= e −3 x
9 + 12 − 1
y = C.F+P.I 1 +P.I 2
e −3 x
=
20 x2 x
y = ( Ax + B ) e + e x 2x
+ e
Hence the general solution is 2
y = C.F+P.I
Example 4.31
−7
( )
x
⇒ y = Ae
( ) + Be(
2+ 5 x 2− 5 x) +
e −3 x 2
Solve: 3D + D − 14 y = 4 − 13e
3
20
Example 4.30 Solution: −7
( 3D )
x
( )
2 3
Solve: D 2 − 2D + 1 y = e 2 x + e x + D − 14 y =
4 − 13e
Differential Equations 97
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1 1 −7
x supplied Qs = 5 + 4 p where p is the price. Find
= ( 4 ) + −13e 3
3D 2 + D − 14 3D 2 + D − 14 the equilibrium price for market clearance.
= PI1 + PI 2 Solution:
For market clearance, the required
1 condition is Qd = Qs
P.I1 = 2
4e 0 x
3D + D − 14
dp d 2 p
⇒ 29 − 2 p − 5 + = 5 + 4p
1 dt dt
= 4e 0 x dp d 2 p
0 + 0 − 14 ⇒ 24 − 6 p − 5 + 2 = 0
dt dt
(replace D by 0) 2
d p dp
⇒ 2
− 5 − 6p = –24
−4 -2 dt dt
P.I1 = =
14 7 (D 2 − 5D − 6) p = –24
−7
x
1
× ( −13) e
3
P .I 2 = The auxiliary equation is
3D 2 + D − 14 −7
replace D by
3 m2 − 5m − 6 = 0
7 (m − 6)(m + 1) = 0
Here 3D 2 + D − 14 = 0 , when D = −
3 ⇒ m = 6, –1
1 x
−7
3
∴ P .I 2 = x. −13e C.F = Ae6t + Be − t
6D + 1
−7
replace D by 1
3 P.I = f (x )
−7
x f (D )
1 3
∴ P .I 2 =x −13e 1
−7
6 +1
= 2 ( −24) e0t
3 D − 5D − 6
−24
1
−7
x = (Replace D by 0)
=x −13e
3
−6
−13 = 4
−7
x The general solution is p = C .F + P . I
3
= xe = Ae 6t + Be − t + 4
The general solution is y = C.F . + P .I1 + P .I 2
−7
x
−7
x Exercise 4.5
3 2x 2 3
y = Ae + Be − + xe
7 Solve the following differential equations
d2 y dy
Example 4.32 (1) 2
− 6 + 8y = 0
dx dx
Suppose that the quantity demanded
d2 y dy
dp d 2 p (2) − 4 + 4y = 0
Qd = 29 − 2 p − 5 + and quantity dx 2
dx
dt dt 2
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(3) (D 2
+ 2D + 3 y = 0) (c) 2 and 1 (d) 2 and 2
Differential Equations 99
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(a) ( Ax + B ) e 2 x (c) ye ∫
Pdx
= ∫ Qe ∫
Pdx
dx + c
(b) ( Ax + B ) e −2 x
(d) ye ∫ = ∫ Qe ∫ dx + C
Pdx − Pdx
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21.
A homogeneous differential equation of 25. The solution of the differential equation
dy y y
the form = f can be solved by f
dx x dy y x
= + is
making substitution, dx x y
f ′
y = v x (b) v = y x
(a) x
y y
(c) x = v y (d) x = v (a) f = k x (b) x f = k
x x
22.
A homogeneous differential equation of y y
dx x (c) f = k y (d) y f = k
the form = f can be solved by x x
dy y
making substitution, Miscellaneous Problems
x = v y (b) y = v x
(a) dP d 2 P
1. Suppose that Qd = 30 − 5P + 2 + and Qs = 6 + 3P
dP d 2
P dt dt 2
(c) y = v (d) xQ
= v= 30 − 5P + 2 + and Qs = 6 + 3P . Find the equilibrium
d
dt dt 2
23. The variable separable form of price for market clearance.
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Summary
• A differential equation is an equation with a function and one or more of its derivatives.
dy d 2 y
(i.e) an equation with the function y = f ( x ) and its derivatives , ... is called differential
dx dx 2
equation.
• Order of the highest order derivative present in the differential equation is the order of the
differential equation.
• Degree is the highest power of the highest order derivative in the differential equation, after the
equation has been cleared from fractions and the radicals as for as the derivatives are concerned.
• A function which satisfies the given differential equation is called its solution. The solution
which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the differential equation is called a
general solution and the solution free from arbitrary constants is called particular solution.
• To form a differential equation from a given function we differentiate the function successively
as many times as the number of arbitrary constants in the given function and then eliminate
the arbitrary constants.
• an equation it is possible to collect all the terns of x and dx on one side and all the terms
In
of y and dy on the other side, then the variables are said to be separable. Thus the general form
of such an equation is f ( x )dx = g ( y )dy (or) f ( x )dx + g ( y )dy = 0 By direct integration,
we get the solution.
dy dx
• A differential equation which can be expressed in the form = f ( x , y ) or = g (x, y )
dx dy
where f ( x , y ) and g ( x , y ) are homogeneous function of degree zero is called a homogeneous
differential equation.
• A differential equation of the form dy + Py = Q where P and Q are constants or functions of
dx
x only is called a first order linear differential equation.
• A general second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients is of the form
d2 y dy
a 2 + b + cy = f ( x )
dx dx
GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Abscissa கிடை அச்சுத் த�ொலைவு
Arbitrary constant மாறத்தக்க மாறிலி
Auxiliary equation துணைச் சமன்பாடு
Complementary function நிரப்புச் சார்பு
Constant மாறிலி
Degree படி
Differential equation வகைக்கெழுச் சமன்பாடுகள்
Fixed constant நிலையான மாறிலி
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ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
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5 Numerical Methods
Introduction
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∆ f (x ) = f (x + h) − f (x ) = Dyn+1 − Dyn
= f ( x + h) − f ( x ) + g ( x + h) − g ( x ) D3 y0 = D2 y1 − D2 y0
= ∆f ( x ) + ∆g ( x ) ∆3 y1 = D2 y2 − D2 y1
Similarly we can show that In general kth differences of yn is
∆ f ( x ) − g ( x ) = ∆ f (x ) − ∆g ( x )
Dk yn = Dk −1 y n+1 − Dk −1 yn , n = 0,1,2,…
In general, ∆ f1 ( x ) + f 2 (x )...... + fn (x )
= ∆ f1 (x ) + ∆ f 2 (x ) + .... + ∆ fn (x ) Note
Property 3: If c is a constant then Dk f (x ) = Dk −1 f (x + h) − Dk −1 f (x )
Dc f (x ) = c D f (x )
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x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y ∆4 y ∆5 y
x0 y0
∆y0
x1 y1 ∆ 2 y0
∆y1 ASS
∆ 3 y0
x2 y2 ∆ 2 y1 ∆ 4 y0
∆y2 ∆ 3 y1 ∆ 5 y0
x3 y3 ∆ 2 y2 ∆ 4 y1
∆y3 ∆ 3 y2
x4 y4 ∆ 2 y3
∆y 4
x5 y5
Let y = f(x) be a given function of x. Let are called the first(backward) differences.
y0 , y1 ,..., yn be the values of y at
The operator ∇ is called backward
x = x0 , x1 , x2 ,..., xn respectively. Then difference operator and pronounced as nepla.
y1 − y0 = ∇y1
Second (backward) differences:
∇2 yn = ∇yn − ∇yn+1 , n = 1,2,3,…
y2 − y1 = ∇y2
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Third (backward) differences: ∇f (x + h) = f (x + h) − f (x ) = Df (x )
3 2 2
∇ yn = ∇ yn − ∇ yn−1 n = 1,2,3,…
∇f (x + 2h) = f (x + 2h) − f (x + h)
In general, kth (backward) differences: = Df (x + h)
∇k yn = ∇k −1 yn − ∇k −1 yn−1 n = 1,2,3,… ∇2 f (x + 2h) = ∇f (x + 2h) − ∇f (x + h)
Backward difference table: Df (x + h) − Df (x )
=
x y D2 f (x )
=
∇y 2
∇ y ∇ y 3 4
∇ y
x0 y0 In general, ∇n f ( x + nh) = Dn f ( x )
= ∇f ( x + h) − ∇f ( x ) En f (x ) = f (x + nh) and
E −n f (x ) = f (x − nh)
∇2 f (x + 2h) = ∇f (x + 2h) − ∇f (x + h)
Third differences: Properties of the operator E:
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( )
3. Em En f ( x ) = En Em f ( x ) = Em+n f ( x ) ∴ E ∆ ≡ ∆E
E −1
3. ∇ ≡
4. If ‘n’ is a positive integer, then E
E En −n
( f (x )) = f (x ) . Proof:
∇f (x ) = f (x ) − f (x − h)
Note = f (x ) − E −1 f (x )
∆f (x ) = Ef (x ) − f (x ) Solution:
The Forward difference table is given
⇒ D f (x ) = (E − 1) f (x ) below:
∆ ≡ E −1 x y Dy D2 y D3 y
0 0
∴ E ≡ 1+ ∆
0.174
2. E ∆ ≡ ∆ E 10 0.174 –0.001
0.173 –0.001
Proof: 20 0.347 –0.002
E ( ∆f (x )) = E f (x + h) − f (x ) 0.171
30 0.518
= E f ( x + h) − E f ( x )
= f (x + 2h) − f (x + h) Example 5.2
= ∆f (x + h) Construct a forward difference table for
= ∆Ef (x ) y = f(x) = x 3 + 2 x + 1 for x = 1,2,3,4,5.
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( )
By constructing a difference table and
using the second order differences as constant,
= e h − 1 ∆e x
= (e − 1) . (e − 1) . e
find the sixth term of the series 8,12,19,29,42… h h x
= (e − 1) .e
h
2
x
Solution:
Let k be the sixth term of the series in the
difference table. (iii) ∆ log x = log( x + h) − log x
First we find the forward differences. x+h
= log
x
x y Dy ∆2 y x h
= log +
1 8 x x
4 h
= log 1 +
2 12 3 x
7 Example 5.5
3 19 3 5x + 12
Evaluate D 2 by taking ‘1’
10 x + 5x + 6
4 29 3 as the interval of differencing.
13 Solution:
5 42 k–55 5x + 12
k–42 D 2
6 k x + 5x + 6
By Partial fraction method
Given that the second differences are 5x + 12 A B
2
= +
constant x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
∴ k – 55 = 3 5x + 12
A =
x+2
[ x = −3]
k = 58
−15 + 12 −3
∴ the sixth term of the series is 58 = = =3
−1 −1
Numerical Methods 109
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5x + 12 2 Example 5.7
B = x =− 2 = = 2
x+3 1 Prove that f (4) = f (3) + Df (2) + D2 f (1) + D3 f (1)
5x + 12 3 2 taking ‘1’ as the interval of differencing.
2
= +
x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2 Solution:
5x + 12 3 2 We know that f (4) − f (3) = D f (3)
D 2 = D x + 3 + x + 2
x + 5x + 6 f (4) − f (3) = D f (3)
3 3 2 2
= − + − = ∆ f (2) + Df (2) f (3) − f (2) = Df (2)
x + 1+ 3 x + 3 x + 1+ 2 x + 2
= ∆f (2) + ∆ 2 f (2)
1 1 1 1
= 3 − + 2 −
x + 3 x + 2
x + 4 x + 3 = ∆f (2) + D2 f (1) + ∆f (1)
−3 2
= − ∴ f (4) = f (3) + ∆f (2) + ∆ 2 f (1) + ∆ 3 f (1).
(x + 4)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 2)
−5 x − 14 Example 5.8
=
( x + 2)( x + 3)( x + 4) Given U 0 = 1, U1 , = 11, U 2 = 21, U 3 = 28 and U 4 = 29 find
U 0 = 1, U1 , = 11, U 2 = 21, U 3 = 28 and U 4 = 29 find D4U 0
Example 5.6
1 Solution :
Evaluate D2 by taking ‘1’ as the
x
1
interval of differencing.
1 1
Solution: 1 2 1
1 1
D2 = D D 1 3 3 1
x x
1 4 6 4 1
1 1 1
Now D = −
x x +1 x
∆ 4U 0 = ( E − 1) U 0
4
1 1
∆ 2 = ∆
x
1
−
1+ x x
(
= E 4 − 4 E 3 + 6E 2 − 4 E + 1 U 0 )
= E 4U 0 − 4 E 3U 0 + 6 E 2U 0 − 4 EU 0 + U 0
1 1
= ∆ − ∆ = U 4 − 4U 3 + 6U 2 − 4U1 + U 0
1+ x x
= 29 − 4(28) + 6 (21) − 4 (11) + 1.
1 2 2
Similarly D =
x x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) = 156–156 = 0
Example 5.9
Given y3 = 2, y 4 = −6, y5 = 8, y6 = 9
and y7 = 17 Calculate D4 y3
1
n
D =
( −1) n ! n
Solution :
x x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) ...... ( x + n) Given y3 = 2, y 4 = −6, y5 = 8, y6 = 9
and y7 = 17
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Year 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 2. If y = x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 calculate the values
of y for x = 0,1,2,3,4,5 and form the forward
Production 200 220 260 - 350 - 430
differences table.
Solution: 3. If h then = 1 prove that
Since five values are given, the polynomial −1 3
(E D)x = 3x − 3x + 1 . 2
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X′ O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 X
Y¢
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x y Dy D2 y D3 y D4 y x0 + nh = 3.2, x0 = 3, h = 1
1
1891 98,752 ∴ n =
33,533 5
1901 1,32,285 2,258 The difference table is
35,791 –10,435
1911 1,68,076 -8,177 41,358
x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y
27,614 30,293 3 16
1921 1,95,690 22,746 4
50,360 4 20 0
1931 2,46,050 4 10
y (x =1905) = 98, 752 + (1.4)(33533) + (1.4)(0.4) (2258) 5 24 10
2 14
(1.4)(0.4) 6 38
= 98, 752 + (1 .4)(33533) + (2258)
2 1 −4 1 −4 −9
(1.4)(0.4) (−0.6) y(x=3.2) = 16 + 1 (4) + 5 5 (0) + 5 5 5 × 10
+ (−10435) 5 2 6
6
(1.4)(0.6)(−0.6)(−1.6) 1 −4 1 −4 −9
+ (413581)
5 5 5 5 5
24 = 16 +
5
( 4 ) +
2
( 0 ) +
6
× 10
= 16 + 0.8 + 0 + 0.48
= 98752 + 46946.2 + 632.24 + 584.36 + 1389.63
= 16 + 0.8 + 0 + 0.48 = 17.28
= 148304.43 = 17.28 Example 5.15
≅ 1,48,304 From the following table find the number
Example 5.14 of students who obtained marks less than 45.
The values of y = f ( x ) for x = 0,1, 2, ..., 6 Marks 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
are given by
No. of Students 31 42 51 35 31
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Solution:
y 2 4 10 16 20 24 38 Let x be the marks and y be the number of
students.
Estimate the value of y (3.2) using forward By converting the given series into
interpolation formula by choosing the four cumulative frequency distribution, the
values that will give the best approximation. difference table is as follows.
x y Dy ∆ 2 y ∆ 3 y D4 y
Solution:
Since we apply the forward interpolation Less than 40 31
formula,last four values of f ( x ) are taken into 42
consideration (Take the values from x = 3). 50 73 9
The forward interpolation formula is 51 –25
60 124 -16 37
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ... 35 12
1! 2! 3!
70 159 -4
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 31
y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2 ! 3! 80 190
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x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y To find y at x = 63 ∴ xn + nh = 63 ,
2
1 1 xn = 65, h = 5 ⇒ n = −
7 5
2 8 12
19 6 x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y ∇4 y
3 27 18 0 45 114.84
37 6 -18.68
4 64 24 0 50 96.16 5.84
61 6 -12.84 -1.84
5 125 30 0
55 83.32 4 0.68
91 6
6 216 36 0 -8.84 -1.16
127 6 60 74.48 2.84
7 343 42 -6
169 65 68.48
8 512 −2 −2 −2 −2 −
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 −2 + 1 + 1
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ... 5
5 5 5 5
1! 2! y
3 ! (x =63) = 68.48 +
1!
( −6) +
2!
2.84 +
3!
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
= y n + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3! −2 −2 −2 −2 −2 −2
+ 1 + 1 + 2
5 5 5 5 5 5
To find y at x == 7.5 ∴ x
68.48 +n + nh
1!
( −6) +
= 7 . 5 ,
2 !
2.84 +
3!
( −1.16)
xn = 8, h = 1 ⇒ n = –0.5
y (x =7.5) = 512 + −0.5 169 + −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) 42 + −0.5 ( −0.5 +
−21)(−20.5 +2) −2 −2
+ 1 6 +…+� 2 + 3
1! 2! 35! 5 5 5
+ (0.68)
0. 5 −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) −0.5 ( −0.5 + 1) ( −0.5 + 2) 3!
169 + 42 + 6 +…
�
1! 2 ! 3! = 68.48 + 2.4 – 0.3408 + 0.07424 – 0 – 0.028288
= 421.88
y(63) = 70.437.
Example 5.20
From the following table of half- yearly Example 5.21
premium for policies maturing at different ages. Find a polynomial of degree two which
Estimate the premium for policies maturing at takes the values.
the age of 63.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age 45 50 55 60 65
y 1 2 4 7 11 16 22 29
Premium 114.84 96.16 83.32 74.48 68.48
Solution:
Solution: We will use Newton’s backward
Let age = x and premium = y interpolation formula to find the polynomial.
To find y at x = 63. So apply Newton’s
backward interpolation formula. n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn +
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3 1! 2 ! 3 !
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ y + ...
1! 2! n 3 !n(n + 1) 2 n n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
n (n + 1) 2
n n(n + 1)(ny+( x2= x)n +nh3 ) = yn + 1! ∇yn + 2 ! ∇ yn + 3!
∇ yn + ...
= y n + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!
Numerical Methods 117
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x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y y = f (x ) =
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y
0 1 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) 0
1
1 2 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ... +
2 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ... ( x1 − xn ) 1
2 4 1
3 0 +
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
3 7 1 ( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n
4 0
4 11 1 Example 5.22
5 0 Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula
5 16 1 find y(10) from the following table:
6 0 x 5 6 9 11
6 22 1
y 12 13 14 16
7
7 29 Solution:
Here the intervals are unequal. By
To find y in terms of x ∴ xn + nh = x ,
Lagrange’s interpolation formula we have
x n = 7, h = 1 ⇒ n = x − 7 .
x0 = 5, x1 = 6, x2 = 9, x3 = 11
y (x ) = 29 + ( x − 7 )(7 ) +
( x − 7 ) ( x − 6)
2
(1) y0 = 12, y1 = 13, y2 = 14, y3 = 16
= 29 + 7 x − 49 +
1 2
x − 13x + 42 ( ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 )
y= f ( x ) =
1
2 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )
= 58 + 14 x − 98 + x 2 − 13x + 42
2 ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) × y
1 2
= x + x + 2 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 ) 1
2
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 ) × y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x
5.2.4 Lagrange’s interpolation formula ( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) 2 ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 −
The Newton’s forward and backward
interpolation formulae can be
( x − x0 ) (when
+ used only
x − x1 ) ( x − x3 )
× y2 +
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) × y
( xIf2 −thex0values
the values of x are at equidistant. ) ( x2 −ofx1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 ) 3
x are at equidistant or not at equidistant, we use ( x − 6) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 12 + ( x − 5) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 1
Lagrange’s interpolation formula.
=
(5 − 6) (5 − 6) (5 − 11)
( ) (6 − 5 ) (6 − 9 ) (6 − 9 )
(
Let y = f ( x ) be a function ( x − 6such
) ( x −that
9) ( x − 11) ( x − 5) ( x − 9) ( x − 11) 13
f ( x ) takes the values y0 , (y51 ,−y62 ,.......,
) (5 − 6y)n(5 − 11)
12 +( )(6 − 5 ) (6 − 9 ) (6 − 9 )
( )
corresponding to x = x0 , x1 , x2 ..., xn That is
yi = f ( xi ) , i = 0,1, 2,..., n . Now, there are
( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 11) 14 + ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 9)
+
(9 − 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11)
( )
(11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9)
(n + 1) paired values ( xi , yi ) , i = 0,1, 2,..., n
and hence f ( x ) can be represented ( x − 5) (by
x − 6a ) ( x − 11) ( x − 5) ( x − 6) ( x − 9) 16
+
polynomial function of degree n in(9x.− 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11)
14 ( )
+
(11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9)
( )
Then the Lagrange’s formula is
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x 30 35 40 45 50
1. Using graphic method, find the value of y
when x = 48 from the following data: f(x) 15.9 14.9 14.1 13.3 12.5
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D 80 85 90 95 100
1. I f f ( x ) = e ax then show that f (0) , ∆f (0) , ∆ 2 f (0)
A 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854
f (0) , ∆f (0) , ∆ 2 f (0) are in G.P.
Find the approximate values for the areas of
2. Prove that i) (1 + ∆ ) (1 − ∇) = 1 circles of diameter 82 and 91 respectively.
ii)∆∇ = ∆ − ∇ (iii) E∇ = ∆ = ∇E 8. I f u0 = 560, u1 = 556, u2 = 520, u4 = 385,
show that u3 = 465 .
3. A
second degree polynomial passes though
the point (1,-1) (2,-1) (3,1) (4,5). Find the 9. F
rom the following table obtain a polynomial
polynomial. of degree y in x.
4. F
ind the missing figures in the following x 1 2 3 4 5
table: y 1 –1 1 –1 1
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
10. Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula find
y 7 11 - 18 - 32
a polynomial which passes through the
points (0, –12), (1, 0), (3, 6) and (4,12).
5. F
ind f (0.5) if f ( −1) = 202, f (0) = 175 ,
f (1) = 82 and f (2) = 55 .
Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
zz ∆f ( x ) = f ( x + h ) − f ( x )
z z ∇f ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h )
zz ∇f ( x + h ) = ∆f ( x )
zz Ef ( x ) = f ( x + h )
zz E n f ( x ) = f ( x + nh )
zz Newton’s forward interpolation formula:
n n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
y( x = x0 +nh ) = y0 + Dy0 + D y0 + D y0 + ...
1! 2! 3!
zz Newton’s backward interpolation formula:
n n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
y( x = xn +nh ) = yn + ∇y n + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + ...
1! 2! 3!
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y = f (x ) =
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ... ( x − xn ) y +...
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 )... ( x0 − xn ) 0 ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )... ( x1 − xn ) 1
+
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ... ( x − xn−1 ) y
( xn − x0 ) ( xn − x1 )... ( xn − xn−1 ) n
GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Algebraic methods இயற்கணித முறைகள்
Extrapolation புறச்செருகல்
Interpolation இடைச்செருகல்
Numerical எண்ணியியல்
Policy காப்பீடு
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ICT Corner
Expected Result is shown
in this picture
Step 1
Step 1
Step 2
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6 Random Variable
and Mathematical
Expectation
Introduction
B
e t w e e n
Sylvestre-François
Lacroix in 1816 and Louis Bachelier
in 1914, the concepts random variable and mean of
a random variable were invented. Some authors contend that
Simeon-Denis Poisson invented the concepts random variable and
expected value. Simeon-Denis Poisson, a French mathematician
Simeon-Denis Poisson known for his work on probability theory. Poisson’s research was
(June 21, 1781 – April 25, 1840) mainly on Probability. In 1838, Poisson published his ideas on
probability theory, which also included what is now known as Poisson
distribution. He published between 300 and 400 mathematical works including applications to electricity
and magnetism, and astronomy.
Learning Objectives
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Table 6.1
Values of Random
variable
(i) If X1 and X2 are random variables Possibilities P1 P2 P3 (Number of Yes
and C is a constant, then those who are given)
CX1 , X1 + X2 , X1 X2 , X1 − X2 a r e 1. Y Y Y 3
also random variables. 2. Y Y N 2
1 3. Y N Y 2
(ii) If X is a random variable, then (i)
X 4. Y N N 1
and (ii) X are also random variables. 5. N Y Y 2
6. N Y N 1
Types of Random Variable:
7. N N Y 1
Random variables are classified into two 8. N N N 0
types namely discrete and continuous random
Form the above table, the discrete random
variables. These are important for practical
variable take values 0, 1, 2 and 3.
applications in the field of Mathematics and
Statistics. The above types of random variable Probability Mass function
are defined with examples as follows.
Definition 6.3
6.1.2 Discrete random variable If X is a discrete random variable with
distinct values x1 , x2 , ..., xn , ... , then the
Definition 6.2
function, denoted by PX ( x ) and defined by
A variable which can assume finite
P(X = x i ) = pi = p(xi ) if x = xi , i = 1, 2,..., n,...
number of possible values or an infinite PX (x ) = p(x)=
0 if x ≠ xi
sequence of countable real numbers is called
a discrete random variable. This is defined to be the probability mass
function or discrete probability function of X.
Examples of discrete random variable:
The probability mass function p( x ) must
zz Marks obtained in a test.
satisfy the following conditions
zz Number of red marbles in a jar. ∞
zz Number of telephone calls at a particular (i) p( xi ) ≥ 0 ∀ i , (ii) ∑ p(xi ) = 1
time. i =1
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Out comes
(1,2) (2,1)
(5,6) (6,5)
probability mass function.
(6,6)
(1,1)
Solution:
Let X is the random variable which
counts the number of heads on the upturned
faces. The outcomes are stated below
Values Values
Outcomes Outcomes
of X of X
faces (X)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(HTH) 2 (TTH) 1
(THH) 2 (TTT) 0
These values are summarized in the
following probability table. 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
PX (x ) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
Table 6.3
Value of X 0 1 2 3 Total Discrete distribution function
p(xi ) 1 3 3 1 3
Definition 6.4
8 8 8 8 ∑ p(xi )= 1 The discrete cumulative distribution
i =0
function or distribution function of a real
(i) p( xi ) ≥ 0 ∀ i and
valued discrete random variable X takes the
3
countable number of points x1 , x2 , ... with
(ii) ∑ p(xi )= 1 corresponding probabilities p( x1 ), p( x2 ), ...
i =0
Hence, p( xi ) is a probability mass function. and then the cumulative distribution function
is defined by
Example 6.5 FX (x ) = P ( X ≤ x ), for all x ∈R
Two unbiased dice are
thrown simultaneously and sum i.e., FX (x ) = ∑ p(xi )
xi ≤ x
of the upturned faces considered
as random variable. Construct a
probability mass function. Fig.6.2 For instance, suppose we have a family of
two children. The sample space
Solution:
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
S = {bb, bg, gb, gg}, where b =boy and g = girl
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5)) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6) Let X be the random variable which counts
Sample space (S) =
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (44,5) (4,6)
the number of boys. Then, the values (X)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1)
(6,2) (6,3) (6,44) (6,5) (6,6) corresponding to the sample space are 2, 1, 1,
Total outcomes : n(S) = 36 and 0.
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0.10
0.12
0.20
0.30
0.15
0.08
0.05
P(x)
p(x)
1 1 1
4 2 4 Solution
Then, we can form a cumulative distribution From the values of p( x ) given in the
function of X is probability distribution, we obtain
X=x 0 1 2
F (1) = P (x ≤ 1) = P (1) = 0.10
F (2) = P (x ≤ 2) = P (1) + P (2) = 0.10 + 0.12 = 0.22
1 1 1
p(x) F (2) = P (x ≤
2) = P (1) + P (2) = 0.10 + 0.12 = 0.22
4 2 4
1 1 1 3 3 1 F (3) = P (x ≤ 3) = P (1) + P (2) + P (3)
FX (x ) = P ( X ≤ x ) + = + =1
4 4 2 4 4 4 = F (2) + P (3)
for x ≤ 3
0.15
0.10
Example 6.7
0.05
Construct the distribution function for
the discrete random variable X whose 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X=x
probability distribution is given below. Also
Fig.6.3
draw a graph of p(x) and F(x).
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0.6
0.4
or simply by f ( x ) must satisfy the following
conditions.
0.2
∞
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X=x
(i) f (x) ≥ 0 ∀ x and (ii) ∫ f (x )dx = 1 .
−∞
Fig.6.4
Example 6.8
0, if x < 1 A continuous random variable X has the
0.10, if x ≤ 1 following p.d.f f ( x ) = ax , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
0.22, if x ≤ 2 1
Determine the constant a and also find P X ≤
2
0.42, if x ≤ 3 Solution:
F(x) is FX ( x ) =
0.72, if x ≤ 4 We know that
0.87, if x ≤ 5 ∞
0.95, if x ≤ 6
∫ f (x )dx = 1
−∞
1, if x ≤ 7
1 1
6.1.3 Continuous random variable ∫ ax dx =1 ⇒ a∫ xdx = 1
Definition 6.5 0 0
1
A random variable X which can take on x2
⇒ a =1
any value (integral as well as fraction) in the 2 0
interval is called continuous random variable. a
⇒
2
(1 − 0) = 1
Examples of continuous random variable
⇒a=2
zz The amount of water in a 10 ounce bottle. 1
zz The speed of a car. 2
1
P x ≤ = ∫ f (x )dx
zz Electricity consumption in kilowatt hours. 2 −∞
zz Height of people in a population. 1 1
2 2
zz Weight of students in a class. 1
= ∫ axdx = ∫ 2 xdx = \
zz The length of time taken by a truck driver 4
0 0
to go from Chennai to Madurai, etc.
Probability density function Example 6.9
A continuous random variable X has p.d.f
Definition 6.6
The probability that a random variable f (x ) = 5x 4 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 Find a1 and a2 such that
X takes a value in the interval [t1 , t 2 ] (open (i) P[ X ≤ a1 ] = P[ X > a1 ] (ii) P[ X > a2 ] = 0.05
or closed) is given by the integral of a function Solution
called the probability density function f X ( x ) : (i) Since P[ X ≤ a1 ] = P[ X > a1 ]
t2
1
( )
P t1 ≤ X ≤ t 2 = ∫ f X (x )dx . P[ X ≤ a1 ] =
2
t1
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a1
1 d
(v) F ′( x ) = F (x ) = f (x ) ≥ 0
i.e., ∫ f (x )dx =
2 dx
(vi) F ′(x ) = d F (x ) = f (x ) ⇒ dF (x ) = f (x )dx , dF (x )
0
a1
1 dx
∫ 5x dx = 2
4
i.e., is known as probability differential of X .
0 b b a
a1 (vii) P (a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx − ∫ f (x )dx
x5 1
5 = a −∞ −∞
5 0 2 = P ( X ≤ b) − P ( X ≤ a)
1
a1 = (0.5) 5 = F (b) − F (a)
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6. A continuous random variable X has the 10. Suppose that the time in minutes that
following probability function a person has to wait at a certain station
for a train is found to be a random
Value
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 phenomenon with a probability function
of X = x
specified by the distribution function
P(x) 0 k 2k 2k 3k k 2 2k 2 7k 2 + k 0, for x ≤ 0
x
(i) F
ind k , for 0 ≤ x < 1
(ii) Evaluate p( x < 6), p(x ≥ 6) and 2
1
p(0 < x < 5) F (x ) = , for 1 ≤ x < 2
1
(iii) If P ( X ≤ x ) > , then find the 2
2 x , for 2 ≤ x < 4
minimum value of x . 4
1 , for x ≥ 4
7. The distribution of a continuous random
variable X in range (–3, 3) is given by p.d.f. (a) Is the distribution function continuous? If
1 2 so, give its probability density function?
16 (3 + x ) , − 3 ≤ x ≤ − 1
(b) What is the probability that a person will
1 have to wait (i) more than 3 minutes, (ii)
f (x ) = (6 − 2 x 2 ), − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
16 less than 3 minutes and (iii) between 1
1 (3 − x )2 , 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 and 3 minutes?
16
Verify that the area under the curve is unity. 11. Define random variable.
12. Explain what are the types of random
8. A continuous random variable X has the variable?
following distribution function
13. Define discrete random variable.
0 , if x ≤ 1
14. What do you understand by continuous
F (x ) = k( x − 1)4 , if 1 < x ≤ 3 random variable?
1 , if x > 3
15. Describe what is meant by a random
Find (i) k and (ii) the probability density function. variable.
9. The length of time (in minutes) that a 16. Distinguish between discrete and
certain person speaks on the telephone is continuous random variable.
found to be random phenomenon, with a 17. Explain the distribution function of a
probability function specified by the random variable.
probability density function f ( x ) as
18. Explain the terms (i) probability mass
Ae
− x /5
, for x ≥ 0
f (x ) = function, (ii) probability density function
0 , otherwise and (iii) probability distribution function.
(a) Find the value of A that makes f ( x ) a p.d.f. 19. What are the properties of (i) discrete
random variable and (ii) continuous
(b) What is the probability that the number of
random variable?
minutes that person will talk over the phone
is (i) more than 10 minutes, (ii) less than 5 20. State the properties of distribution
minutes and (iii) between 5 and 10 minutes. function.
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Solution: 2 5 4
Mean of the random variable = 0 × + 1 × + 2 ×
11 11 11
X = E( X ) = ∑ x PX (x )
x 13
=
= (1 × 0.15) + (2 × 0.10) + (3 × 0.10) + 11
(4 × 0.01) + (5 × 0.08) + (6 × 0.01) +
Example 6.14
(7 × 0.05) + (8 × 0.02) + (9 × 0.28) +
Determine the mean and variance of a
(10 × 0.20)
discrete random variable, given its distribution
E( X )= 6.18 as follows.
( ) ∑x
E X2 =
x
2
PX (x ) X=x 1 2 3 4 5 6
X=x 0 1 2 X=x 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 5 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
P(x) P(x)
11 11 11 6 6 6 6 6 6
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2
4 4
Solution: = −
6 5
E( X ) = ∑ x PX (x ) =
2
x 75
= (0 × 0.2) + (1 × 0.1) + (2 × 0.4) + Example 6.20
(3 × 0.3) If f (x) is defined by f (x ) = ke −2 x , 0 ≤ x < ∞
= 1.8 is a density function. Determine the
( )
E X 2 = ∑ x 2 PX ( x ) constant k and also find mean.
x Solution:
2 2 2
= (0 × 0.2) + (1 × 0.1) + (2 × 0.4) We know that
+ (32 × 0.3) ∞
∫ ke
−2 x
= (3 × 1.8) + (2 × 4.4) dx = 1
0
= 14.2 ∞
k ∫ e −2 x dx = 1
Example 6.19
0
Consider a random variable X with ∞
e −2 x
probability density function k =1
− 2 0
4 x 3 , if 0 < x < 1
f (x ) =
=> k = 2
0 , otherwise
∞
Find E(X) and V(X). E( X ) = ∫ x f (x) dx
Solution: −∞
∞ ∞
We know that, = ∫ xk e −2 x dx = 2∫ xe −2 x dx
∞
0 0
E( X ) = ∫ x f (x) dx xe −2 x ∞ e −2 x ∞
−∞
1 = 2 ∫
− dx
= ∫ x 4 x 3 dx −2 0 0 −2
0
x5
=4
1
( ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu )
5 0 ∞
1
4 = ∫ e −2 x dx =
E( X ) = 2
5 0
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25
3e −3 x , x > 0
1
f (x ) = = ∫ x 25 dx
0 , otherwise
0
25
Find the expected life of the piece of 1
= ∫ x dx
equipment. 25 0
25
Solution: 1 x2
We know that, =
25 2 0
∞
= 12.5
E( X ) = ∫ x f (x ) dx Therefore, the expected waiting time of
−∞
∞ the commuter is 12.5 minutes.
= ∫ x 3e −3 x dx
0
Example 6.23
∞ Suppose the life in hours of a radio tube
= 3 ∫ x e −3 x dx has the probability density function
0
e −3 x ∞ ∞ e −3 x − x
= 3 x −∫
−3 0 0 −3
(
dx ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du ) 100 , when x ≥ 100
f ( x ) = e
∞
0 , when x < 100
= ∫ e −3 x dx Find the mean of the life of a radio tube.
0
1 Solution:
=
3 We know that, the expected random
Therefore, the expected life of the piece of variable
1 ∞
equipment is hrs (in thousands).
3 E( X ) = ∫ x f (x) dx
−∞
Example 6.22 ∞ x
−
A commuter train arrives punctually at = ∫ xe 100 dx
a station every 25 minutes. Each morning, a 100
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Example 6.24 ∞
The probability density function of a = ∫ x 2e − x dx ( e−| x| is an even function)
random variable X is 0
∞
= Γ(3) ∵ Γ (α) = ∫ x e − x dx , α > 0 ; Γ (n) = (n − 1)!
α −1
−x
f (x ) = ke ,− ∞< x <∞ 0
Find the value of k and also find mean =2
and variance for the random variable. ( )
V ( X ) = E X 2 − E ( X )
2
= 2 − [0 ]
2
Solution
=2
We know that,
∞ Exercise 6.2
∫ f (x ) dx = 1
−∞ 1. Find the expected value for the random
∞
variable of an unbiased die
∫ ke
−x
dx = 1
−∞ 2. Let X be a random variable defining
∞
k∫ e
−x
dx = 1 number of students getting A grade. Find
−∞ the expected value of X from the given
∞ table
2k ∫ e − x dx = 1
0 X= x 0 1 2 3
( e −| x|
is an even function)
∞
P(X = x) 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3
e−x
2k =1 3. The following table is describing about
−1 0 the probability mass function of the
1 random variable X
k=
2
Mean of the random variable is x 3 4 5
∞
P(x) 0.2 0.3 0.5
E( X ) = ∫ x f (x ) dx
−∞
∞ Find the standard deviation of x.
∫ xke
−x
E( X )= dx 4. Let X be a continuous random variable
−∞
with probability density function
( xe −| x| is an odd function of x)
2 x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
1
∞ f X (x ) =
= ∫
−x
x e dx 0, otherwise
2 −∞ Find the expected value of X .
=0 5. Let X be a continuous random variable
∞
with probability density function
( ) ∫x
E X2 = 2
f (x ) dx
3
−∞ , x ≥1
∞ f (x ) = x 4
∫ x ke
2 −x
= dx
0, otherwise
−∞
Find the mean and variance of X .
∞
1
= ∫ x 2e dx
−x
6. In an investment, a man can make a profit
2 −∞ of ` 5,000 with a probability of 0.62 or
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21. A variable which can assume finite or 27. A discrete probability function p(x) is
countably infinite number of values is always non-negative and always lies
known as between
(a) continuous (b) discrete (a) 0 and ∞ (b) 0 and 1
(c) qualitative (d) none of them (c) –1 and +1 (d) –∞ and +∞
22. The probability function of a random 28. The probability density function p(x)
variable is defined as cannot exceed
(a) zero (b) one
X= x -1 -2 0 1 2
(c) mean (d) infinity
P(x) k 2k 3k 4k 5k
29. The height of persons in a country is a
Then k is equal to random variable of the type
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0, if x<0 2
a + bx , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1;
x f (x ) =
, if 0 ≤ x< 1 0, otherwise.
8
1 x where a and b are some constants. Find (i)
F ( x ) = + , if 1 ≤ x < 2 3
a and b if E( X ) = (ii) Var ( X ) .
4 8 5
3 + x , if 2 ≤ x < 3
4 12 6. Prove that if E( X ) = 0, then
1, for 3 ≤ x. ( )
V (X ) = E X 2 .
(a) Compute: (i) P (1 ≤ X≤ 2) and 7. What is the expected value of a game that
(ii) P ( X = 3) . works as follows: I flip a coin and, if tails
you pay ` 2; if heads you pay ` 1. In either
(b) Is X a discrete random variable?
case I also pay you ` 0.50
Justify your answer.
8. Prove that, (i) V (aX ) = a 2V ( X ) and
3. The p.d.f. of X is defined as
(ii) V ( X + b) = V ( X )
k , for 0 < x ≤ 4
f (x ) =
9. Consider a random variable X with p.d.f
0, otherwise
Find the value of k and also find 3x 2 , if 0 < x < 1
f (x ) =
P (2 ≤ X ≤ 4 ) . 0, otherwise
4. The probability distribution function of a Find E( X ) and V(3X–2).
discrete random variable X is
10. The time to failure in thousands of
2k , x =1
3k , hours of an important piece of electronic
x=3
f (x ) = equipment used in a manufactured DVD
4k , x=5
player has the density function
0, otherwise
−2 x
2e , x > 0
where k is some constant. Find (a) k and
f (x ) =
(b) P ( X > 2) . 0, otherwise
5. The probability density function of a Find the expected life of this piece of
continuous random variable X is equipment.
Summary
zz A variable which can assume finite number of possible values or an infinite sequence of
countable real numbers is called a discrete random variable.
zz Probability mass function (p.m.f.)
P(X = x i ) = pi = p( xi ) if x = xi , i = 1, 2,..., n,...
PX ( x ) = p(x)=
0 if x ≠ xi
Conditions:
� p(xi )≥ 0 ∀ i and
∞
�
∑ p(xi ) = 1
i =1
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zz A random variable X which can take on any value (integral as well as fraction) in the interval
is called continuous random variable.
zz Probability density function (p.d.f.)
The probability that a random variable X takes a value in the (open or closed) interval [t1 , t 2 ]
is given by the integral of a function called the probability density function f X ( x )
t2
P (t1 ≤ X ≤ t 2 ) = f X (x )dx
∫
t1
Other names that are used instead of probability density function include density function,
continuous probability function, integrating density function.
Conditions:
� f (x ) ≥ 0 ∀ x
∞
�
∫ f ( x )dx = 1
−∞
(iii) F(⋅) is a monotone, non-decreasing function; that is, F (a) ≤ F (b) for a < b .
d
(v) F ′( x ) = F (x ) = f (x ) ≥ 0
dx
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d
(vi) F ′( x ) = F (x ) = f (x ) ⇒ dF (x ) = f (x )dx
dx
(vii) dF ( x ) is known as probability differential of X .
b b a
(viii) P (a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx − ∫ f ( x )dx
a −∞ −∞
= P ( X ≤ b) − P ( X ≤ a)
= F (b) − F (a)
zz Mathematical Expectation
The expected value is a weighted average of the values of a random variable may assume.
zz Discrete random variable with probability mass function (p.m.f.)
E( X ) = ∑ x p(x )
x
zz Continuous random variable with probability density function
∞
E( X ) = ∫ x f (x) dx
−∞
zz The mean or expected value of X, denoted by mX or E(X).
zz The variance is a weighted average of the squared deviations of a random variable from its
mean.
2
zz Var ( X ) = ∑ x − E( X ) p(x )
if X is discrete random variable with probability mass function p(x).
∞
2
zz Var ( X ) = ∫ X − E( X ) f X (x ) dx
−∞
if X is continuous random variable with probability density function f X ( x ) .
zz Expected value of [X –E(X)]2 is called the variance of the random variable.
i.e., Var ( X ) = E [ X − E( X )] = E X 2 − [ E( X )]
2
( ) 2
∑ x 2 p( x ), if X is Discrete RandomVariable
x
where E X 2 =
∞ ( )
∫ x 2 f (x ) dx , if X is Continuous RandomVariable
−∞
zz If X is a random variable, the standard deviation of X , denoted by s X , is defined as
+ Var [ X ] .
zz The variance of X , denoted by s X 2 or Var ( X ) or V ( X ) .
zz Properties of Mathematical expectation
(i) E(a) = a , where ‘a’ is a constant
(ii) E(aX ) = aE( X )
(iii) E(aX+ b) = aE( X ) + b , where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants.
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(iv) I f X ≥ 0, then E( X ) ≥ 0
(v) V (a) = 0
GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Absolutely Convergent முற்றிலும் குவிதல் இயல்புடைய
Biased நடுநிலையற்ற
Central moments மையநிலை விலக்கப் பெருக்கம்
Continuous distribution function த�ொடர்ச்சியான பரவல் சார்பு
Continuous random variable த�ொடர்ச்சியான சமவாய்ப்பு மாறி
Cumulative திரள், குவிந்த
Discrete distribution function த�ொடர்ச்சியற்ற பரவல் சார்பு
Discrete random variable த�ொடர்ச்சியற்ற சமவாய்ப்பு மாறி
Distribution function பரவல் சார்பு
Event நிகழ்வு, நிகழ்ச்சி
Expectation எதிர்பார்த்தல்
Expected value எதிர்பார்க்கத்தக்க மதிப்பு / எதிர்பார்த்தல் மதிப்பு
Mathematical expectation கணக்கியல் எதிர்பார்த்தல்
Mean சராசரி
Moments விலக்கப் பெருக்கங்கள்
Probability function நிகழ்தகவுச் சார்பு
Probability mass function நிகழ்தகவு நிறைச் சார்பு
Random variable சமவாய்ப்பு மாறி
Standard deviation திட்ட விலக்கம், நியமச்சாய்வு
Unbiased நடுநிலையான
Urn குடுவை, கலசம்
Variance மாறுபாட்டு அளவை / பரவற்படி
Weighted average நிறைச் சராசரி
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ICT Corner
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics and Statistics” will open. In the work
book there are two Volumes. Select “Volume-2”.
You can type the function and the limits in the respective boxes to get E(X), Mean and Variance
for the given Probability Distribution. Calculate yourself and check your answer.
Step 1
Step 2
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7 Probability
Distributions
Introduction
T
he frequency distributions
are of two types namely Observed
frequency distribution and Theoretical frequency
distribution. The distributions which are based on actual data or
experimentation are called the Observed Frequency distribution. On
the other hand, the distributions based on expectations on the basis
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss of past experience are known as Theoretical Frequency distribution
(April 30, 1777 – Feb. 23, 1855) or Probability distribution.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855)
was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant
contributions to many fields in mathematics and sciences. Gauss had an exceptional influence in many
fields of mathematics and science, and is ranked among history’s most influential mathematicians
In discrete probability distribution we will discuss Binomial and Poisson distribution and the
Normal Distribution is a continuous probability distribution
Learning Objectives
7.1 Distribution
The following are the two types of Discrete distribution
Theoretical distributions :
The binomial and Poisson distributions
1. Discrete distribution
are the most useful theoretical distributions for
2. Continous distribution discrete variables.
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n n − 1
n
x successes in n trials can occur in nCx = p ∑x. x x − 1 p x −1qn− x
ways and the probability for each of these ways x =1
is same namely p x qn− x . = np (q+p)n–1 [since p+q = 1]
The probability distribution of the number
of successes, so obtained is called the binomial = np
probability distribution and the binomial
E(X) = np
expansion is (q + p)n
∴ The mean of the binomial distribution
is np
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n n Example 7.1
Here E(X ) = ∑x p x qn− x
2 2
A and B play a game in which their chance
x
x =0
of winning are in the ratio 3:2 Find A’s chance
n
n of winning atleast three games out of five games
∑ {x ( x − 1) + x} x p x qn− x played.
x =0
n
n n
n Soltion:
= ∑{ }
x ( x − 1) p x qn− x + ∑x p x qn− x
x x=0 x
x =0
Let ‘p’ be the probability that ‘A’ wins the
game. Then we are given n = 5, p = 3/5,
p 2 n (n − 1)
n n − 2 x −2 n − x
{
= ∑ x ( x − 1) }
x x −1
( ) x − 2 p q q = 1–
3 2
= (since q = 1–p)
x=2
5 5
n n Hence by binomial probability law, the
+ ∑x p x qn− x
x=0 x probability that out of the 5 games played, A
wins ‘x’ games is given by
n
n − 2 x −2 n − x x 5− x
= n(n–1) p2 { ∑ + np 3 2
x − 2 p q } P(X=x) = p ( x ) = 5Cx
x=2
5 5
= n(n–1)p2(q+p)(n–2) + np The required probability that ‘A’ wins
atleast three games is given by
= n(n–1)p2+ np
P ( X ≥ 3) = P (X = 3) + P (X = 4) + P (X = 5)
∴ Variance = E(X2) – {E(X)}2
3 2 4 1 5 o
2 2 2 2 2 = 5C 3 3 2 + 5C 4 3 2 + 5C 5 3 2
= n p – np + np – n p 5 5 5 5 5 5
2 2 2
2. For Binomial distribution, variance is less
than mean
15
= 64
Variance npq = (np)q < np
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( 12 ) ( 12 )
x 5− x
Solution: P (3 heads) = 5C
x
= 5C ( 1 ) ( 1 )
Mean: np = 12 3 5−3
3 2 2
npq = 4
= 5C ( 1 )
SD = 5
np 12 3
3 2
2
npq = 4 = 16 , = =
npq 16 4 =5
16
=> q = 4 > 1
3
Example 7.6
Since p + q cannot be greater than unity,
the Statement is wrong The mean of Binomials distribution is 20
and standard deviation is 4. Find the parameters
Example 7.4 of the distribution.
The probability that a student get the Solution
degree is 0.4 Determine the probability that out
of 5 students (i) one will be graduate (ii) atleast The parameters of Binomial distribution
one will be graduate are n and p
Solution:
For Binomial distribution Mean = np =20
Probability of getting a degree p= 0.4
∴ q = 1– p Standard deviation = npq = 4
= 1 – 0.4
∴ npq = 16
= 0.6
(i) P (one will be a graduate) = P(X = 1) ⇒ npq/np = 16/20 = 4/5
= 5C1 (0.4)(0.6)4 q =4
5
= 0.2592
⇒ p = 1–q = 1– (4/5) = 1/5
(ii) P
( atleast one will be a graduate)
Since np = 20
= 1–P (none will be a graduate)
20
= 1 − 5C0 (P 0 )(q)5−0 n=
p
= 1 − 5C0(0.4)0 (0.6)5
n = 100
= 1 − 0.0777
=0.9222
Example 7.7
Example 7.5 If x is a binomially distributed random
In tossing of a five fair coin, find the variable with E(x) =2 and van (x) = 4 .
3
chance of getting exactly 3 heads. Find P ( x = 5)
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Solution: P (X ≥ 2) = 1 − P ( X < 2)
The p.m.f. Binomial distribution is
= 1 − P ( X = 0) + P ( X = 1)
p(x) = nCx p x qn− x
7 3 0 7 7 − 0
Here, P ( X = 0) =
Given that E(x) =2 0 10 10
(2) npq 3
⇒ np =
4
()
= 46 = 23
= 1– {0.082+ 0.247]
= 0.6706
(1) 2
q = 2/3 and p = 1–2/3 = 1/3 Example 7.9
What is the probability of guessing
Substitute in (1) we get
correctly atleast six of the ten answers in a
n =6 TRUE/FALSE objective test?
5 6−5 Solution :
1 2
Hence, P(X=5) = 6C5 = 0.0108
3 3 Probability p of guessing an answer
1
Example 7.8 correctly is p =
2
If the average rain falls on 9 days in every 1
thirty days, find the probability that rain will fall ⇒ q=
2
on atleast two days of a given week. Probability of guessing correctly x answers
Solution : in 10 questions
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Solution :
(2q – 1)(q – 2) = 0
Probability of bus running late is denoted
as p = 1–0.8 = 0.2 Where q =
1
and p =
1
2 2
Probability of bus running according to Substitute in (1) we get n = 32
the schedule is q = 0.8
Hence the binomial distribution
Also given that n = 10 x 32 − x
1 1
The binomial distribution is 32C x
2 2
(ii) probability that at least one is late (b) A beats B exactly in 5 games out of 8 ?
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13. Out of 750 families with 4 children each, 7.1.2 Poisson Distribution
how many families would be expected to
Poisson distribution was derived in 1837
have (i) atleast one boy (ii) atmost 2 girls
by a French Mathematician Simeon D. Poisson.
(iii) and children of both sexes? Assume
If n is large, the evaluation of the binomial
equal probabilities for boys and girls.
probabilities can involve complex computations,
14. Forty percent of business travellers carry in such a case, a simple approximation to
a laptop. In a sample of 15 business the binomial probabilities could be use. Such
travelers, approximation of binomial when n is large and p
(i) what is the probability that 3 will have is close to zero is called the Poisson distribution.
a laptop?
Poisson distribution occurs when there
(ii) what is the probability that 12 of the
are events which do not occur as a definite
travelers will not have a laptop?
number on trials but an events occurs rarely
(iii) what is the probability that atleast and the following examples may be analysed:
three of the travelers have a laptop?
(i)
Number of bacteria in one cubic
15. A pair of dice is thrown 4 times. If getting centimeter.
a doublet is considered a success, find the
probability of 2 successes. (ii)
Number of printing mistakes per
page in a text book
16. The mean of a binomial distribution is 5
and standard deviation is 2. Determine (iii)
the number of alpha particles
the distribution. emitted by a radioactive substance
in a fraction of a second.
17. Determine the binomial distribution for
which the mean is 4 and variance 3. Also (iv) Number of road accidents occurring
find P(X=15) at a particular interval of time per
18. Assume that a drug causes a serious side day.
effect at a rate of three patients per one
hundred. What is the probability that Number of lightnings per second.
atleast one person will have side effects Poisson distribution is a limiting case
in a random sample of ten patients taking of binomial distribution under the following
the drug? conditions :
19. Consider five mice from the same litter,
(i) n, the number of trials is indefinitely
all suffering from Vitamin A deficiency.
large i.e n → ∞ .
They are fed a certain dose of carrots. The
positive reaction means recovery from the (ii) p, the constant probability of success
disease. Assume that the probability of in each trial is very small, i.e. p → 0
recovery is 0.73. What is the probability
l
that atleast 3 of the 5 mice recover. (iii) np = l is finite. Thus p = and
l n
20. An experiment succeeds twice as often as q = 1 − where l is a positive
n
it fails, what is the probability that in next
real number.
five trials there will be (i) three successes
and (ii) at least three successes
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P(x, l ) = P(X=x) = λ
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The average number of typographical One fifth percent of the the blades
errors per page in the book is given by produced by a blade manufacturing factory
turn out to be defective. The blades are supplied
l = (390/520) = 0.75. in packets of 10. Use Poisson distribution to
calculate the approximate number of packets
Hence using Poisson probability law, the
containing no defective, one defective and two
probability of x errors per page is given by
defective blades respectively in a consignment
P(X = x) =
e −ll x
= e −0.75
(0.75) , x = 0,1,2,… x
of 1,00,000 packets (e–0.02 =.9802).
x! x! Solution :
The required probability that a random
P = 1/5/100 = 1/500 =0.002 n = 10 . λ = np = 0.02
sample of 5 pages will contain no error is given by : −l
p (x ) =
e lx
=
e −0.02
(0.02)x
( )
5
[P(X=0)]5 = e −0.75 = e −3.75 x! x!
(i) Number of packets containing no defective
Example 7.16 = N × p(o) = 1,00,000 × e–0.02
An insurance company has discovered = 98020
that only about 0.1 per cent of the population is
(ii) Number of packets containing one defective
involved in a certain type of accident each year.
= N × p(1) = 1,00,000 × 0.9802 × 0.02
If its 10,000 policy holders were randomly
selected from the population, what is the = 1960
probability that not more than 5 of its clients are
(iii) Number of packets containing 2 defectives
involved in such an accident next year?
= N × p(2) = 20
( e −10 = .000045)
Example 7.18
Solution :
If the probability that an individual suffers
p = probability that a person will involve a bad reaction from injection of a given serum
in an accident in a year is 0.001, determines the probability that out of
2,000 individuals (a) exactly 3 and (b) more
= 0.1/100 = 1/1000
than 2 individuals will suffer a bad reaction.
given n = 10,000 Solution :
1
so, = np = 10000 b 1000 l = 10
Consider a 2,000 individuals getting
Probability that not more than 5 will injection of a given serum , n = 2000
involve in such an accident in a year
Let X be the number of individuals
P(X < 5) = P
(X=0)+P(X=1)+P(X=2)+P(X=3)+ suffering a bad reaction.
P(X=4)+P(X=5)
Let p be the probability that an individual
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 suffers a bad reaction = 0.001
= e −10 [ 1 + + + + + ]
1! 2 ! 3! 4! 5! and q = 1– p = 1– 0.001 = 0.999
= 0.06651
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= 0.323 = 1–[ + ]
0! 1!
Example 7.19 = 1 – e −0.375 [1+0.375]
When counting red blood cells, a square = 1– (0.6873 × 1.375)
grid is used, over which a drop of blood is
= 0.055
evenly distributed. Under the microscope an
average of 8 erythrocytes are observed per single Exercise 7.2
square. What is the probability that exactly 5
erythrocytes are found in one square? 1. Define Poisson distribution.
Solution : 2. Write any 2 examples for Poisson
distribution.
Let X be a random variable follows poisson
3. Write the conditions for which the poisson
distribution with number of erythrocytes.
distribution is a limiting case of binomial
Hence, Mean λ = 8 erythrocytes/single distribution.
square
4. Derive the mean and variance of poisson
P(exactly 5 erythrocytes are in one square) distribution.
e −ll x e −8 85 5. Mention the properties of poisson
= P(X = 5) = =
x! 5! distribution.
0.000335 × 32768 6. The mortality rate for a certain disease is
=
120 7 in 1000. What is the probability for just
2 deaths on account of this disease in a
= 0.0916
group of 400? [Given e(–2.8) = 0.06]
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μ – 3σ μ – 2σ μ–σ μ μ+σ μ + 2σ μ + 3σ
Continuous distribtuion Normal curve
Fig 7.1
The binomial and Poisson distributions
discussed in the previous chapters are the most Normal distribution is a limiting case
useful theoretical distributions for discrete of binomial distribution under the following
variables. In order to have mathematical conditions:
distributions suitable for dealing with quantities
whose magnitudes vary continuously like weight,
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The normal distribution of a variable (viii) The total area under the normal curve
when represented graphically, takes the shape is equal to unity and the percentage
of a symmetrical curve, known as the Normal distribution of area under the normal
Curve. The curve is asymptotic to x-axis on its curve is given below
either side. (a) About 68.27% of the area falls between
Chief Characterisitics or Properties of μ – σ and μ + σ
Normal Probabilty distribution and Normal
P(μ – σ < X < μ + σ) = 0.6826
probability Curve .
(b)
About 95.5% of the area falls
The normal probability curve with mean
between μ – 2σ and μ + 2σ
m and standard deviation σ has the following
properties : P(μ – 2σ < X < μ + 2σ) = 0.9544
(i) the curve is bell- shaped and (c)
About 99.7% of the area falls
symmetrical about the line x=μ between μ – 3σ and μ + 3σ
(ii) Mean, median and mode of the
P(μ – 3σ < X < μ + 3σ) = 0.9973
distribution coincide.
f(x)
(iii) x – axis is an asymptote to the curve.
( tails of the cuve never touches the
horizontal (x) axis)
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2. 68.26% of the area under the standard and 1.65 is 0.4505 (from the table).
normal curve lies between z = –1 and Z =1 Since the area to the left of zero is 0.5,
3. 95.44% of the area lies between Z = –2 P(Z< 1.65) = 0.5000 – 0.4505 = 0.0495.
and Z = 2
4. 99.74% of the area lies between Z = –3
and Z = 3
Example 7.21
What is the probability that a standard
normal variate Z will be z = –1.65 z = 0
Fig 7.6
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= 0.7653
Example 7.22
If X is a normal variate with mean 30 and
SD 5. Find the probabilities that z=0 z = 3.0
(i) 26 ≤ X ≤ 40 (ii) X > 45 Fig 7.9
Solution :
P( X ≥ 45) = P(Z ≥ 3)
Here mean μ= 30 and
standard deviation σ = 5 = 0.5 – 0.49865
Solution :
z = –0.8 z = 0 z = 2.0
Fig 7.8 Given that mean μ= 150 and standard
deviation σ= 15
Therefore,
(i) when X = 125 thousand
P(26<X<40) ) = P(–0.8 ≤ Z < 2)
X − µ 125 − 150
Z= = = –1.667
= P(–0.8 ≤ Z ≤ 0) + p(0 ≤ Z ≤ 2) σ 15
When X = 145 thousand
= P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 0.8) + P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 2)
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X − µ 145 − 150 = P(0 < Z < 0.67) + P(0 < Z < 0.67)
Z= = = –0.33
σ 15 = 2 P(0 < Z < < 0.67)
= 2 × 0.2486
= 0.4972
X − µ 160 − 150
Z= = = 0.67
σ 15
z = 0 z = 1.44
Fig 7.12
= 0.5 – 0.4251
z = –0.67 z=0 z = 0.67
Fig 7.11
= 0.0749
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Example 7.25
The marks obtained in a certain exam
follow normal distribution with mean 45
and SD 10. If 1,300 students appeared at the
examination, calculate the number of students
scoring (i) less than 35 marks and (ii) more
z = 0 z = 2.0
than 65 marks.
Fig 7.14
Solution :
P(X > 65) = P(Z > 2.0)
Let X be the normal variate showing
the score of the candidate with mean 45 and 0.5 – P(0 < Z < 2.0)
standard deviation 10.
0.5 – 0.4772
(i) less than 35 marks
= 0.0228
When X = 35
Expected number of students scoring
X − µ 35 − 45 more than 65 marks are 0.0228 x 1300 = 30
Z= = = –1
σ 10
Example 7.26
900 light bulbs with a mean life of 125
days are installed in a new factory. Their length
of life is normally distributed with a standard
deviation of 18 days. What is the expected
number of bulbs expire in less than 95 days?
z = 0 z = 1.0
Solution :
Fig 7.13
Let X be the normal variate of life of light
P(X < 35) = P(Z < –1) bulbs with mean 125 and standard deviation 18.
P(Z > 1) = 0.5 – P(0 < Z < 1)
(i) less than 95 days
= 0.5 – 0.3413
When X = 95
= 0.1587
X − µ 95 − 125
Expected number of students scoring less Z= = = –1.667
σ 18
than 35 marks are 0.1587 × 1300 = 206
When X = 65
X − µ 65 − 45
Z= = = 2.0
σ 10 z = 0 z = 1.67
Fig 7.15
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Assume that the mean height of soldiers is Let X be the waiting time of a customer
69.25 inches with a variance of 9.8 inches. How in the queue and it is normally distributed with
many soldiers in a regiment of 6,000 would you mean 5 and SD 0.7.
expect to be over 6 feet tall?
(i) for less than 6 minutes
Solution :
X −µ 6−5
Let X be the height of soldiers follows
Z= = = 1.4285
σ 0. 7
normal distribution with mean 69.25 inches
and standard deviation 3.13. then the soldiers
over 6 feet tall (6ft × 12= 72 inches)
X − µ 72 − 69.25
Z= = = 0.8786
σ 3.13 z=0 z = 1.43
Fig 7.17
= 0.5 + 0.4236
z = 0 z = 0.87 = 0.9236
Fig 7.16
(ii) between 3.5 and 6.5 minutes
P(X > 72) = P(Z > 0.8786)
When X = 3.5
= 0.5 – P(0 < Z < 0.88)
= 0.5 – 0.3106 = 0.1894 X − µ 3. 5 − 5
Z= = = –2.1429
σ 0. 7
Number of soldiers expected to be over
When X = 6.5
6 feet tall in 6000 are
X − µ 6. 5 − 5
6000 × 0.1894 =1136 Z= = = 2.1429
σ 0. 7
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z = 0 z = 0.33
z = –2.14 z=0 z = 2.14 Fig 7.19
Fig 7.18 P(X > 13) = P(Z>0.333) = 0.5 – 0.1293 = 0.3707
The expected battery cells life to have more
P(3.5 < X < 6.5)
than 13 hours is 125 × 0.3707 =46.34%
= P (–2.1429 < Z < 2.1429) (ii) less than 5 hours
P(X < 5)
= P(0 < Z < 2.1429) + P(0 < Z < 2.1429) X − µ 5 − 12
When X = 5 Z = = = –2.333
= 2 P(0 < Z < 2.1429) σ 3
= 2 × .4838
= 0.9676
Example 7.29
A sample of 125 dry battery cells tested z = –2.33 z = 0
to find the length of life produced the following Fig 7.20
resultd with mean 12 and SD 3 hours. Assuming P(X < 5) = P(Z < –2.333) = P(Z > 2.333)
that the data to be normal distributed , what
= 0.5 – 0.4901 = 0.0099
percentage of battery cells are expected to have
The expected battery cells life to have more
life
than 13 hours is 125 × 0.0099 =1.23%
(i) more than 13 hours (iii) between 9 and 14 hours
(ii) less than 5 hours When X = 9
X − µ 9 − 12
(iii) between 9 and 14 hours Z= = = –1
σ 3
Solution : When X = 14
Let X denote the length of life of dry X − µ 14 − 12
battery cells follows normal distribution with Z= = = 0.667
σ 3
mean 12 and SD 3 hours
When X = 13
X − µ 13 − 12 z = –1 z=0 z = 0.67
Z= = = 0.333
σ 3 Fig 7.21
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P(9 < X < 14) = P(–1 < Z < 0.667) Exercise 7.3
= P(0 < Z < 1) + P(0 < Z < 0.667) 1. Define Normal distribution.
= 0.3413 + 0.2486 2. Define Standard normal variate.
= 0.5899 3. Write down the conditions in which the
Normal distribution is a limiting case of
The expected battery cells life to have more
binomial distribution.
than 13 hours is 125 x 0.5899 =73.73%
4. Write down any five chief characteristics
Example 7.30
of Normal probability curve.
Weights of fish caught by a traveler are
approximately normally distributed with a 5. In a test on 2,000 electric bulbs, it was
mean weight of 2.25 kg and a standard deviation found that bulbs of a particular make, was
of 0.25 kg. What percentage of fish weigh less normally distributed with an average life
than 2 kg? of 2,040 hours and standard deviation of
60 hours. Estimate the number of bulbs
Solution : likely to burn for (i) more than 2,150
We are given mean μ = 2.25 and standard hours (ii) less than 1,950 hours (iii) more
deviation σ = 0.25. Probability that weight of 1,920 hours but less than 2,100 hours.
fish is less than 2 kg is P(X < 2.0)
6. In a distribution 30% of the items are
X − µ 2.0 − 2.25 under 50 and 10% are over 86. Find
When x = 20 Z = = = –1.0
σ 0.25 the mean and standard deviation of the
distribution.
P(Z< –1.0) = P(Z > 1.0) = 0.5 – 0.3413 = 0.1587
7. X is normally distributed with mean
Therefore 15.87% of fishes weigh less than 2 kg. 12 and SD 4. Find P(X ≤ 20) and
P(0 ≤ X ≤ 12)
Example 7.31
The average daily procurement of milk 8. If the heights of 500 students are normally
by village society in 800 litres with a standard distributed with mean 68.0 inches and
deviation of 100 litres. Find out proportion of standard deviation 3.0 inches , how many
societies procuring milk between 800 litres to students have height (a) greater than 72
1000 litres per day. inches (b) less than or equal to 64 inches
(c) between 65 and 71 inches.
Solution :
We are given mean μ = 800 and standard 9. In a photographic process, the developing
deviation σ = 100. Probability that the time of prints may be looked upon as
procurement of milk between 800 litres to 1000 a random variable having the normal
litres per day is distribution with a mean of 16.28 seconds
P(800 < X < 1000) = P ( 800 − 800 < z < 1000 − 800 ) and a standard deviation of 0.12 second.
100 100 Find the probability that it will take less
than 16.35 seconds to develop prints.
= P(0 < Z < 2) = 0.4772 (table value)
10. Time taken by a construction company
Therefore 47.75 percent of societies
to construct a flyover is a normal variate
procure milk between 800 litres to 1000 litres
with mean 400 labour days and standard
per day.
deviation of 100 labour days. If the company
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(d) The number of misprints per page (c) 0.8791 (d) 0.0019
15. The random variable X is normally 20. Using the standard normal table, the sum
distributed with a mean of 70 and a of the probabilities to the right of z = 2.18
standard deviation of 10. What is the and to the left of z = –1.75 is
probability that X is between 72 and 84? (a) 0.4854 (b) 0.4599
(c) 0.0146 (d) 0.0547
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21. The time until first failure of a brand of 27. If P(Z > z) = 0.5832 what is the value of
inkjet printers is normally distributed z (z has a standard normal distribution)?
with a mean of 1,500 hours and a standard (a) –0.48 (b) 0.48
deviation of 200 hours. What proportion
(c) 1.04 (d) –0.21
of printers fails before 1,000 hours?
(a) 0.0062 (b) 0.0668 28. In a binomial distribution, the probability
of success is twice as that of failure. Then
(c) 0.8413 (d) 0.0228
out of 4 trials, the probability of no
22. The weights of newborn human babies success is
are normally distributed with a mean of (a) 16/81 (b) 1/16
3.2kg and a standard deviation of 1.1kg.
What is the probability that a randomly (c) 2/27 (d) 1/81
selected newborn baby weighs less than
2.0kg? Miscellaneous Problems
(a) 0.138 (b) 0.428
1. A manufacturer of metal pistons finds
(c) 0.766 (d) 0.262 that on the average, 12% of his pistons are
rejected because they are either oversize
23. Monthly expenditure on their credit cards,
or undersize. What is the probability that
by credit card holders from a certain bank,
a batch of 10 pistons will contain
follows a normal distribution with a mean
of `1,295.00 and a standard deviation of (a) no more than 2 rejects?
`750.00. What proportion of credit card (b) at least 2 rejects?
holders spend more than `1,500.00 on 2. Hospital records show that of patients
their credit cards per month? suffering from a certain disease 75%
(a) 0.487 (b) 0.392 die of it. What is the probability that of
(c) 0.500 (d) 0.791 6 randomly selected patients, 4 will
recover?
24. Let z be a standard normal variable. If the
3. If electricity power failures occur
area to the right of z is 0.8413, then the
according to a Poisson distribution with
value of z must be:
an average of 3 failures every twenty
(a) 1.00 (b) –1.00 weeks, calculate the probability that there
(c) 0.00 (d) –0.41 will not be more than one failure during a
particular week.
25. If the area to the left of a value of z (z has
a standard normal distribution) is 0.0793, 4. Vehicles pass through a junction on a busy
what is the value of z? road at an average rate of 300 per hour.
(a) –1.41 (b) 1.41 1. Find the probability that none passes
in a given minute.
(c) –2.25 (d) 2.25
2. What is the expected number passing
26. If P(Z > z) = 0.8508 what is the value of in two minutes?
z (z has a standard normal distribution)? 5. Entry to a certain University is determined
(a) –0.48 (b) 0.48 by a national test. The scores on this test are
(c) –1.04 (d) 1.04 normally distributed with a mean of 500
and a standard deviation of 100. Raghul
Probability Distributions 171
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wants to be admitted to this university and (c) What percent of people earn more
he knows that he must score better than than $70,00
at least 70% of the students who took the 8. X is a normally normally distributed
test. Raghul takes the test and scores 585. variable with mean μ = 30 and standard
Will he be admitted to this university? deviation σ = 4. Find
6. The time taken to assemble a car in a (a) P(x < 40)
certain plant is a random variable having
(b) P(x > 21)
a normal distribution of 20 hours and a
standard deviation of 2 hours. What is the (c) P(30 < x < 35)
probability that a car can be assembled at 9. The birth weight of babies is Normally
this plant in a period of time . distributed with mean 3,500g and
a) less than 19.5 hours? standard deviation 500g. What is the
probability that a baby is born that weighs
b) between 20 and 22 hours?
less than 3,100g?
7. The annual salaries of employees in a large
company are approximately normally 10. People’s monthly electric bills in chennai
distributed with a mean of $50,000 and a are normally distributed with a mean of
standard deviation of $20,000. ` 225 and a standard deviation of ` 55.
Those people spend a lot of time online.
(a) What percent of people earn less than
In a group of 500 customers, how many
$40,000?
would we expect to have a bill that is `
(b) What percent of people earn between 100 or less?
$45,000 and $65,000?
Summary
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Where λ = np
1 1 x − µ 2
zz The normal probability distribution is given by f(x) exp −
σ 2π 2 σ
zz The mean of the distribution is μ
zz The SD of the distribution is σ.
zz It is a symmetrical distribution
zz The graph of the distribution is bell shaped
zz In normal distribution the mean, median and mode are equal
zz The points of inflexion are μ – σ and μ + σ
zz The normal curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically
zz Area Property : In a normal distribution about 68% of the item will lie between
μ – σ and μ + σ. About 95% will lie between are μ –2 σ and μ + 2σ . About 99% will
lie between μ –3 σ and μ +3 σ.
zz Standard normal random variate is denoted as Z = (X – μ)/σ
− z2
zz The standard normal probability distribution is 1 / 2p (e 2 )
zz The mean of the distribution is zero and SD is unity
zz The points of inflexion are at z = –1 and z = +1
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GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
bell shaped curve மணி வடிவ வளைவரை
Binomial ஈருறுப்பு
continuous distribution த�ொடாச்சியான பரவல்
discrete distribution தனிநிலைப் பரவல் / தனித்த பரவல்
Distribution பரவல்
Independent சார்பற்ற
Normal இயல்நிலை
parameter பண்பளவை
point of inflexion வளைவு மாற்றுப்புள்ளி
random experiment சமவாய்ப்பு ச�ோதனை
Random variable இயைபிலா மாறி / சமவாய்ப்பு மாறி
Sample space கூறுவெளி
Skewness க�ோட்ட அளவை
Standard deviation திட்ட விலக்கம்
Symmetry சமச்சீர்
ICT Corner
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given Expected Result is shown in this picture
below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work Book
named “12th Standard Business Mathematics and
Statistics ” will open. In the work book there are two
Volumes. Select “Volume-2”.
Step - 2 : Select the worksheet named “Normal
Distribution”
Click on “New Problem” and click on Answer-I,
Answer-ii and Answer -iii to see the answer for
respective questions. Though the Normal Curve seems
touching the bottom line, it don’t touch when we zoom. Work out the answer and check yourself and
analyse the shaded region.
Step 1 Step 2
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8 Sampling Techniques
and Statistical
Inference
Introduction
P
andurang
Vasudeo Sukhatme
(1911–1997) was an award-winning
Indian statistician. He is known for his pioneering
work of applying random sampling methods in agricultural
statistics and in biometry, in the 1940s. He was also influential in
the establishment of the Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Pandurang Vasudeo Sukhatme Institute. As a part of his work at the Food and Agriculture
(July 27, 1911 - January 28, 1997) Organization in Rome, he developed statistical models for assessing
the dimensions of hunger and future food supplies for the world.
He also developed methods for measuring the size and nature of the protein gap.
In any statistical investigation, the interest lies in the assessment of one or more characteristics
relating to the individuals belonging to a group. When all the individuals present in the study are
investigated, it is called complete enumeration, but in practice, it is very difficult to investigate all
the individuals present in the study. So the technique of sampling is done which states that a part
of the individuals are selected for the study and the assessment is made from the selected group of
individuals. For example
(i) A housewife tastes a spoonful whatever she cooks to check whether it tastes good or not.
(ii) A few drops of our blood are tested to check about the presence or absence of a disease.
(iii) A grain merchant takes out a handful of grains to get an idea about the quality of the
whole consignment.
These are typical examples where decision making is done on the basis of sample information.
So sampling is the process of choosing a representative sample from a given population.
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a possibility of selecting the same sample any sample can be done through “Random Number
number of times. So, simple random sampling Table”. The random number table has been so
without replacement is followed. constructed that each of the digits 0,1,2,…,9 will
Thus in simple random sampling from a appear approximately with the same frequency
population of N units, the probability of drawing and independently of each other.
1
any unit at the first draw is , the probability The various random number tables available are
N
a. L.H.C. Tippett random number series
of drawing any unit in the second draw from
1 b. Fisher and Yates random number series
among the available ( N − 1) units is ,
(N − 1) c. Kendall and Smith random number series
and so on. . Several methods have been adopted d.
Rand Corporation random number
for random selection of the samples from the series.
population. Of those, the following two methods
Tippett’s table of random numbers is most
are generally used and which are described
popularly used in practice. Given below the first
below.
forty sets from Tippett’s table as an illustration
(A) Lottery method of the general appearance of random numbers:
This is the most popular and simplest
method when the population is finite. In this 2952 6641 3992 9792 7969 5911 3170 5624
method, all the items of the population are
4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
numbered on separate slips of paper of same
size, shape and colour. They are folded and 2670 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7991
placed in a container and shuffled thoroughly.
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8125 4233 8776
Then the required numbers of slips are selected
for the desired sample size. The selection of 2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
items thus depends on chance.
Suppose, if we want to select the required
For example, if we want to select 10 number of samples from a population of size
students, out of 100 students, then we must write
N(<99) then any two digit random number
the names/roll number of all the 100 students
can be selected from ( 00 to 99) from the above
on slips of the same size and mix them, then we
random number table. Similarly if N(< 999) or
make a blindfold selection of 10 students. This
(< 9999), then any three digit random number
method is called unrestricted random sampling,
because units are selected from the population or four digit random number can be selected
without any restriction. This method is mostly from (000 to 999) or (0000 to 9999).
used in lottery draws. If the population or The procedure of selecting the random samples
universe is infinite, this method is inapplicable. consists of following steps:
(B) Table of Random number 1. Identify the N units in the population
When the population size is large, it is with the numbers from 1 to N.
difficult to number all the items on separate
2. Select at random, any page from the
slips of paper of same size, shape and colour.
‘Random Number Table’.
The alternative method is that of using the table
of random numbers. The most practical, easy 3. Select the required number of samples
and inexpensive method of selecting a random from any row or column or diagonal.
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Example 8.1
Using the Kendall-Babington Smith - Random number table,Draw5 random samples.
23 15 75 48 59 01 83 72 59 93 76 24 97 08 86 95 23 03 67 44
05 54 55 50 43 10 53 74 35 08 90 61 18 37 44 10 96 22 13 43
14 87 16 03 50 32 40 43 62 23 50 05 10 03 22 11 54 36 08 34
38 97 67 49 51 94 05 17 58 53 78 80 59 01 94 32 42 87 16 95
97 31 26 17 18 99 75 53 08 70 94 25 12 58 41 54 88 21 05 13
Solution:
23 15 75 48 59 01 83 72 59 93 76 24 97 08 86 95 23 03 67 44
05 54 55 50 43 10 53 74 35 08 90 61 18 37 44 10 96 22 13 43
14 87 16 03 50 32 40 43 62 23 50 05 10 03 22 11 54 36 08 34
38 97 67 49 51 94 05 17 58 53 78 80 59 01 94 32 42 87 16 95
97 31 26 17 18 99 75 53 08 70 94 25 12 58 41 54 88 21 05 13
There many ways to select 5 random samples from the given Kendall-Babington
Smith - Random number table. Assume that at random we select 3rd column 1st value. This
location gives the digit to be 75. So the first sample will be 75, and then the next choices
can be in the same 3rd column which follows as 55, 16, 67 and 26. Therefore 75,55,16,67
and 26 will be used as random samples. The various shaded numbers can be taken as
5 random sample numbers. Apart from this, one can select any 5 random sample numbers as they like.
Example 8.2 2952 6641 3992 9792 7969 5911 3170 5624
Using the following Tippett’s random 4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
number table, 2670 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7991
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8125 4233 8776
2952 6641 3992 9792 7969 5911 3170 5624
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
2670 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7991 Example 8.3
0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8125 4233 8776 Using the following random number table,
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446 Tippet’s random number table
Draw a sample of 15 houses from Cauvery 2952 6641 3992 9792 7969 5911 3170 5624
Street which has 83 houses in total. 4167 9524 1545 1396 7203 5356 1300 2693
Solution: 2670 7483 3408 2762 3563 1089 6913 7991
There many ways to select 15 random 0560 5246 1112 6107 6008 8125 4233 8776
2754 9143 1405 9025 7002 6111 8816 6446
samples from the given Tippet’s random
number table. Since the population size is 83 Draw a sample of 10 children with
(two-digit number). Here the door numbers theirheight from the population of 8,585
are assigned from 1 to 83. Assume that at children as classified hereunder.
random we first choose 2nd column. So the first Height (cm) 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125
sample is 66 and other 14 samples are 74, 52, 39, Number of 2 4 14 41 83 169 394 669 990 1223 1329
children
15, 34, 11, 14, 13, 27, 61, 79, 72, 35, and 60. If the
Height(cm) 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145
numbers are above 83, choose the next number
Number of 1230 1063 646 392 202
ranging from 1 to 83. 79 32 16 5 2
children
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Example 8.4
Using the following random number table (Kendall-Babington Smith)
23 15 75 48 59 01 83 72 59 93 76 24 97 08 86 95 23 03 67 44
05 54 55 50 43 10 53 74 35 08 90 61 18 37 44 10 96 22 13 43
14 87 16 03 50 32 40 43 62 23 50 05 10 03 22 11 54 36 08 34
38 97 67 49 51 94 05 17 58 53 78 80 59 01 94 32 42 87 16 95
97 31 26 17 18 99 75 53 08 70 94 25 12 58 41 54 88 21 05 13
Draw a random sample of 10 four- figure numbers starting from 1550 to 8000.
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Solution:
Here, we have to select 10 random numbers ranging from 1550 to 8000 but the given random number
table has only 2 digit numbers. To solve this, two - 2 digit numbers can be combined together to make a
four-figure number. Let us select the 5th and 6th column and combine them to form a random number, then
select the random number with given range. This gives 5 random numbers, similarly 8th and 9th is selected
and combined to form a random numbers, then select the random number with given range. This gives
5 random numbers, totally 10 four-figure numbers have been selected. The following table shows the
10 random numbers which are combined and selected.
23 15 75 48 59 01 83 72 59 93 76 24 97 08 86 95 23 03 67 44
05 54 55 50 43 10 53 74 35 08 90 61 18 37 44 10 96 22 13 43
14 87 16 03 50 32 40 43 62 23 50 05 10 03 22 11 54 36 08 34
38 97 67 49 51 94 05 17 58 53 78 80 59 01 94 32 42 87 16 95
97 31 26 17 18 99 75 53 08 70 94 25 12 58 41 54 88 21 05 13
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Solution
Homogenous Percentage from Number of people
Stratum Random Samples
group population in each strata
Lower income 39 68
Category1 39 × 500 = 195 195 × = 26.5 26
class 100 500
Middle income 38 68
Category2 38 × 500 = 190 190 × = 26.5 26
class 100 500
Upper income 23 68
Category3
class
23 × 500 = 115 115 × = 15.6 16
100 500
Total 100 500 68
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(iii) If the selected first random sample is 5, then (i) Sampling Errors
the rest of the samples are automatically selected (ii) Non-Sampling Errors
by incrementing the value of the sampling interval
(i) Sampling Errors
(k = 10) i.e., 5, 15 , 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, 75, 85, 95.
Errors, which arise in the normal course
Example: of investigation or enumeration on account of
Suppose we have to select 20 items out of chance, are called sampling errors. Sampling
6,000. The procedure is to number all the 6,000 errors are inherent in the method of sampling.
items from 1 to 6,000. The sampling interval is They may arise accidentally without any bias or
N 6000 prejudice. Sampling Errors arise primarily due
calculated as k= = = 300 . Thus
n 20 to the following reasons:
sampling interval = 300 denotes that for every (a) Faulty selection of the sample instead
300 samples one sample has to be selected. of correct sample by defective sampling
The first sample is selected from the first 300 technique.
(sampling interval) samples through random (b) The investigator substitutes a convenient
selection procedures. If the selected first sample if the original sample is not available
random sample is 50, then the rest of the samples while investigation.
are automatically selected by incrementing the (c) In area surveys, while dealing with border
value of the sampling interval (k=300) ie,50, lines it depends upon the investigator
350, 650, 950, 1250, 1550, 1850, 2150, 2450, whether to include them in the sample or
2750, 3050, 3350, 3650, 3950, 4250, 4550, 4850, not. This is known as Faulty demarcation of
5150, 5450, 5750. Items bearing those numbers sampling units.
will be selected as samples from the population.
(ii)Non-Sampling Errors
Merits The errors that arise due to human
1. This is simple and convenient method. factors which always vary from one investigator
2. Th
is method distributes the sample more to another in selecting, estimating or using
evenly over the entire listed population. measuring instruments( tape, scale)are called
Non-Sampling errors.It may arise in the
3. The time and work is reduced much.
following ways:
Demerits (a) Due to negligence and carelessness of the
1. Systematic samples are not random samples. part of either investigator or respondents.
2. If N is not a multiple of n, then the sampling (b) Due to lack of trained and qualified
interval (k) cannot be an integer, thus investigators.
sample selection becomes difficult. (c) Due to framing of a wrong questionnaire.
(d) Due to apply wrong statistical measure
8.1.2 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors: (e) Due to incomplete investigation and sample
A sample is a part of the whole population. survey.
A sample drawn from the population depends
8.1.3 Sampling distribution
upon chance and as such all the characteristics
Definition 8.3
of the population may not be present in the
sample drawn from the same population. The Sampling distribution of a statistic is the
errors involved in the collection, processing frequency distribution which is formed with
various values of a statistic computed from
and analysis of the data may be broadly
different samples of the same size drawn from
classified into two categories namely,
the same population.
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population with density f ( x , q ) such that would be expected to lie is called an interval
the conditional distribution of x1 , x2 ,...., xn estimation.
given T , is independent of q , then T is For example,
sufficient estimator for q . If T is a good estimator of θ with standard
error s then, making use of general property of
8.2.1 Point and Interval Estimation:
the standard deviations, the uncertainty in T, as
To estimate an unknown parameter of the
an estimator of q, can be expressed by statements
population, concept of theory of estimation is
like “ We are about 95% certain that the unknown
used.There are two types of estimation namely,
q, will lie somewhere between T-2s and T+2s”,
1. Point estimation “we are almost sure that q will in the interval
2. Interval estimation ( T-3s and T+3s)” such intervals are called
1. Point Estimation confidence intervals and is explained below.
When a single value is used as an
Confidence interval
estimate, the estimate is called a point estimate
After obtaining the value of the statistic ‘t’
of the population parameter. In other words, an
(sample) from a given sample, Can we make some
estimate of a population parameter given by a
reasonable probability statements about the
single number is called as point estimation.
unknown population parameter ‘ q ’?. This
For example question is very well answered by the technique of
(i) 55 is the mean mark obtained by a sample Confidence Interval. Let us choose a small value of
of 5 students randomly drawn from a class a which is known as level of significance(1% or
of 100 students is considered to be the mean 5%) and determine two constants say, c1 and c2
marks of the entire class. This single value such that P (c1 < θ < c2 |t ) = 1 − α .
55is a point estimate.
The quantities c1 and c2, so determined
(ii) 50 kg is the average weight of a sample of
are known as the Confidence Limits and the
10 students randomly drawn from a class of
interval c1 , c2 within which the unknown
100 students is considered to be the average
value of the population parameter is expected
weight of the entire class. This single value
to lie is known as Confidence Interval. (1− a) is
50 is a point estimate.
called as confidence coefficient.
Note Confidence Interval for the population mean
The sample mean ( x ) is the sample statistic for Large Samples (when s is known)
used as an estimate of population mean (m) If we take repeated independent random
samples of size n from a population with an
Instead of considering, the estimated value unknown mean but known standard deviation,
of the population parameter to be a single value, then the probability that the true population
we might consider an interval for estimating the mean m will fall in the following interval is
value of the population parameter. This concept (1− a) i.e
is known as interval estimation and is explained σ σ
below. P = x − Zα ≤ µ ≤ x + Zα = (1− a)
n n
2 2
2. Interval Estimation So, the confidence interval for population
Generally, there are situations where point mean (m), when standard deviation (s ) is known
estimation is not desirable and we are interested σ
and is given by x ± Z α .
in finding limits within which the parameter 2 n
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For the computation of confidence intervals and for testing of significance, the critical values
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of the tails of the sampling distribution, then it Critical region or Rejection region
is known as one-tailed test. Here H1 : m > m0 and A region corresponding to a test statistic
H1 : m < m0 are known as one tailed alternative. in the sample space which tends to rejection of
H0 is called critical region or region of rejection.
Note
The region complementary to the critical
region is called the region of acceptance.
Two tailed diagram
Fig.8.1 Level of significance
The probability of type I error is known
as level of significance and it is denoted by α.
Right tailed test: H1 : m > m0 is said to
The level of significance is usually employed in
be right tailed test where the rejection region or
testing of hypothesis are 5% and 1%. The level
critical region lies entirely on the right tail of the
of significance is always fixed in advance before
normal curve.
collecting the sample information.
t − E(t) t − E(t )
Z= = N (0,1) as n → ∞
Var (t ) S.E.(t )
… (1)
Left tailed test The value of Z given by (1) under the
Fig.8.3 null hypothesis is known as test statistic. The
Types of Errors in Hypothesis testing critical values of Z , commonly used at the level
There is every chance that a decision of significance for both two tailed and single
regarding a null hypothesis may be correct tailed tests are given in the normal probability
or may not be correct. There are two types of table (Refer the normal probably Table).
errors. They are Since for large n, almost all the
Type I error: The error of rejecting H 0 distributions namely, Binomial, Poisson, etc.,
when it is true. can be approximated very closely by a normal
Type II error: The error of accepting when probability curve, we use the normal test of
H 0 it is false. significance for large samples.
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Inference: Since, the calculated value is significance, the null hypothesis H 0 is accepted.
much greater than table value i.e., Z > Za , it is Therefore, we conclude that there is no
highly significant at 5% level of significance. significant difference between the sample mean
Hence we reject the null hypothesis H 0 and and population mean m= 52 and
conclude that the advertising campaign was SD s = 5. Therefore m = 49 is rejected.
definitely successful in promoting sales.
Example 8.19
Example 8.18 An ambulance service claims that it
The wages of the factory workers are takes on the average 8.9 minutes to reach its
assumed to be normally distributed with mean destination in emergency calls. To check on
and variance 25. A random sample of 50 this claim, the agency which licenses ambulance
workers gives the total wages equal to ` 2,550. services has then timed on 50 emergency calls,
Test the hypothesis m = 52, against the alternative getting a mean of 9.3 minutes with a standard
hypothesis m = 49 at 1% level of significance. deviation of 1.6 minutes. What can they
conclude at 5% level of significance.
Solution:
Sample size n = 50 workers Solution:
Total wages Sx = 2550 Sample size n = 50
total wages Sx 2550
Sample mean x = − = Sample
= 51 mean x = 9.3 minutes
n n 50
total wages Sx 2550 Sample S.D s = 1.6 minutes
= − = = 51 units
n n 50 Population mean m = 8.9 minutes
Population mean m = 52
Null hypothesis H0 : m = 8.9
Population variance s 2 = 25
Alternative
Population SD s = 5
hypothesis H1 : m = 8.9 (Two tail)
Under the null
Level of significance m = 0.05
hypothesis H0 : m = 52
Test statistic
gainst the alternative hypothesis H1 : m ≠ 52
A
(Two tail) x −µ
Z = N (0,1)
Level of significance m = 0.01 σ
n
x −µ
Test statistic Z = N (0,1) 9. 3 − 8. 9 0.4
σ Z = = = 1.7676
n 1. 6
50
0.2263
51 − 52 −1
Z = = = −1.4142
5
50
0.7071 Calculated value Z = 1.7676
Since alternative hypothesis is of two Critical value at 5% level of significance is
tailed test we can take | Z |= 1.4142 Za = 1.96
2
Critical value at 1% level of significance is Inference: Since the calculated value is
Za = 2.58 less than table value i.e., Z < Za at 5% level of
2 2
Inference: Since the calculated value is significance, the null hypothesis is accepted.
less than table value i.e., Z < Za at 1% level of Therefore we conclude that an ambulance
2
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service claims on the average 8.9 minutes to 17. The mean breaking strength of cables
reach its destination in emergency calls. supplied by a manufacturer is 1,800 with a
standard deviation 100. By a new technique
Exercise 8.2
in the manufacturing process it is claimed
that the breaking strength of the cables
1. Mention two branches of statistical
has increased. In order to test this claim
inference?
a sample of 50 cables is tested. It is found
2. What is an estimator? that the mean breaking strength is 1,850.
3. What is an estimate? Can you support the claim at 0.01 level of
significance.
4. What is point estimation?
5. What is interval estimation? Exercise 8.3
6. What is confidence interval?
Choose the correct Answer
7. What is null hypothesis? Give an example.
1. A …………. may be finite or infinite
8. Define alternative hypothesis. according as the number of observations or
9. Define critical region. items in it is finite or infinite.
(a) Population (b) census
10. Define critical value. (c) parameter (d) none of these
11. Define level of significance. 2. A ……… of statistical individuals in a
12. What is type I error. population is called a sample.
13. What is single tailed test. (a) Infinite set (b) finite subset
(c) finite set (d) entire set
14. A sample of 100 items, draw from a universe
with mean value 4 and S.D 3, has a mean 3. A finite subset of statistical individuals in a
value 63.5. Is the difference in the mean population is called ………...
significant at 0.05 level of significance? (a) a sample (b) a population
(c) universe (d) census
15. A sample of 400 individuals is found to
have a mean height of 67.47 inches. Can it 4. Any statistical measure computed from
be reasonably regarded as a sample from a sample data is known as …………...
large population with mean height of 67.39 (a) parameter (b) statistic
inches and standard deviation 1.30 inches (c) infinite measure (d) uncountable
at 0.05 level of significance? measure
16. The average score on a nationally 5. A…………..is one where each item in the
administered aptitude test was 76 and the universe has an equal chance of known
corresponding standard deviation was 8. In opportunity of being selected.
order to evaluate a state’s education system, (a) Parameter (b) random sample
the scores of 100 of the state’s students were (c) statistic (d) entire data
randomly selected. These students had an 6. A random sample is a sample selected in
average score of 72. Test at a significance such a way that every item in the population
level of 0.05 if there is a significant difference has an equal chance of being included
between the state scores and the national (a) Harper (b) Fisher
scores. (c) Karl Pearson (d) Dr. Yates
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7. Which one of the following is probability 15. An estimator is said to be …………. if it
sampling contains all the information in the data
(a) purposive sampling about the parameter it estimates.
(b) judgment sampling (a) efficient (b) sufficient
(c) simple random sampling (c) unbiased (d) consistent
(d) Convenience sampling 16.
An estimate of a population parameter
8.
In simple random sampling from a given by two numbers between which the
population of N units, the probability of parameter would be expected to lie is called
drawing any unit at the first draw is an……………..interval estimate of the
n 1 N parameter.
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
N N n (a) point estimate
(b) interval estimation
9. In …………….. the heterogeneous groups
(c) standard error
are divided into homogeneous groups.
(d) confidence
(a) Non-probability sample
(b) a simple random sample 17. A ________ is a statement or an assertion
(c) a stratified random sample about the population parameter.
(d) systematic random sample (a) hypothesis (b) statistic
(c) sample (d) census
10. Errors in sampling are of
(a) Two types (b) three types 18. Type I error is
(c) four types (d) five types (a) Accept H 0 when it is true
(b) Accept H 0 when it is false
11. The method of obtaining the most likely
( c) Reject H 0 when it is true
value of the population parameter using
(d) Reject H 0 when it is false
statistic is called ……………………
(a) estimation (b) estimator 19. Type II error is
(c) biased estimate (d) standard error (a) Accept H 0 when it is wrong
(b) Accept H 0 when it is true
12. An estimator is a sample
(c) Reject H 0 when it is true
statistic used to estimate a
(d) Reject H 0 when it is false
(a) population parameter
(b) biased estimate 20. The standard error of sample mean is
(c) sample size s s s s2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) census 2n n n n
13. …………..is a relative property, which
states that one estimator is efficient relative Miscellaneous Problems
to another. 1. Explain the types of sampling.
(a) efficiency (b) sufficiency 2. Write short note on sampling distribution
(c) unbiased ˘ (d) consistency and standard error.
14. If probability P[| θ − θ |< ε] →˘1 as n → ∞ , 3.
Explain the procedures of testing of
for any positive e then θ is said to hypothesis
…………..estimator of q . 4. Explain in detail about the test of significance
(a) efficient (b) sufficient for single mean
(c) unbiased (d) consistent 5. Determine the standard error of proportion
for a random sample of 500 pineapples was
196 12th Std. Business Mathematics and Statistics
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taken from a large consignment and 65 were intervals for estimating the mean weight of
found to be bad. the students.
6. A sample of 100 students are drawn from a 7. The mean I.Q of a sample of 1600 children
school. The mean weight and variance of the was 99. Is it likely that this was a random
sample are 67.45 kg and 9 kg. respectively. sample from a population with mean I.Q
Find (a) 95% and (b) 99% confidence 100 and standard deviation 15 ? (Test at 5%
level of significance).
Summary
zz Sampling: It is the procedure or process of selecting a sample from a population.
zz Population: The group of individuals considered under study is called as population.
zz Sample :Aselection of a group of individuals from a population.
zz Sample size :The number of individuals included in a sample.
zz Simple Random Sampling :The samples are selected in such a way that each and every unit in
the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected as a sample.
zz Stratified Random Sampling: When the population is heterogeneous, the population is
divided into homogeneous number of sub-groups or strata. A sample is drawn from each
stratum at random.
zz Systematic Sampling: Select the first sample at random, the rest being automatically selected
according to some predetermined pattern.
zz Sampling Distribution: Sampling distribution of a statistic is the frequency distribution which
is formed with various values of a statistic computed from different samples of the same size
drawn from the same population.
zz Standard Error: The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is known as
its Standard Error.
zz Statistical Inference: To draw inference about a population of any statistical investigation
from the analysis of samples drawn from that population.
zz Estimation :The method of obtaining the most likely value of the population parameter using
statistic is called estimation.
zz Point Estimation: When a single value is used as an estimate, it is called as point estimation.
zz Interval Estimation: An interval within which the parameter would be expected to lie is called
interval estimation.
zz Test of Statistical Hypothesis: Statistical technique to arrive at a decision in certain situations
where there is an element of uncertainty on the basis of sample
zz Null Hypothesis: The hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the assumption
that it is true”, denoted by H 0 .
zz Alternative Hypothesis:The hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is
called as the alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 .
zz Type I error:The error of rejecting H 0 when it is true.
zz Type II error:The error of accepting H 0 when it is false.
zz Test of significance for single mean:
x −µ
Z= σ
N (0,1)
n
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GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Estimation மதிப்பிடுதல்
Sample கூறு
Sampling கூறெடுப்பு
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ICT Corner
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics and Statistics” will open. In the work
book there are two Volumes. Select “Volume-2”.
Enter the Population size, Sample size and random start value in the respective boxes. Then click
on the Sampling units to view the Systematic sample units.
Step 1
Step 2
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9 Applied Statistics
Introduction
T
he term Applied
Statistics refers to the use of
statistical theory to conduct operational
activities in a variety of fields in real life situations. Today, the
applications of statistics are an indispensable part of any and every
activity. There are many fields in which statistical concepts can
Walter Shewhart be applied, some of them are business decision making, finance,
(March 18, 1891- marketing, economics, social sciences, industry, agriculture etc…
March 11, 1967) An important aspect of applied statistics is to study about the
present and future behaviour of the activities performed in an
industry.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter the students are able to understand
zz Time series data
zz Components of Time Series
zz Moving Averages
zz Seasonal Variation
zz Index Numbers
zz Weighted Index Number
zz Tests for an Ideal Index Number
zz Statistical Quality Control
zz Causes for Variation
zz Process Control and Product Control
In this chapter we would be studying about Statistical Quality Control. Each one of them
the theoretical and application of the statistical has its importance in its field of application.
methods of Time Series, Index Number and Statistical analysis has been widely used for
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scientific research, surveys, experiments etc. The Why should we learn Time Series?
reliability of the interpretation of the statistical It helps in the analysis of the past behavior.
analysis depends upon the informations
It helps in forecasting and for future plans.
collected and represented.
It helps in the evaluation of current
9.1 Time Series Analysis achievements.
Time Series analysis is one of the It helps in making comparative studies
statistical methods used to determine the between one time period and others.
patterns in data collected for a period of time.
Therefore time series helps us to study and
Generally, each of us should know about
analyze the time related data which involves in
the past data to observe and understand the
business fields, economics, industries, etc…
changes that have taken place in the past
and current time. One can also identify the Components of Time Series
regular or irregular occurrence of any specific There are four types of components in a
feature over a time period in a time series time series. They are as follows;
data. Most of the time series data relates to
(i) Secular Trend
fields like Economics, Business, Commerce,
(ii) Seasonal variations
etc… For example Production of a product,
Cost of a product, Sales of a product, National (iii) Cyclic variations
income, Salary of an individual, etc.. By (iv) Irregular variations
close observation of time series data, one (i) Secular Trend
can predict and plan for future operations in
It is a general tendency of time series to
industries and other fields.
increase or decrease or stagnates during a long
Definition 9.1 period of time. An upward tendency is usually
A Time Series consists of data arranged observed in population of a country, production,
chronologically – Croxton & Cowden. sales, prices in industries, income of individuals
etc., A downward tendency is observed in
When quantitative data are arranged in
deaths, epidemics, prices of electronic gadgets,
the order of their occurrence, the resulting
water sources, mortality rate etc…. It is not
series is called the Time Series – Wessel &
necessarily that the increase or decrease should
Wallet.
be in the same direction throughout the given
period of time.
9.1.1 Meaning, Uses and Basic
Components (ii) Seasonal Variations
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in the magnitude. For example, selling of The additive model assumes that all the
umbrellas’ and raincoat in the rainy season, four components operate independently. It also
sales of cool drinks in summer season, crackers assumes that the behavior of components is of
in Deepawali season, purchase of dresses in a an additive character.
festival season, sugarcane in Pongal season.
(ii) Multiplicative Model:
(iii) Cyclic Variations
This model assumes that the observed
These variations are not necessarily value is obtained by multiplying the trend (T)
uniformly periodic in nature. That is, they may by the rates of other three components.
or may not follow exactly similar patterns after Y=T×S×C×I
equal intervals of time. Generally one cyclic
where Y = Original value , T = Trend Value,
period ranges from 7 to 9 years and there is no
S = Seasonal component, C = Cyclic component,
hard and fast rule in the fixation of years for
I = Irregular component
a cyclic period. For example, every business
cycle has a Start- Boom- Depression- Recover, This model assumes that the components
maintenance during booms and depressions, due to different causes are not necessarily
changes in government monetary policies, independent and they can affect one another. It
changes in interest rates. also assumes that the behavior of components is
of a multiplicative character.
(iv) Irregular Variations
9.1.2 Measurements of Trends
These variations do not have particular
pattern and there is no regular period of time Following are the methods by which we
of their occurrences. These are accidently can measure the trend.
changes which are purely random or
(i) Freehand or Graphic Method.
unpredictable. Normally they are short-term
variations, but its occurrence sometimes has (ii) Method of Semi-Averages.
its effect so intense that they may give rise to (iii) Method of Moving Averages.
new cyclic or other movements of variations.
For example floods, wars, earthquakes, (iv) Method of Least Squares.
Tsunami, strikes, lockouts etc… (i) Freehand or Graphic Method.
Mathematical Model for a Time Series
It is the simplest and most flexible method
There are two common models used for estimating a trend. We will see the working
for decomposition of a time series into its procedure of this method.
components, namely additive and multiplicative
model. Procedure:
(i) Additive Model: (a) Plot the time series data on a graph.
(b) Draw a freehand smooth curve joining
This model assumes that the observed
the plotted points.
value is the sum of all the four components of
(c) Examine the direction of the trend
time series. (i.e) Y= T+S+C+I
based on the plotted points.
where Y = Original value, T = Trend Value, (d) Draw a straight line which will pass
S = Seasonal component, C = Cyclic component, through the maximum number of
I = Irregular component plotted points.
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Example 9.1 (vi) This line is the trend line by the methods of
Fit a trend line by the method of freehand semi-averages.
method for the given data. Example 9.2
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Fit a trend line by the method of semi-
Sales 30 46 25 59 40 60 38 65 averages for the given data.
30
40
38 we will leave the middle year’s production
Original Data
20
30
25 value and obtain the averages of first three years
Trend Line
10 and last three years.
O
X′ 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 X Year Production Average
Y′ 105
2000
Fig: 9.1 115 105 + 115 + 120
2001 = 113.33
Note 2002 120 3
100
The trend drawn by the freehand method 2003 (left out)
can be extended to predict the future values
of the given data. However, this method is 2004 110
subjective in nature, predictions obtained by 2005 125 110 + 125 + 135
= 123.33
this method depends on the personal bias 2006 135 3
and judgement of the investigator handling Table 9.1
the data.
Y
124
(ii) Method of Semi-Averages 122
In this method, the semi-averages are 120
calculated to find out the trend values. Now, we 118
will see the working procedure of this method. 116
Procedure: 114
112
(i) The data is divided into two equal parts. In O
case of odd number of data, two equal parts X′ 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 X
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Example 9.5
Calculate four-yearly moving averages Note
of number of students studying in a higher
The calculated 4-yearly centered moving
secondary school in a particular city from the
average belongs to the particular year present
following data.
in that row. In example 9.5, the value 132.37
Year Number of students belongs to the year 2003.
2001 124
2002 120 9.1.4 Method of Least Squares
2003 135 The line of best fit is a line from which
2004 140 the sum of the deviations of various points is
2005 145 zero. This is the best method for obtaining the
trend values. It gives a convenient basis for
2006 158
calculating the line of best fit for the time series.
2007 162 It is a mathematical method for measuring
2008 170 trend. Further the sum of the squares of these
2009 175 deviations would be least when compared with
other fitting methods. So, this method is known
Solution:
as the Method of Least Squares and satisfies the
Computation of four- yearly moving
following conditions:
averages.
4-yearly 4-yearly
4-yearly (i) The sum of the deviations of the actual
centered values of Y and Ŷ (estimated value of Y) is
Year Sales centered moving
moving
moving total Average Zero. that is Σ(Y–Ŷ) = 0.
Average
2001 124 -- -- -- (ii) The sum of squares of the deviations of the
actual values of Y and Ŷ (estimated value of
2002 120 -- -- -- Y) is least. that is Σ(Y–Ŷ)2 is least.
519 129.75
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Procedure: Solution:
Computation of trend values by the
(i) The straight line trend is represented by the method of least squares (ODD Years).
equation Y = a + bX …(1)
Production
where Y is the actual value, X is time, a, b are Trend
Year of X = (x– 2
constants X XY values
(x) Sugarcane 2003)
(Yt)
(Y)
(ii) The constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are estimated by 2000 40 –3 9 –120 42.04
solving the following two normal Equations 2001 45 –2 4 –90 43.07
ΣY = n a + b ΣX ...(2) 2002 46 –1 1 –46 44.11
ΣXY = a ΣX + b ΣX2 ...(3) 2003 42 0 0 0 45.14
2004 47 1 1 47 46.18
Where ‘n’ = number of years given in the data.
2005 50 2 4 100 47.22
(iii) By taking the mid-point of the time as the
2006 46 3 9 138 48.25
origin, we get ΣX = 0
Σ Yt =
(iv) When ΣX = 0 , the two normal equations N= 7 ΣY = 316 Σ X = 0 ΣX2= 28 ΣXY=29
316
reduces to
Table 9.5
ΣY = n a + b (0); a =
∑Y =Y ∑ Y = 316 = 45.143
n a=
7 n
ΣXY = a(0) + b ΣX2 ; b =
∑ XY ∑ XY = 29 = 1.036
b=
∑ X2 ∑ X 2 28
The constant ‘a’ gives the mean of Y and ‘b’ gives
Therefore, the required equation of the
the rate of change (slope).
straight line trend is given by
(v) By substituting the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the
Y = a + bX
trend equation (1), we get the Line of Best Fit.
Y = 45.143 + 1.036 (x - 2003)
The trend values can be obtained by
When X = 2000,
The constant ‘a’ takes only
positive values, but constant ‘b’ Yt = 45.143 + 1.036 (2000–2003) = 42.035
takes both positive and negative values When X = 2001,
Yt = 45.143 + 1.036 (2001–2003) = 43.071,
similarly other values can be obtained.
Example 9.6
Given below are the data relating to the Example 9.7
production of sugarcane in a district. Given below are the data relating to the
sales of a product in a district.
Fit a straight line trend by the method of
least squares and tabulate the trend values. Fit a straight line trend by the method of
least squares and tabulate the trend values.
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Prod. of
40 45 46 42 47 50 46 Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Sugarcane
Sales 6.7 5.3 4.3 6.1 5.6 7.9 5.8 6.1
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a=
∑Y =
47.8
= 5.975 (v) Compute Seasonal Index for every season
n 8 (i.e) months, quarters or year is given by
b=
∑ XY = 8.6 = 0.05119 Seasonal Index (S.I) =
Seasonal Average
× 100
∑ X 2 168 Grand average
(vi) If the data is given in months
Therefore, the required equation of the
Monthly Average ( for Jan)
straight line trend is given by S.I for Jan = ×100
Grand average
Y = a + bX ; Y = 5.975 + 0.05119 X .
for Feb = Monthly Average ( for Feb) ×100
1995 - 1998.5S.I
When X = 1995 , Yt = 5.975 + 0.10238 = 5.66166
1995 - 1998.5 0. 5 Grand average
X =1995, Yt = 5.975 + 0.05119 = 5.6167
0.5 Similarly we can calculate SI for all other
1996 - 1998.5months.
When X = 1996 , Yt = 5.975 + 0.10238 = 5.7190
0.5 (vii) If the data is given in quarter
1996 - 1998.5
X =1996, Yt = 5.975 + 0.05119 = 5.7190
0.5 Average of I quarter
S.I for I Quarter = ×100
similarly other values can be obtained. Grand average
Note Average of II quarter
S.I for II Quarter = ×100
Grand average
(i) Future forecasts made by this method are
based only on trend values. Average of III quarter
S.I for III Quarter = ×100
(ii) The predicted values are more reliable in Grand average
this method than the other methods. Average of IV quarter
S.I for IV Quarter = ×100
Grand average
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21. Calculate the seasonal indices from the 9.2.1 Meaning, Classifications and
following data using the average from the Uses
following data using the average method: Suppose we want to measure the general
I Quarter II Quarter III Quarter IV Quarter
changes in the price level of consumer goods,
the price changes are not directly measurable,
2008 72 68 62 76
as the prices of various commodities are in
2009 78 74 78 72 different units For example rice, wheat and
2010 74 70 72 76 sugar are in kilograms, milk, petrol, oil are
2011 76 74 74 72 in litres, clothes are in metres etc… Further,
the price and quantity of some commodities
2012 72 72 76 68
may increase or decrease during the two time
22. The following table shows the number of periods. Therefore, index number gives a single
salesmen working for a certain concern: representative value which gives the general
level of the prices of the commodities in a given
Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 group over a specified time period.
No. of
46 48 42 56 52 Definition 9.2
salesmen
“An Index Number is a device which
Use the method of least squares to fit a shows by its variations the Changes in a
straight line and estimate the number of magnitude which is not capable of accurate
salesmen in 1997. measurements in itself or of direct valuation
in practice”. - Wheldon
9.2 Index Number
“An Index number is a statistical
Introduction: measure of fluctuations in a variable arranged
in the form of a series and using a base period
Index Numbers are the indicators which
for making comparisons”– Lawrence J Kalpan
reflect the changes over a specified period of time
in price of different commodities, production,
Classification of Index Numbers:
sales, cost of living etc... Index Numbers are
statistical methods used to measure the relative Index number can be classified as follows,
change in the level of a variable or group of (i) Price Index Number
variables with respect to time, geographical
It measures the general changes in the retail
location or other characteristics such as income,
or wholesale price level of a particular or
profession etc. The variables may be
group of commodities.
(i) The price of a particular commodity. For (ii) Quantity Index Number
example gold, silver, iron (or) a group of
These are indices to measure the changes
commodities. For example consumer goods,
in the quantity of goods manufactured in a
household food items etc..
factory.
(ii)
The volume of export and import,
(iii) Cost of living Index Number
agricultural and industrial production.
These are intended to study the effect of
(iii) National income of a country, cost of living change in the price level on the cost of living
of persons belonging to a particular income of different classes of people.
group.
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P01L =
∑ p1 q0 × 100 Rice 38 35 6 7 228 266 210 245
P01P =
∑ p1 q1 × 100 Total 952 1236 1110 1460
∑ p0 q1 Table 9.9
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P01F =
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1
1110 × 1460
Fisher’s price index number
× 100 =
× 100 = 117.336
∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1
952 × 1236
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 × 100 = 487 × 709 ×
P01F =
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q 1 × 100 = 1110 × 1460 × 100 = 117.336 ∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 376 × 565
∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 952 × 1236
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 487 × 709
F
P
On an average, there= ×
100 = × 100 = 127.4879
is ∑
an pincrease of
0q0 × ∑ p0q1
01
376 × 565
17.36 % in the price of the commodities when
the year 2000 compared with the year 2010.
On an average, there is an increase of
Example 9.11 29.52 % , 25.48% and 27.48% in the price of the
Construct the Laspeyre’s , Paasche’s and Fisher’s commodities by Laspeyre’s, Paasche’s, Fisher’s
price index number for the following data. price index number respectively, when the base
Comment on the result. year compared with the current year.
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P01F =
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1
∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 Since Fisher’s Price Index Number
when the base year and current year are satisfies both TRT & FRT, it is
interchanged, we get termed as an Ideal Index Number
P10F =
∑ p0q1 × ∑ p0q0 Price Quantity
∑ p1q1 × ∑ p1q0 Commodities
2003 2009 2003 2009
P01F × P10F = 1 Rice 10 13 4 6
Wheat 15 18 7 8
Note Rent 25 29 5 9
Ignore the factor 100 in each Index number Fuel 11 14 8 10
Miscellaneous 14 17 6 7
year should be equal to the true value ratio. That Wheat 15 18 7 8 105 120 126 144
is, the ratio between the total value of current Rent 25 29 5 9 125 225 145 261
period and total Fuel 11 14 8 10 88 110 112 140
84 98 102 119
value of the base period is known as true Miscellaneous 14 17 6 7
value ratio. Factor Reversal Test is given by, Total 442 613 537 742
P01 × Q01 =
∑ p1q1 Table 9.11
∑ p0q0 Fisher’s price index number
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 P01F =
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 × 100 = 565 × 742
where P01 = ×
∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 ∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 442 × 613
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Solution:
p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 × 100 = 537 × 742
× 100 = 121.2684 Base Year Current Year
p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 442 × 613
Commodities Price Quantity Price Quantity p0q0 p0q1 p1q0 p1q1
(p0) (q0) (p1) (q1)
Time Reversal Test: P01 × P10 = 1
Rice 10 5 11 6 50 60 55 66
∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 × ∑ p0q1 × ∑ p0q0 Wheat 12 6 13 4 72 48 78 52
P01 × P10 =
∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 × ∑ p1q1 × ∑ p1q0 Rent 14 8 15 7 112 98 120 105
Fuel 16 9 17 8 144 128 153 136
537 × 742 × 613 × 442 Transport 18 7 19 5 126 90 133 95
P01 × P10 = 442 × 613 × 742 × 537
Miscellaneous 20 4 21 3 80 60 84 63
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P01 × Q01 =
∑ p1q1 ∑ p1q0 × ∑ p1q1 × ∑ p0q1 × ∑ p0q0
P01 × P10 =
∑ p0q0 ∑ p0q0 × ∑ p0q1 × ∑ p1q1 × ∑ p1q0
Rent 90 4 95 6
1341 × 1784 × 1600 × 1784
Fuel 85 3 80 2 P01 × Q01 = 1220 × 1600 × 1220 × 1341
Transport 50 5 65 8
Miscellaneous 65 1 72 3 1784 × 1784 1784
P01 × Q01 = 1220 × 1220 = 1220
Solution:
Base Year Current Year ⇒ P01 × Q01 =
∑ p1q1
Commodities
Price Quantity Price Quantity
p0q0 p0q1 p1q0 p1q1 ∑ p0q0
(p0) (q0) (p1) (q1)
9.2.4 Construction of Cost of Living
Rice 40 5 48 4 200 160 240 192 Index Number
Wheat 45 2 42 3 90 135 84 126
Cost of Living Index Number is
Rent 90 4 95 6 360 540 380 570
constructed to study the effect of changes in the
Fuel 85 3 80 2 255 170 240 160
price of goods and services of consumers for a
Transport50 5 65 8 250 400 325 520
current period as compared with base period.
Miscellaneous 65 1 72 3 65 195 72 216
The change in the cost of living index number
Total 1220 1600 1341 1784 between any two periods means the change in
income which will be necessary to maintain
Table 9.13
the same standard of living in both the periods.
Fisher’s price index number Therefore the cost of living index number
measures the average increase in the cost to
P01F =
p q∑
1 0 × p q
1 1 ∑
× 100 =
1341 × 1784
maintain the same standard of life. Further,
× 100 = 110.706
∑
p0q0 × p0q1
∑ 1220 × 1600 the consumption
habits of people differ widely
from class to class (rich, poor, middle class)
× ∑ p1q1 1341 × 1784
× 100 = × 100 = 110 . 706
and even with the region. The changes in the
price level affect the different classes of people,
× ∑ p0q1 1220 × 1600
consequently the general price index numbers
Time Reversal Test: P01 × P10 = 1 fail to reflect the effect of changes in their cost
of living of different classes of people. Therefore,
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Cost of Living Index Number Hence, the Cost of Living Index Number
for a particular class of people for the year
=
∑ p1 q0 × 100 = 1000 × 100 = 131.926 2015 is increased by 12.61 % as compared to the
∑ p0 q0 758 year 2010.
Cost of Living Index Number Hence, the Cost of Living Index Number
for a particular class of people for the year 2016
=
∑ p1 q0 × 100 = 95225 × 100 = 112.609 is increased by 59.0679 % as compared to the
∑ p0 q0 84562.5 year 2011.
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=
∑ PV =
17429.76
= 129.1093
A 5 60 15 70
∑V 135 B 4 20 8 35
C 3 15 6 20
Hence, the Cost of Living Index Number
for a particular class of people for the year 2011
is increased by 29.1093% as compared to the 16. Compute (i) Laspeyre’s (ii) Paasche’s (iii)
year 2007. Fisher’s Index numbers for the 2010 from
the following data.
Commo- Price Quantity
Exercise 9.2
dity 2000 2010 2000 2010
1. Define Index Number. A 12 14 18 16
B 15 16 20 15
2. State the uses of Index Number.
C 14 15 24 20
3. Mention the classification of Index D 12 12 29 23
Number.
4. Define Laspeyre’s price index number.
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17. Using the following data, construct Fisher’s Ideal index and show how it satisfies Factor Reversal
Test and Time Reversal Test?
B 2 2 100 120
C 4 6 60 60
D 10 12 50 24
E 8 12 40 36
18. Using Fisher’s Ideal Formula, compute price index number for 1999 with 1996 as base year,
given the following:
19. Calculate Fisher’s index number to the following data. Also show that it satisfies Time Reversal
Test.
2016 2017
Commodity
Price (Rs.) Quantity (Kg) Price (Rs.) Quantity (Kg)
Food 40 12 65 14
Fuel 72 14 78 20
Clothing 36 10 36 15
Wheat 20 6 42 4
Others 46 8 52 6
20. The following are the group index numbers and the group weights of an average working class
family’s budget. Construct the cost of living index number:
Fuel and
Groups Food Clothing Rent Miscellaneous
Lighting
Index Number 2450 1240 3250 3750 4190
Weight 48 20 12 15 10
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21. Construct the cost of living Index number for the raw materials, processes, machines etc… It
2015 on the basis of 2012 from the following is essential that the end products should possess
data using family budget method. the qualities that the consumer expects from
the manufacturer.
Price
Commodity Weights
2012 2015 9.3.2 Causes of Variation
Rice 250 280 10
There are two causes of variation which
Wheat 70 85 5
affects the quality of a product, namely
Corn 150 170 6
Oil 25 35 4 1. Chance Causes (or) Random causes
Dhal 85 90 3
2. Assignable Causes
22. Calculate the cost of living index by
Chance Causes
aggregate expenditure method:
These are small variations which are
Price (Rs.) natural and inherent in the manufacturing
Weights
Commodity process. The variation occurring due to these
2010 2010 2015
causes is beyond the human control and
P 80 22 25 cannot be prevented or eliminated under any
Q 30 30 45 circumstances. The minor causes which do not
R 25 42 50 affect the quality of the products to an extent are
S 40 25 35 called as Chance Causes (or) Random causes.
T 36 52 For example Rain, floods, power cuts, etc…
50
Assignable Causes
9.3 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
The second type of variation which is
Introduction
present in any production process is due to non-
It is one of the most important applications random causes. The assignable causes may occur
of statistical techniques in industry. The term in at any stage of the process, right from the
Quality means a level or standard of a product arrival of the raw materials to the final delivery
which depends on Material, Manpower, of the product. Some of the important factors
Machines, and Management (4M’s). Quality of assignable causes are defective raw materials,
Control ensures the quality specifications all fault in machines, unskilled manpower, worn
along them from the arrival of raw materials out tools, new operation, etc.
through each of their processing to the final
The main purpose of SQC is to device
delivery of goods. This technique is used
statistical techniques which would help in
in almost all production industries such as
elimination of assignable causes and bring the
automobile, textile, electrical equipment,
production process under control.
biscuits, bath soaps, chemicals, petroleum
products etc.
9.3.3 Process Control and Product
9.3.1 Meaning Control
Quality Control is a powerful technique The main objective in any production
used to diagnose the lack of quality in any of process is to control and maintain a satisfactory
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quality level of the manufactured product. For example, the following diagram
This is done by ‘Process Control’. In Process shows all the three control lines with the data
Control the proportion of defective items in points plotted, since all the points falls within
the production process is to be minimized and the control limits, we can say that the process is
it is achieved through the technique of control in control.
charts. Product Control means that controlling Y
Quantity characteristic
UCL = 10.860
the quality of the product by critical examination 11.0
through sampling inspection plans. Product Center line = 10.058
Control aims at a certain quality level to be 10.0
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Example 9.20
The following data gives the readings for 8 samples of size 6 each in the production of a certain
product. Find the control limits using mean chart.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mean 300 342 351 319 326 333
Range 25 37 20 28 30 22
Given for n = 6, A2 = 0.483,
Solution:
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
Mean 300 342 351 319 326 333 1971
Range 25 37 20 28 30 22 162
Table 9.20
X=
∑X =
1971
= 328.5 R=
∑ R = 162 = 27
number of samples 6 n 6
CL = X = 328.5
LCL = X − A2 R = 328.5 − 0.483(27) = 315.45
Example 9.21
The data shows the sample mean and range for 10 samples for size 5 each. Find the control limits
for mean chart and range chart.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean 21 26 23 18 19 15 14 20 16 10
Range 5 6 9 7 4 6 8 9 4 7
Solution:
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Mean 21 26 23 18 19 15 14 20 16 10 182
Range 5 6 9 7 4 6 8 9 4 7 65
Table 9.21
X=
∑X =
182
= 18.2 R=
∑ R = 65 = 6.5
number of samples 10 n 10
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The control limits for X chart is The control limits for Range chart is
Example 9.22
The following data gives readings of 10 samples of size 6 each in the production of a certain
product. Draw control chart for mean and range with its control limits.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean 383 508 505 582 557 337 514 614 707 753
Range 95 128 100 91 68 65 148 28 37 80
Solution:
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Mean 383 508 505 582 557 337 514 614 707 753 5460
Range 95 128 100 91 68 65 148 28 37 80 840
Table 9.22
X=
∑ X = 5460 = 546 R=
∑ R = 840 = 84
10 10 n 10
The control limits for X chart is The control limits for Range chart is
Example 9.23
You are given below the values of sample mean ( X ) and the range ( R ) for ten samples of size
5 each. Draw mean chart and comment on the state of control of the process.
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X 43 49 37 44 45 37 51 46 43 47
R 5 6 5 7 7 4 8 6 4 6
Given the following control chart constraint for : n = 5, A2 = 0.58 , D3 = 0 and D4 = 2.115
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Solution:
53
∑ X = 442 = 44.2 51
51
Y
X= 49 49
10 10 47
47
UCL = 47
R=
∑R =
58
= 5. 8
45 44
45 46
Center line = 44.2
n 10 43 43 43
LCL = 41.39
41
39
37 37 37
UCL = X + A2 R O
= 44.2 + 0.483(5.8) = 47.00 X′ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X
Y′ Fig 9.5
CL = X = 44.2
LCL = X − A2 R = 44.2 − 0.483(5.8) = 41.39
The above diagram shows all the three control lines with the data points plotted, since four
points falls out of the control limits, we can say that the process is out of control.
Exercise 9.3
14. A machine is set to deliver packets of a given weight. Ten samples of size five each were recorded.
Below are given relevant data:
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X 15 17 15 18 17 14 18 15 17 16
R 7 7 4 9 8 7 12 4 11 5
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Calculate the control limits for mean chart and the range chart and then comment on the state
of control. (conversion factors for n = 5, A2 = 0.58 , D3 = 0 and D4 = 2.115 )
15. Ten samples each of size five are drawn at regular intervals from a manufacturing process. The
sample means ( X ) and their ranges ( R ) are given below:
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X 49 45 48 53 39 47 46 39 51 45
R 7 5 7 9 5 8 8 6 7 6
Calculate the control limits in respect of X chart. ( Given A2 = 0.58 , D3 = 0 and D4 = 2.115 )
Comment on the state of control.
16. Construct X and R charts for the following data:
2 28 32 40
3 39 52 28
4 50 42 31
5 42 45 34
6 50 29 21
7 44 52 35
8 22 35 44
Sample Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean 11.2 11.8 10.8 11.6 11.0 9.6 10.4 9.6 10.6 10.0
Range 7 4 8 5 7 4 8 4 7 9
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Observations
Sample Number
1 2 3 4
1 12.5 12.3 12.6 12.7
2 12.8 12.4 12.4 12.8
3 12.1 12.6 12.5 12.4
4 12.2 12.6 12.5 12.3
5 12.4 12.5 12.5 12.5
6 12.3 12.4 12.6 12.6
7 12.6 12.7 12.5 12.8
8 12.4 12.3 12.6 12.5
9 12.6 12.5 12.3 12.6
10 12.1 12.7 12.5 12.8
19. The following data show the values of sample means and the ranges for ten samples of size 4
each. Construct the control chart for mean and range chart and determine whether the process
is in control.
Sample Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X 29 26 37 34 14 45 39 20 34 23
R 39 10 39 17 12 20 05 21 23 15
20. In a production process, eight samples of size 4 are collected and their means and ranges are
given below. Construct mean chart and range chart with control limits.
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X 12 13 11 12 14 13 16 15
R 2 5 4 2 3 2 4 3
21. In a certain bottling industry the quality control inspector recorded the weight of each of the 5
bottles selected at random during each hour of four hours in the morning.
Time Weights in ml
8:00 AM 43 41 42 43 41
9:00 AM 40 39 40 39 44
10:00 AM 42 42 43 38 40
11:00 AM 39 43 40 39 42
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4. Factors responsible for seasonal variations (a) Whole-sale price index number
are (b) Cost of living index
(a) Weather (c) Sensitive
(b) Festivals (d) Composite
(c) Social customs 11. Cost of living at two different cities can be
(d) All the above compared with the help of
5. The additive model of the time series with (a) Consumer price index
the components T, S, C and I is (b) Value index
(a) y=T+S+C×I (b) y=T+S×C×I (c) Volume index
(c) y=T+S+C+I (d) y=T+S×C+I (d) Un-weighted index
6. Least square method of fitting a trend is 12. Laspeyre’s index = 110, Paasche’s index =
(a) Most exact 108, then Fisher’s Ideal index is equal to:
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13. Most commonly used index number is: 20. The assignable causes can occur due to
(a) Volume index number (a) poor raw materials
(b) Value index number (b) unskilled labour
(c) Price index number (c) faulty machines
(d) Simple index number (d) all of them
14. Consumer price index are obtained by: 21. A typical control charts consists of
(a) Paasche’s formula (a) CL, UCL (b) CL, LCL
(b) Fisher’s ideal formula (c) CL, LCL, UCL (d) UCL, LCL
(c) Marshall Edgeworth formula
22. X chart is a
(d) Family budget method formula
(a) attribute control chart
15. Which of the following Index number
(b) variable control chart
satisfy the time reversal test?
(c) neither Attribute nor variable control
(a)Laspeyre’s Index number
chart
(b) Paasche’s Index number
(d) both Attribute and variable control
(c) Fisher Index number chart
(d) All of them. 23. R is calculated using
16. While computing a weighted index, the (a) x max − x min (b) x min − x max
current period quantities are used in the:
(a) Laspeyre’s method (c) x max − x min (d) x max − x min
(b) Paasche’s method 24. The upper control limit for X chart is
(c) Marshall Edgeworth method given by
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Miscellaneous Problems
1. Using three yearly moving averages, Determine the trend values from the following data.
2. From the following data, calculate the trend values using fourly moving averages.
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sales 506 620 1036 673 588 696 1116 738 663
3. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least squares to the following data.
4. Calculate the Laspeyre’s, Paasche’s and Fisher’s price index number for the following data.
Interpret on the data.
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5. Using the following data, construct Fisher’s Ideal Index Number and Show that it satisfies Factor
Reversal Test and Time Reversal Test?
6. Compute the consumer price index for 2015 on the basis of 2014 from the following data.
7. An Enquiry was made into the budgets of the middle class families in a city gave the following
information.
8. From the following data, calculate the control limits for the mean and range chart.
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
50 51 50 48 46 55 45 50 47 56
55 50 53 53 50 51 48 56 53 53
Sample
52 53 48 50 44 56 53 54 49 55
Observations
49 50 52 51 48 47 48 53 52 54
54 46 47 53 47 51 51 57 54 52
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9. The following data gives the average life(in hours) and range of 12 samples of 5lamps each. The
data are
Sample No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sample Mean 1080 1390 1460 1380 1230 1370
Sample Range 410 670 180 320 690 450
Sample No 7 8 9 10 11 12
Sample Mean 1310 1630 1580 1510 1270 1200
Sample Range 380 350 270 660 440 310
Construct control charts for mean and range. Comment on the control limits.
10. The following are the sample means and ranges for 10 samples, each of size 5. Calculate the
control limits for the mean chart and range chart and state whether the process is in control or
not.
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mean 5.10 4.98 5.02 4.96 4.96 5.04 4.94 4.92 4.92 4.98
Range 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.5
Sample Size A2 D3 D4
2 1.880 0 3.267
3 1.023 0 2.574
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.114
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777
11 0.285 0.256 1.744
12 0.266 0.283 1.717
13 0.249 0.307 1.693
14 0.235 0.328 1.672
15 0.223 0.347 1.653
16 0.212 0.363 1.637
17 0.203 0.378 1.622
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Table 9.23
Summary
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zz Control Charts
(i) Centre Line (CL) indicates the desired standard level of the process.
(ii) Upper Control Limit (UCL) indicates the upper limit of tolerance.
(iii) Lower Control Limit (LCL) indicates the lower limit of tolerance.
case (i) when X and SD are given case (i) when X and SD are not given
s
UCL = X + 3 UCL = X + A2 R
n
CL = X CL = X
s
LCL = X − 3
n LCL = X − A2 R
case (i) when SD are given case (i) when SD are not given
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GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Control charts கட்டுப்பாட்டு விளக்கப்படங்கள்
Control limit கட்டுப்பாட்டு எல்லை
Cyclical variation சுழல் மாறுபாடு
Factor reversal test காரணி மாற்று ச�ோதனை
Family budget குடும்ப வரவு- செலவுத் திட்டம்
Fisher’s index பிஷரின் குறியீடு
Index number குறியீட்டெண்கள்
Irregular variation ஒழுங்கற்ற மாறுபாடு
Laspeyre’s index லாஸ்பியரின் குறியீடு
Least square மீச்சிறு வர்க்கம்
Lower control limit கீழ்க் கட்டுப்பாட்டு எல்லை
Mean charts சராசரி வரைவுகள்
Moving average நகரும் சராசரி
Observation கண்டறிபதிவு / கூர்நோக்கு
Paasche’s index பாசியின் குறியீடு
Process control செயல்பாட்டு கட்டுப்பாடு (அல்லது) செயலாக்கக் கட்டுபாடு
Product control உற்பத்தி கட்டுப்பாடு
Range charts வீச்சு வரைகள்
Seasonal variation பருவகால மாறுபாடு
Seasonal Index பருவகால குறியீடு
Secular trend நீள் காலப்போக்கு
Semi-vverage பகுதி சராசரி
Statistical quality control புள்ளியியல் தரக்கட்டுப்பாடு
Time reversal test காலமாற்று ச�ோதனை
Time series காலம்சார் த�ொடர்வரிசை
Trend ப�ோக்கு
Unweighted Index நிறையிடா குறியீடு
Upper control limit மேல் கட்டுப்பாட்டு எல்லை
Weighted index நிறையிட்ட குறியீடு
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ICT Corner
Step – 1 : Open the Browser, type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra
work Book named “12th Standard Business Mathematics and Statistics” will open. In the work
book there are two Volumes. Select “Volume-2”..
You can enter your own data in Spread Sheet given. Also enter n, A2, D3 and D4 table values
in the respective boxes. You can see UCL, CL and LCL values on the right hand side and the
corresponding graph on Left hand side.
Step 1
Step 2
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10 Operations Research
Introduction
Operations reserach (O.R.) is an analytical
method of problem solving and decision-making,
that is useful in management organisations. The transportation
problem involves certain origins (sources) which may represent factories
where we produce homogeneous items and a number of destinations
Frank Lauren Hitchcock where we supply a required quantity of the products. Each factory has a
(1875-1957) certain capacity constraint and each destination (dealer or customer) has
a certain requirement. The unit cost of transportation of the items from
the factory to the dealer/ customer is known. American mathematician
and physicist Frank Lauren Hitchcock (1875-1957) known for his formulation of transportation problem
in 1941.
Learning Objectives
10.1 Transportation Problem
The objective of
After studying this chapter students are able transportation problem is to
to understand determine the amount to be
zz formulate the transportation and transported from each origin
assignment problems to each destinations such that
zz distinguish between transportation the total transportation cost
and assignment problems is minimized.
zz find an initial basic feasible solution of 10.1.1 Definition and formulation
a transportation problem
The Structure of the Problem
zz identify the degeneracy and non-
degeneracy in a transportation Let there be m origins and n destinations.
problem Let the amount of supply at the ith origin is ai.
zz find the solution of an assignment Let the demand at jth destination is bj.
problem by Hungarian method. The cost of transporting one unit of an item
zz distinguish between tactic and from origin i to destination j is cijand is known
strategic decisions for all combinations (i,j). Quantity transported
zz find the best alternatives using from origin i to destination j be xij
maximin and minimax criteria The objective is to determine the quantity
xij to be transported over all routes (i,j) so as to
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minimize the total transportation cost. The The above transportation problem can be
supply limits at the origins and the demand written in the following tabular form:
requirements at the destinations must be
satisfied.
Destinations
supply
1 2 3 … n
(x11) (x12) (x13) (x1n)
…
1 C11 C12 C13 C1n a1
Origins
demand b1 b2 b3 … bn
Table-10.1
Now the linear programming model representing the transportation problem is given by
m n
The objective function is Minimize Z = ∑ ∑ c ijxij Subject to the constraints
i =1 j =1
n
∑ x ij = ai, i=1,2,…….m (supply constraints)
j =1
m
∑ x ij = bj , j=1,2,…….n (demand constraints)
i =1
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2 3 3 1 B C ai
8 (6)
2 3 1 6/0
3 5 4 7
7
3 4 7 7
4 1 6 2
14
4 6 2 14
bj 2 9 18
bj 9/3 18
Now the cell in the North west corner is
(2, A). Reduced transportation table is
Allocate as much as possible in the first B C ai
cell so that either the capacity of second row
is exhausted or the destination requirement of 3 4 7 7
the first column is exhausted. 4 6 2 14
i.e. x12 = min (2,8) = 2 bj 3 18
A B C ai Here north west corner cell is (3,B).
(2) Allocate as much as possible in the first
2 3 3 1 cell so that either the capacity of third row is
8/6 exhausted or the destination requirement of the
second column is exhausted.
3 5 4 7
7 i.e. x32 = min (7,3) = 3
B C ai
4 1 6 2
14
(3)
bj 2/0 9 18 3 4 7 7/4
2 3 1 6 bj 3/0 18
3 4 7 7 Reduced transportation table is
C ai
4 6 2 14
bj 9 18 3 7 4
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O3 4 3 6 2 5
A B C ai
(5) Requirement
6 10 15 4 35
1 2 7 4 5 (bj)
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(2) (14)
O2 8 9 2 7 16 O2 8 9 2 7 16/14/0
(1)
O3 4 3 6 2 5 O3 4 3 6 2 5/4
Final allocation:
Third Allocation:
D1 D2 D3 D4 ai
D1 D2 D3 D4 ai
(6) (8)
(6) (8)
O1 6 4 1 5 14/8/0
O1 6 4 1 5 14/8/0
(2) (14)
(2)
O2 8 9 2 7 16/14/0
O2 8 9 2 7 16/14
(1) (4)
O3 4 3 6 2 5/4/0
O3 4 3 6 2 5
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Note
O2 4 3 2 5 8
If the minimum cost is not unique then
the choice can be made arbitrarily.
O3 5 2 2 1 10
Example 10.3
Obtain an initial basic feasible solution bj 4/0 6 8 6
to the following transportation problem using The reduced table is
least cost method.
D2 D3 D4 ai
D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
O1 1 2 3 4 6 O1 2 3 4 2
O2 4 3 2 5 8
O2 3 2 5 8
O3 5 2 2 1 10
Demand 4 6 8 6 O3 2 2 1 10
th th
Here Oi and Dj denote i origin and j bj 6 8 6
destination respectively.
The least cost corresponds to the cell
Solution: (O3, D4). Allocate min (10,6) = 6 units to this cell.
Total Supply = Total Demand = 24
D2 D3 D4 ai
∴ The given problem is a balanced
transportation problem. O1 2 3 4 2
Hence there exists a feasible solution to
the given problem. O2 3 2 5 8
Given Transportation Problem is:
(6)
Supply O3 2 2 1 10/4
D1 D2 D3 D4
(ai)
bj 6 8 6/0
O1 1 2 3 4 6
O2 4 3 2 5 8 The reduced table is
O3 5 2 2 1 10 D2 D3 ai
Demand O1 2 3 2
4 6 8 6
(bj) O2 3 2 8
The least cost is 1 corresponds to the cells O3 2 2 4
(O1, D1) and (O3, D4) bj 6 8
Take the Cell (O1, D1) arbitrarily. The least costis 2 corresponds to the cells
Allocate min (6,4) = 4 units to this cell. (O1, D2), (O2, D3), (O3, D2), (O3, D3)
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(4) (6)
O3 2 2 4 O3 5 2 2 1 10/4/0
bj 6/4 8
bj 4/0 6/4/0 8/0 6/0
The reduced table is
Transportation schedule :
D2 D3 ai O1à D1, O1àD2, O2àD3, O3àD2, O3àD4
O2 3 2 8 Total transportation cost
O3 2 2 4 = (4×1)+ (2×2)+(8×2)+(4×2)+(6×1)
bj 4 8
The least cost is 2 corresponds to the cells = 4+4+16+8+6
(O2, D3), (O3, D2), (O3, D3) = ` 38.
Destination
O3 2 2 4 C H K P Capacity
T 6 8 8 5 30
bj 4 8/0
The reduced table is Factory B 5 11 9 7 40
M 8 9 7 13 50
D2 ai Demand 35 28 32 25
O3 2 4
bj 4 Cost are expressed in terms of rupees per
unit shipped.
Here allocate 4 units in the cell (O3, D2)
Solution:
D2 ai Total Capacity = Total Demand
(4) ∴ The given problem is balanced
O3 2 4/0 transportation problem.
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Destination C H K P ai
Capacity (25)
C H K P
(ai) T 6 8 8 5 30/5
T 6 8 8 5 30
(35)
Factory B 5 11 9 7 40 5
B 11 9 7 40/5
M 8 9 7 13 50
(32)
Demand
35 28 32 25 M 8 9 7 13 50/18
(bj)
B 5 11 9 7 40 (35)
B 5 11 9 7 40/5
M 8 9 7 13 50 (32)
M 8 9 7 13 50/18
bj 35 28 32 25/0
bj 35/0 28/23 32/0 25/0
Second Allocation:
Fifth Allocation:
C H K P ai
C H K P ai
(25)
(5) (25)
T 6 8 8 5 30/5
T 6 8 8 5 30/5/0
(35)
(35)
B 5 11 9 7 40/5
B 5 11 9 7 40/5
(18) (32)
M 8 9 7 13 50
M 8 9 7 13 50/18/0
bj 35/0 28 32 25/0
bj 35/0 28/23/5 32/0 25/0
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(35) (5)
Optimum solution for any
5 11 transportation problem can be
B 9 7 40/5/0
obtained by using MODI method.
(18) (32)
9 7 Example 10.5
M 8 13 50/18/0
Find the initial basic feasible solution for
the following transportation problem by VAM
bj 35/0 28/23/5/0 32/0 25/0
Distribution Centers Availability
Transportation schedule : D1 D2 D3 D4
Tà H, TàP, BàC, BàH, MàH, MàK origin S1 11 13 17 14 250
S2 16 18 14 10 300
The total Transportation cost = ( 5×8) +
(25×5)+ (35×5) + (5×11)+ (18×9) + (32×7) S3 21 24 13 10 400
Require- 200 225 275 250
= 40+125+175+55+162+224 ment
= ` 781 Solution:
Method: 3 Vogel’s Approximation Here ∑ ai = ∑ b j = 950
Method (VAM) (i.e) Total Availability =Total Requirement
Vogel’s approximation method yields an ∴The given problem is balanced
initial basic feasible solution which is very close transportation problem.
to the optimum solution.Various steps involved
Hence there exists a feasible solution to
in this method are summarized as under
the given problem.
Step 1: Calculate the penalties for each row
First let us find the difference (penalty)
and each column. Here penalty means
between the first two smallest costs in each row
the difference between the least and
and column and write them in brackets against
the next higher cost in a row and in a
the respective rows and columns.
column.
D1 D2 D3 D4 ai Penalty
Step 2: Select the row or column with the
largest penalty. (200) 2
S1 11 13 17 14 250/50
Step 3: In the selected row or column, allocate
the maximum feasible quantity to the S2 16 18 14 10 300 4
cell with the minimum cost.
S3 21 24 13 10 400 3
Step 4: Eliminate the row or column where all
the allocations are made. bj 200/0 225 275 250
Step 5: Write the reduced transportation table
and repeat the steps 1 to 4. Penalty 5 5 1 4
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Choose the largest difference. Here the the least cost corresponds to (S2, D2) . Allocate
difference is 5 which corresponds to column D1 min(300,175) = 175 units to this cell.
and D2. Choose either D1 or D2 arbitrarily. Here The reduced transportation table is
we take the column D1 . In this column choose
the least cost. Here the least cost corresponds to D3 D4 ai Penalty
(S1, D1) . Allocate min (250, 200) = 200units to (125)
this Cell. S2 14 10 125/0 4
bj 275 250/125
D2 D3 D4 ai Penalty
(50) Penalty 1 —
S1 13 17 14 50/0 1
Choose the largest difference. Here the
difference is 4 corresponds to row S2. In this
S2 18 14 10 300 4
row choose the least cost. Here the least cost
corresponds to (S2, D4). Allocate
S3 24 13 10 400 3 min(125, 250) = 125 units to this Cell.
The reduced transportation table is
bj 225/175 275 250
D3 D4 ai Penalty
Penalty 5 1 4 S3 13 10 400 3
S2 18 14 10 300/125 4 D1 D2 D3 D4 ai
(200) (50)
S1 11 13 17 14 250
S3 24 13 10 400 3
(175) (125)
bj 175/0 275 250 S2 16 18 14 10 300
(275) (125)
Penalty 6 1 —
S3 21 24 13 10 400
Choose the largest difference. Here the
difference is 6 which corresponds to column bj 200 225 275 250
D2. In this column choose the least cost. Here
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B 3 3 5 4 15 1 I Penalty
C 6 4 4 3 12 1 (6)
A 6/0 —
(19) 5
1 (15)
D 4 4 5 19/0 3 B 15/0 —
3
bj 21 25/6 17 17 21/0
Penalty 2
Penalty 1 2 1 1
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Thus we have the following allocations: 6. Determine an initial basic feasible solution
I II III IV ai of the following transportation problem by
(6) (6) (17) (5) north west corner method.
A 5 1 3 3 34
Bangalore Nasik Bhopal Delhi Capacity
(15)
3 Chennai 6 8 8 5 30
B 3 5 4 15
Madurai 5 11 9 7 40
(12) Trichy 8 9 7 13 50
C 6 4 4 3 12
Demand 35 28 32 25
(19) (Units/day
D 4 1 4 5 19
7. Obtain an initial basic feasible solution to
bj 21 25 17 17 the following transportation problem by
using least- cost method.
Transportation schedule :
D1 D2 D3 Supply
Aà I, AàII, AàIII, AàIV, BàI, CàIV, DàII
O1 9 8 5 25
= (6 × 5) + (6 + 1) + (17 × 3) + (5 × 3) + (15 × 3) + (12 × 3O) + (19 × 1)6 8 4 35
2
= 30 + 6 + 51 + 15 + 45 + 36 + 19 demand 30 25 45
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10.
Determine basic feasible solution to the and j = 1,2,…,n).Our objective is to assign the
following transportation problem using different jobs to the different machines(one job
North west Corner rule. per machine) to minimize the overall cost.This
Sinks Supply is known as assignment problem.
A B C D E
The assignment problem is a special case
P 2 11 10 3 7 4
of transportation problem where the number
Origins Q 1 4 7 2 1 8
R 3 9 4 8 12 9 of sources and destinations are equal .Supply
Demand 3 3 4 5 6 at each source and demand at each destination
must be one. It means that there is exactly one
11. Find the initial basic feasible solution of the occupied cell in each row and each column of
following transportation problem: the transportation table . Jobs represent sources
I II III Demand and machines represent destinations.
A 1 2 6 7
10.2.1 Definition and formulation
B 0 4 2 12
C 3 1 5 11 Consider the problem of assigning n jobs
Supply 10 10 10 to n machines (one job to one machine). Let
Cij be the cost of assigning i th job to the jth
Using (i) North West Corner rule
machine and x represents the assignment of
(ii) Least Cost method ij
i th job to the jth machine.
(iii) Vogel’s approximation method
1, if i th job is assigned to jth machine
12. Obtain an initial basic feasible solution to Then, xij = th th
the following transportation problem by 0, if i job is not assigned to j machine.
north west corner method.
Machines
Supply
D E F C Available 1 2 … n
A 11 13 17 14 250 (x11) (x12) (x1n)
B 16 18 14 10 300 …
1 C11 C12 C1n 1
C 21 24 13 10 400
Required 200 225 275 250
(x21) (x22) (x2n)
…
10.2 Assignment Problems 2 C21 C22 C2n 1
Introduction:
The assignment problem is a particular Jobs
case of transportation problem for which more
efficient (less-time consuming) solution method
has been devised by KUHN (1956) and FLOOD (xij) (xij) (xij)
…
(1956). The justification of the steps leading to m Cn1 Cn2 Cnn 1
the solution is based on theorems proved by
Hungarian Mathematicians KONEIG (1950) demand 1 1 … 1
and EGERVARY (1953), hence the method is
named Hungarian Method. xij is missing in any cell means that no
Suppose that we have ‘m’ jobs to be assignment is made between the pair of job and
performed on ‘n’ machines . The cost of assigning machine.(i.e) xij = 0.
each job to each machine is Cij (i =1,2,…,n
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xij presents in any cell means that an be performed from the table obtained
assignment is made their.In such cases x = 1. in step 1.
ij
The assignment model can be written in Step:3 Check whether there is atleast one
LPP as follows: zero in each row and each column and
m n make an assignment as follows.
Minimize Z = ∑ ∑ Cij xij (i) E
xamine the rows successively until
i =1 j =1
a row with exactly one zero is
Subject to the constrains
found. Mark that zero by , that
n
means an assignment is made there
∑ xij = 1, j = 1, 2,.....n . Cross ( × ) all other zeros in its
i =1
n
column. Continue this until all the
∑ xij = 1, i = 1, 2,.....n and xij = 0
rows have been examined.
j =1
Example 10.7
10.2.2 S
olution of assignment problems
Solve the following assignment problem.
(Hungarian Method)
Cell values represent cost of assigning job A, B,
First check whether the number of rows is C and D to the machines I, II, III and IV.
equal to the numbers of columns, if it is so, the
assignment problem is said to be balanced. machines
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Now, Row D contains exactly one zero. Thus all the five assignments have been
Mark that zero by . Mark other zeros in its made. The Optimal assignment schedule and
column by × . total cost is
Job Person Job cost
A 5 1
1 2 3 4 5 B 1 0
A 7 3 5 0 C 4 2
0
D 3 1
B 9 4 5 4 E 2 5
0
Person
Total cost 9
C 1 6 6 0 4
The optimal assignment (minimum) cost
D 4 3 0 0 3
= ` 9.
E 4 0 2 4 0 Example 10.9
Row E contains more than one zero, now Solve the following assignment problem.
proceed column wise. In column 1, there is an Men
assignment. Go to column 2. There is exactly 1 2 3
one zero. Mark that zero by . Mark other zeros P 9 26 15
Task
in its row by × . Q 13 27 6
R 35 20 15
Job S 18 30 20
1 2 3 4 5 Solution:
Since the number of columns is less than
A 7 3 0 5 0
the number of rows, given assignment problem
B is unbalanced one. To balance it, introduce a
0 9 4 5 4
Person dummy column with all the entries zero. The
C 1 6 6 0 4 revised assignment problem is
Men
D 4 3 0 0 3 1 2 3 d
P 9 26 15 0
E 4 2 4 Task
0 0 Q 13 27 6 0
R 35 20 15 0
There is an assignment in Column 3 and S 18 30 20 0
column 4. Go to Column 5. There is exactly one
Here only 3 tasks can be assigned to 3 men.
zero. Mark that zero by . Mark other zeros in
its row by × . Step 1: is not necessary, since each row
contains zero entry. Go to Step 2.
Job
1 2 3 4 5 Step 2 :
A 7 3 5 0 Men
0
1 2 3 d
B 0 9 4 5 4 P 0 6 9 0
Person Task
C 1 6 6 0 4
Q 4 7 0 0
D 4 3 0 0 3 R 26 0 9 0
E 4 0 2 4 S 9 10 14 0
0
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8. Assign four trucks 1, 2, 3 and 4 to vacant under condition of uncertainty. In this case
spaces A, B, C, D, E and F so that distance probability theory has a vital role, as such,
travelled is minimized. The matrix below this probability theory will be used more
shows the distance. frequently in the decision making theory
under uncertainty and risk.
1 2 3 4
The statistical decision theory tries to
A 4 7 3 7 reveal the logical structure of the problem into
alternative action, states of nature, possible
B 8 2 5 5 outcomes and likely pay-offs from each such
outcome. Let us explain the concepts associated
C 4 9 6 9 with the decision theory approach to problem
solving.
D 7 5 4 8
10.3.1 Meaning
E 6 3 5 4
The decision maker: The decision
F 6 8 7 3 maker refers to individual or a group of
individual responsible for making the choice
of an appropriate course of action amongst the
10. 3 Decision Theory
available courses of action.
Introduction:
Acts (or courses of action): Decision
Decision theory is primarily concerned
making problems deals with the selection of a
with helping people and organizations in making
single act from a set of alternative acts. If two
decisions. It provides a meaningful conceptual
or more alternative courses of action occur in
frame work for important decision making.
a problem, then decision making is necessary
The decision making refers to the selection of
to select only one course of action. Let the
an act from amongst various alternatives, the
acts or action be a1, a2, a3,… then the totality
one which is judged to be the best under given
of all these actions is known as action space
circumstances.
denoted by A. For three actions a1, a2 a3; A =
The management has to consider action space = (a1, a2, a3) or A = (A1, A2, A3).
phases like planning, organization, direction, Acts may be also represented in the following
command and control. While performing so matrix form.
many activities, the management has to face
many situations from which the best choice is Acts (or) Acts A1 A2 … An
to be taken. This choice making is technically A1
termed as “decision making” or decision taking. A2
A decision is simply a selection from two or …
more courses of action. Decision making may An
be defined as “a process of best selection from a
set of alternative courses of action, that course In a tree diagram the acts or action are
of action which is supposed to meet objectives shown as
A1
upto satisfaction of the decision maker.”
The knowledge of statistical techniques Start A2
helps to select the best action. The statistical
A3
decision theory refers to an optimal choice
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Events (or States of nature): The events Pay-off: The result of combinations of an
identify the occurrences, which are outside act with each of the states of nature is the outcome
of the decision maker’ s control and which and monetary gain or loss of each such outcome
determine the level of success for a given act. is the pay-off. This means that the expression
These events are often called ‘ States of nature’ pay-off should be in quantitative form.
or outcomes. An example of an event or states Pay -off may be also in terms of cost
of nature is the level of market demand for a saving or time saving. In general, if there are
particular item during a stipulated time period. k alternatives and n states of nature, there will
A set of states of nature may be represented be k × n outcomes or pay-offs. These k × n
in any one of the following ways: payoffs can be very conveniently represented in
S = {S1, S2, …,Sn} or E = {E1, E2, …,En} or the form of a k × n pay-off table.
Ω = {θ1, θ2, θ3} Decision alternative
States of
For example, if a washing powder is nature A1 A2 .............. Ak
marketed, it may be highly liked by outcomes
E1 a11 a12 .............. a1k
(outcome θ1) or it may not appeal at all (outcome
θ2) or it may satisfy only a small fraction, say E2 a21 a22 .............. a2k
25% (outcome θ3) . . . .............. .
∴ Ω = {θ1 , θ2, θ3} . . . .............. .
Acts Events . . .............. .
A1 E1
E2
En an1 an2 .............. ank
E1
A2 Where aij = conditional outcome (pay-off)
E2
E1 of the i th event when j th alternative is chosen.
A3
E2 The above pay-off table is called pay-off matrix.
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(c) Not equal to m+n–1 (b) balance between total activities and
(d) Not equal to m+n+1 total resources
3. I n a degenerate solution (c) provide a means of representing a
number of allocations is dummy problem
(a) equal to m+n–1 (d) none of the above
(b) not equal to m+n–1 11. The solution for an assignment problem is
(c) less than m+n–1 optimal if
(d) greather than m+n–1 (a) each row and each column has no
4. Th
e Penalty in VAM represents difference assignment
between the first ________ (b) each row and each column has atleast
(a) Two largest costs one assignment
(b) Largest and Smallest costs (c) each row and each column has atmost
(c) Smallest two costs one assignment
(d) None of these (d) each row and each column has exactly
one assignment
5. N
umber of basic allocation in any row or
column in an assignment problem can be 12. In an assignment problem involving four
(a) Exactly one (b) at least one workers and three jobs, total number of
(c) at most one (d) none of these assignments possible are
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 12
6. North-West Corner refers to ________
(a) top left corner 13. Decision theory is concerned with
(b) top right corner (a) analysis of information that is available
(c) bottom right corner (b) decision making under certainty
(d) bottom left corner (c) selecting optimal decisions in
sequential problem
7. S olution for transportation problem using (d) All of the above
__________method is nearer to an
optimal solution. 14. A type of decision –making environment is
(a) NWCM (b) LCM (a) certainty (b) uncertainty
(c) VAM (d) Row Minima (c) risk (d) all of the above
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Determine an initial basic feasible solution How should the cars be assigned to the
using (a) Least cost method (b) Vogel’s customers so as to minimize the distance
approximation method. travelled?
3. D
etermine an initial basic feasible solution 6. A
natural truck-rental service has a surplus
to the following transportation problem by of one truck in each of the cities 1,2,3,4,5
using (i)North West Corner rule (ii) least and 6 and a deficit of one truck in each of
cost method. the cities 7,8,9,10,11 and 12. The distance(in
kilometers) between the cities with a surplus
Destination
Supply and the cities with a deficit are displayed
D1 D2 D3 below:
S1 9 8 5 25 To
S2 7 8 9 10 11 12
Source 6 8 4 35
S3 1 31 62 29 42 15 41
7 6 9 40
2 12 19 39 55 71 40
Requirement 30 25 45 3 17 29 50 41 22 22
From
4 35 40 38 42 27 33
4. E
xplain Vogel’s approximation method by
5 19 30 29 16 20 33
obtaining initial basic feasible solution of
the following transportation problem. 6 72 30 30 50 41 20
How should the truck be dispersed so as to
Destination
Supply minimize the total distance travelled?
D1 D2 D3 D4
7. A
person wants to invest in one of three
O1
2 3 11 7 6 alternative investment plans: Stock, Bonds
O2 and Debentures. It is assumed that the
Origin 1 0 6 1 1
person wishes to invest all of the funds in
O3
5 8 15 9 10 a plan. The pay-off matrix based on three
potential economic conditions is given in
Demand 7 5 3 2
the following table:
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Economic conditions
Alternative
High growth(Rs.) Normal growth(Rs.) Slow growth (Rs.)s
Stocks 10000 7000 3000
Bonds 8000 6000 1000
Debentures 6000 6000 6000
Determine the best investment plan using each of following criteria i) Maxmin ii) Minimax.
Summary
zz In a transportation problem if the total supply equals the total demand, it is
said to be balanced transportation problem. Otherwise it is said to be unbalanced
transportation problem
zz Feasible Solution: A feasible solution to a transportation problem is a set of
non-negative values xij(i=1,2,..,m, j=1,2,…n) that satisfies the constraints.
zz Basic Feasible Solution: A feasible solution is called a basic feasible solution if it
contains not more than m+n-1 allocations, where m is the number of rows and n
is the number of columns in a transportation table.
zz Optimal Solution: Optimal Solution is a feasible solution (not necessarily basic)
which optimizes(minimize) the total transportation cost.
zz Non degenerate basic feasible Solution: If a basic feasible solution to a
transportation problem contains exactly m+n-1 allocations in independent
positions, it is called a Non degenerate basic feasible solution.
zz Degeneracy : If : If a basic feasible solution to a transportation problem contains
less than m+n-1 allocations , it is called a degenerate basic feasible solution.
zz In an assignment problems number of rows and columns must be equal
zz The optimum assignment schedule remains unaltered if we add or subtract a
constant from all the elements of the row or column of the assignment cost matrix.
zz If for an assignment problem all Cij > 0 then an assignment schedule (xij ) which
GLOSSARY (கலைச்சொற்கள்)
Approximation த�ோராயமாக
Assignment problems ஓதுக்கீடு கணக்குகள்
Decision theory முடிவு க�ோட்பாடுகள்
Degenerate சிதைந்த
Destination சேருமிடம்
Feasible solution ஏற்புடையத் தீர்வு
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ICT Corner
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Answers
2. ρ ( AB ) = 2, ρ(BA)=2 3. x = 1, y = 3, z = 5
1 1 −7
4. x =
11
( 7 − 16k ) , y = (3 + k ) , z = k 5. x = 2, y = 1, z = 0, , 6. l =
11 2
7. x = 1000 , y = 2000, z = 500 8. x = 1000, y = 2200, z = 1800
Exercise 1.2
1.(i) x = 8 , y = –3 (ii) x = 1, y = 4 (iii) (x , y , z ) = (2, − 1, 0)
1 1
(iv) (x , y , z ) = (1, 2, 3) (v) (x , y , z ) = −1, ,
2 3
2. Cost per unit of labour is ₹10 Cost per unit of capital is ₹ 16
3 1
3. Amount invested at 4 % is ₹7,300 Amount invested at 6 % is ₹1,300
4 2
4. hourly charges for horse riding is ₹100 and AVT riding is ₹120
5. ( x , y , z ) = (2, 3,1)
6. Amount invested at 2% is ₹250
Amount invested at 3% is ₹4,000
Amount invested at 6% is ₹4,250
Exercise 1.3
1. 36% 2.(i) 54% , 46% (ii) 50%
Answers 265
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Exercise 1.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(d) (b) (a) (c) (d) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c) (c) (b) (c)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(b) (c) (c) (b) (b) (a) (a) (b) (c) (d) (c) (a)
Miscellaneous problems
1. r( A) = 2 2. r( A) = 3 3. r( A) = 3
4. The given system is inconsistent and has no solution. 5. k = 8.
6. The equations are inconsistent when k assumes any real value other than 0.
7. x = 1, y = 2 and z = 2
8. Cost of wheat is ₹30/kg, Cost of sugar is ₹40/kg and Cost of rice is ₹50/kg.
9. The rates of commission for A,B and C are ₹2, ₹4 and ₹11 respectively
10. 39%
2. Integral Calculus – I
Exercise: 2.1
3
2 81x 5 16 13x 2 5x 3
1. (3x + 5) + c
2
2. − 3 − 72 x + c 3. 6 x − − +c
9 5 3x 2 3
3 1
9 5
(4 x + 7) (4 x + 7)
2 2
3
2x 2 4x 2
4. − + 2x 2 +c +c
5. −
9 5 3 2
1 2
3 3
13 x 2 13
6. ( x + 1) − ( x − 1) + c 7. b = , c = −2, f ( x ) =
2
+ x −2
3 2 2 2
8. c = −20, f ( x ) = 2 x − x − 20
4 2
Exercise: 2.2
1
2 x 4 x3
1. x + log x − 2 x + c 2. + + 2 log x − 1 + c
2 4 3
x3 x3
3. − x 2 + 4 x − 8 log x + 2 + c 4. − x 2 + 3x − 4 log x + 5 + c
3 3
2
5. 11 log x − 3 − 8 log x − 2 + c 6. log x + 1 + 3 log x − 3 + +c
( x + 1)
p p
7. log x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 5 + c 8. c = , f ( x ) = log x +
4 4
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Exercise: 2.3
x n+1
a x 1 1 e3x
1. + aa x − + c 2. x − x +c x
3. e + e 2x
+ +c
log a n +1 a log a b log b 3
4.
e 2 x e −4 x
+ +c 5.
e4x
+c 6. e
(x + 1x ) + c
2 4 4
1
7. − +c 8. c = 1, f ( x ) = e x + 1
log x
Exercise: 2.4
3 1
1. 2 sin x + 3 cos x + 4 tan x + 5 cot x + c 2. − cos x + cos 3x + c
4 12
3. tan x + c 4. tan x − cot x + c 5. − [sin x + cos x ] + c
Exercise: 2.5
x 3 x 2 2x 2
1. −e − x ( x + 1) + c 2. e 3 x − + − +c 3. x ( log x − 1) + c
3 3 9 27
( )
2 n+1
x 1 x 1 x 4 2
2
4. log x − + c 5. log x − +c 6. e2 x − 2 x + 2 + c
2 2 n +1 n + 1
Exercise: 2.6
1 1
1. log x 2 + 5x − 7 + c 2. log x 4 + 1 + c 3. log e 2 x − 2 + c
4 2
3
( log x )
4
4
( )
2
4. +c 5. 2 3x 2 + 7 x − 1 + c 6. x 2 + x + 1 + c
4 3
1
( ) 1
6
7. 1 + x9 +c 8. log x e + e x + c 9. log log x + c
54 e
x2 − 2
10.
1
10
log 2
2x + 1
+c
( )
1
11. xe x log xe x − 1 + c 12. log x − log x 2 + 1 + c
2
ex e x
e 3x
13. 2 + c 14. +c 15. +c
x ( x + 1) 2
9x
Exercise 2.7
1 3 + 4x 1 9+ x 1 2x − 3
1. log +c 2. log +c 3. log +c
24 3 − 4x 10 1− x 6 2 2x + 3
1 x −2 x +1 1 x −1
4. log +c 5. log +c 6. log +c
3 x +1 x+2 10 x+4
1 ex − 3 1
7. log x +c 8. log 3x + 9 x 2 − 7 + c 9. log ( x + 3) + x 2 + 6 x + 13 + c
6 e +3 3
3 1
10. log x − + x 2 − 3x + 2 + c 11. log x 4 + x 8 − 1 + c
2 4
Answers 267
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1
x + 2 3 1
12. 1 + x + x 2 + log x + + 1 + x + x 2 + c
2 8 2
x 2 1
13. x − 2 − log x + x 2 − 2 + c 14. 2 x 4 x 2 − 5 − 5 log 2 x + 4 x 2 − 5 + c
2 4
x + 1 2
15. 2x 2 + 4 x + 1 − log 2 ( x + 1) + 2 x 2 + 4 x + 1 + c
2 4
2
x x 2 1
16. − x − 1 + log x + x 2 − 1 + c
2 2 2
Exercise 2.8
1 1 1 5 1 + e 3
I:1. e 2 − 1 2. 3. log 4. log
2 6 2 2 2
1 3 11 1
5. [e − 1] 6. 7. log 8. 2 9. [2 log 2 − 1]
2 8 5 2
II:1. 37 2. 4 3. 1 4. c = 4
Exercise 2.9
p p 16
1. 0 2. 3. 0 4. 5. 0 6.
2 4 5
Exercise 2.10
1.( i) 6 (ii)
105 p
16
(iii)
6!
m7
(iv)
3
128
( )
(v) 26 5 ! 2.
1
4
Exercise 2.11
9 1
1. 2. 4 3. 14 4.
2 3
Exercise 2.12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (b) (a) (d) (c) (b) (b) (b) (b) (c)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(d) (c) (c) (b) (a) (b) (b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (d) (b) (c)
Miscellaneous problems
2 2
3 3
1 2+ x 1 ex + 1
( x + 2) + ( x + 3) + c 2. log
2
1. +c 3. log x +c
15 5 1 − 2x 4 e +5
x 2 3 2
4. 2x − 3 − log 2 x + 2 x 2 − 3 + c
2 4
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5.
(3 x + 2 ) 1
9 x 2 + 12 x + 3 − log (3x + 2) + 9 x 2 + 12 x + 3 + c
6 6
1 x 3 3x 2
6. ( x + 1) log x − −
3
− 3x − log x + c
3 3 2
( 2
)
7. x log x − x − 1 + x − 1 + c 2 1 e4 − 5
8. 0 9. 2
4 e
10.
14
15
3. Integral Calculus – II
Exercise 3.1
8a2 3
1. 5 sq.units 2. 2 sq.units 3. sq.units 4. sq.units
3 2
17 8 32
5. sq.units 6. sq.units 7. 3 sq. units
2 3
Exercise 3.2
2x − 1
1. ₹28,000 2. y = 3. P = 8 − 2 x , R = 8 x − 2 x 2
3x + 2
4. ₹4,419 5. ₹5,680
0.1x 3 x 2 500
6. Total cost = 100 x − 5x 2 + + 500 , Average Cost = 100 − 5 x + +
3 30 x
7 2
1500 5 1500 5
7. Total Cost = x , Average Cost = x
7 7
8. Cost function C = 2 ax + b − 2 b 9. ₹14,133.33
4x2
10. Total Revenue=₹5,95,000 11. Demand function P = 9 −
3
x
−
13. Demand function P = 20e 10 14. Profit function = 13x − 0.065x 2 − 120
3x 2 x 3 3x x 2
16. Revenue function R = 10 x + − , Demand function P = 10 + −
2 3 2 3
4000 18000
17. Total Cost C = 4000 7 x + 4 + 18000, Average Cost A.C = 7x + 4 +
x x
2 2
x 5x
18. C = + 5000 19. Revenue function R = 20 x − + x3
4 2
20. Demand function P = 14 − 3x + 3x 2
Answers 269
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Exercise 3.3
1. cs= 400 units 2. C.S=378 units 3. C.S=562.50 units
1 25
4. C.S= 1-log e 2 units 5. P.S= units. 6. P.S=237.3 units
2 2
3 32000 1
7. C.S = 36 log − 12 units 8. = units 9. C.S = (8 log 2 − 4 ) units, P.S= units
2 3 4
1024
10. C.S= units, P.S=64 units 11. C.S=24 units, P.S=16 units
3
Exercise 3.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(c) (b) (a) (c) (a) (a) (d) (c) (b) (a) (a) (a) (b)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(c) (c) (b) (a) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c) (a) (b) (c)
Miscellaneous problems
x4 x3
1. `1,900 2. C= `3,125 4. R = 6 x − x 3 − , p = 6 − x2 −
4 4
x2
5. Profit function is 10 x − − 100.
40
40 32
6. C.S = units, P .S = units. 7. 52,770 units
9 9
1 3
5
x3 76
8. P = 11 − 9. sq.units 10. (2) − 1 sq.units
3 3 5
4. Differential Equations
Exercise 4.1
1.(i) (1 , 1) (ii) (3 , 1) (iii) (2 , 2) (iv) (3 , 1)
(v) (3 , 3) (vi) (2 , 1) (vii) (1 , 4).
2 3
dy dy dy dy dy dy
2.(i) y = x + − (ii) − 4 xy + 8 y 2 = 0 (iii) y + x =0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
2 3
dy 2 d y
2 dy 2 dy
(iv) x + y =0 3. r 2 = 1 + 4. y = x
dx dx dx dx
3 2
d 2 y dy 2 2 dy dy dy
5. 2a 2 + = 0 6. y = x + 2 xy 7. y = 2 x + y
dx dx dx dx dx
Exercise 4.2
x2 y2 y3
1.(i) e − y + ax + C = 0 (ii) log x + = + + C 2. log x − x = log y + C
2 2 3
3.(i) x = Cy (ii) log(1 + y ) = −e x + C 4. (1 + sin x ) = C(1 + cos y )
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− cos 2 x e ax −e by
5. (x − 1)( y + 1) = C 6.(i) log y = +C (ii) = +C
2 a b
7. ( y − b)2 = (x − a)2 + b2 − a2
Exercise 4.3
y −2 x
x+ y
1. x = Ce x 2. x + y = Ke 3. y + x 2 + y 2 = x 2C
4. 3 y 2 − 4 yx + 3x 2 = x 3C (
5. xy − y 2 x = C ) 6. y y 2 − x 2 = 2 3 x 5
x2
2
7. y = ce 2 y
Exercise 4.4
y x6
1. = x +C 2. ye sin x = e sin x (sin x − 1) + C 3. x 2 y =
+C
x 6
x3
( ) (
1
4. y 1 + x = x + + C 5. xy = e x x 2 − 2 x + 2 + C 6. y sec x = x +
3
3 2
sin 2 x
2
+C )
7. y sec2 x = sec x − 2 8. x 2e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c 9. ` 2,22,550
Exercise 4.5
1. y = Ae 2 x + Be 4 x 2. y = ( Ax + B)e 2 x 3. y = e − x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
1
kx e −3 x e 5 x x x e2 x
4. y = ( Ax + B)e 5. y = + 6. y = Ae 2 + Be +
12 20 21
x 3 2x e3x
7. y = A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x 8. y = e − e +
2 2
−3 x e 3 x x −3 x 5x 2 5x 1
9. y = Ae + Be + 2x
− e 10. y = (Ax + B)e + 2 x e + 5
6 5
−3−3 −5−5 33 −7
xx xx − −x x x
2x
11. y y==Ae
Ae ++Be
2 2 Be ++4 4xexe 2
2 2 2 12. y = Ae + Be 3 + xe 2 x
13. P = Ae −4t + Be 2t + 2
Exercise 4.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(a) (d) (a) (b) (a) (a) (d) (c) (a) (c) (b) (a) (b)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(c) (d) (a) (d) (a) (b) (d) (a) (a) (d) (c) (a)
Miscellaneous Problems
d2 y
1. p = Ae −4 t
+ Be + 3 2t
2. x 2
dx 2
− 2x
dy
dx
(
+ 2 y = 0 3. e x x 2 − 2 x + 2 + log y = c )
1
3 y2 3 x6
4. x 1 + 2 = c 5. yx 2 = +c 6. cm2 = 2(m+6)
x 6
Answers 271
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( ) (
7. 6 y = e 2 + e e x − e 2 + e + 1 e 2 x + e 4 x ) 8. ye sin x = 2e sin x + c
x3 x2
9. log y = +c 10. log 1 + y = x + +c
3 y2 2
5. Numerical Methods
Exercise 5.1
h
1. log 1 + x
x y Dy ∆ 2 y ∆ 3 y D4 y D5 y
2. 0 -1
1
1 0 4
5 6
2 5 10 0
15 6 0
3 20 16 0
31 6
4 51 22
53
5 104
−2
5. 6. 31 7. 445 lakhs 8. 3 and 24
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
Exercise 5.2
1. 6.8 2. `2,900 3. f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 1
4. 36.784 (lakhs) 5. 197 6. 15.45
7. 286.96 8. 27.992 9. 108.75 (Thousand tones)
10. 41 persons 11. 476.25 Lakhs 12. 53
Exercise 5.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) (c) (a) (c) (d) (a) (c) (c) (c) (c) (a) (c) (b) (b)
Miscellaneous Problems
3. f ( x ) = x − 3x + 1 2
4. 14.25, 23.5 5. 128.5
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1
for x ≥ 10
X= x1 0 1 2
5. 6. (i) 1/10, (ii) 81/100, 19/100, 8/10 (iii) 4
1 1 1
P(X = x1)
4 2 4
3 −1 1 3
7. Hint: ∫ f (x )dx = ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ f (x )dx
−3 −3 −1 1
Exercise 6.2
2 3 3
1. 3.5 2. 1.8 3. 0.78 4. 5. , 6. ` 60
3 2 4
12. Expectation: ` 200; Variance: ` 21, 60,000; Standard Deviation: ` 1,469.69
Exercise 6.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(c) (d) (b) (c) (b) (c) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (c) (c) (a)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
(b) (b) (a) (d) (b) (b) (c) (c) (a) (b) (c) (b) (b) (b) (b)
Miscellaneous problems
1. (i) ½ (ii) ¼ (iii) ½ (iv) ¾
2. (a) (i) 13/24 (ii) 0 (b) X is NOT discrete since F is not a step function.
Answers 273
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1 1 1 7 3 6 2 3 27 1
3. ; 4. (a) (b) 5. (i) , (ii) 7. 1 9. , 10.
4 2 9 9 5 5 25 4 80 2
7. Probability distributions
Exercise: 7.1
6. (a) 0.059 (b) 0.2642 (c) 0.0133 (d) mean = 1 and variance = 0.95
7. (i) 0.01008 (ii) 0.000262 (iii) 0.09935 8. 0.375 9. 0.65536
10. (i) 0.3969 (ii) 0.45212 (iii) 0.9797 11. 5 or more trials 12. 0.7530
13. (i) 703 (ii) 516 (iii) 656
14. (i) 0.0634 (ii) 0.0634 (iii) 0.9729
x ( 25 − x )
25 1 4 3
15. 25/216 16.
17. 14 18. 0.2626 19. 0.8743
x 5 5 4
80 192
20. (i) (ii)
243 243
Exercise: 7.2
6. 0.2352 7. 0.0025 8. (i) 0.2231 (ii) 0.1912
9.(i) 0.08208 (ii) 0.2138 (iii) 0.1089 10. (i) 2 days (ii) 91 days (iiii) 43 days
11. 0.0265 12. (i) 0.1353 (ii) 0.3235
Exercise: 7.3
5. (i) 67 (ii) 134 (iii) 1637 6 (i) mean = 60.48 (ii) standard deviation = 19.78
Exercise 7.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(b) (c) (c) (c) (c) (a) (b) (a) (c) (d) (a) (a) (d) (b)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(d) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d) (a) (a) (b) (b) (a) (c) (d) (d)
Miscellaneous problems
1. (i) 0.89131 (ii) 0.34173
2. 0.03295 3. 0.98981
4. 0.0067379 or 6.7379 ×10-3
5. 80.33%
6. a) 0.4013 (b) 0.3413 7. a) 30.85% b) 37.20% c) 10.56%
8. a) 0.9938 (b) 0.9878 (c) 0.3944 9. 0.2119 10. 7
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Exercise 8.1
17. 0.008 18. 0.9487 19. 0.2739 20. 0.025
Exercise 8.2
14. |z| = 1.667 15. 1.2308 16. |z| = 5 17. 3.536
Exercise 8.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(a) (b) (a) (b) (b) (a) (c) (b) (c) (a)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(a) (a) (a) (d) (b) (b) (a) (c) (a) (c)
Miscellaneous problems
5. 0.015 6. (a) ( 66.86, 68.04) (b) (66.67,68.22) 7. |z| = 2.67
9. Applied Statistics
Exercise 9.1
13. Seasonal Indices
I II III IV
Total 18.6 20.8 18.8 20.8
Average 3.72 4.16 3.76 4.16
Seasonal indices 94.1772 105.3165 95.1899 105.3165
The Grand Average = 3.95
Three yearly
15470 17336.666 21013.333 26490 31350 34150
moving average
Answers 275
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Monthly 53 61 54 43 42 51 62 54 52 51 49 53
Total
Seasonal 101.7 116.7 103.4 82.2 80.5 97.7 119.0 103.4 99.4 97.7 93.7 101.7
Indices
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Exercise 9.2
14. Laspeyre’s IN = 144.8 Paasche’s IN = 144.4
15. L aspeyre’s IN = 164.5 Paasche’s IN = 162.4
16. Laspeyre’s IN = 106.6 Paasche’s IN = 106.8 Fisher’s IN= 106.7
17. Fisher’s IN = 138.5 TRT= 1 FRT = 1880/1560
18. Fisher’s IN = 83.6
19. Fisher’s IN = 122.314 TRT = 1
20. Cost of Living Index =2662.38
21. Cost of Living Index = 117.31
22. Cost of Living Index = 130.6192
Exercise 9.3
14. X = 16.2, UCL = 20.49, CL = 16.2, LCL = 11.91
R = 7.4,
UCL = 15.65, CL = 7.4, LCL = 0
R = 6.8,
UCL = 14.38, CL = 6.8, LCL = 0
R = 18,
UCL = 38.07, CL = 18, LCL = 0
R = 6.3,
UCL = 13.32, CL = 6.3, LCL = 0
Answers 277
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R = 0.37,
UCL = 0.78, CL = 0.37, LCL = 0
R = 20.1,
UCL = 45.87, CL = 20.1, LCL = 0
R = 3.12,
UCL = 7.12, CL = 3.12, LCL = 0
R = 4,
UCL = 8.46, CL = 4, LCL = 0
Exercise 9.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(d) (b) (d) (d) (c) (a) (c) (b) (b) (b) (a) (d) (c)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
(d) (c) (b) (c) (c) (a) (d) (c) (b) (a) (c) (d)
Miscellaneous problems
1. Three yearly moving Average
148, 149.33, 152.33, 168.33, 253.33, 261.33, 281.67, 302.67, 327.
2. Four yearly moving Average
708.75, 729.25, 748.25, 768.25, 784.5
3. Y = 55.975+ 0.825X
4. L= 49.9 P= 50.32 Fisher’s = 50.09
5. Fisher =139.8
6. Consumer price index = 118.77
7. CLI = 126⋅ 10. The cost of living has increased upto 26.10% in 2011 as compared
to 2010.
8. Control chart for Mean Control chart for Range
LCL = 47.56 LCL = 0
CL = 51.2 CL = 6.3
UCL = 54.84 UCL = 13.32
9. Control chart for Mean Control chart for Range
LCL = 1120.83 LCL = 0
CL = 1367.5 CL = 427.5
UCL = 1614.17 UCL = 904.16
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Exercise 10.2
4. 46 5. 280 6. 41 Hours 7. 37 8. 12
Exercise 10.3
1. (i) S1 (ii) S2
2. (a) Crop C (b) Crop B and Crop C
3. (i) Egg shampoo (ii) Egg Shampoo 4. (i) A3 (ii) A2 and A3
Answers 279
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Exercise 10.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) (a) (c) (c) (a) (a) (c) (c) (d) (b) (d) (b) (d) (d)
Miscellaneous Problems
1. x11 = 5 x 21 = 2 , x 22 = 6, x32 = 3, x33 = 4 , x 43 = 14
Total Cost = ` 102
2. (a) x12 = 10 x13 = 20 , x 21 = 30, x 22 = 20, x 24 = 10 , x32 = 20
(b) x11 = 10 x13 = 20 , x 21 = 20, x 22 = 20, x 24 = 10 , x32 = 20
Total cost = ` 370
3. x11 = 15 x13 = 10 , x 23 = 35, x31 = 15, x32 = 25 , x32 = 20
Total Cost = ` 560
4. x12 = 1 x12 = 5 , x 24 = 1, x31 = 6, x33 = 3 , x34 = 1
Total Cost = ` 102
5. A → e, B → c, C → b, D → a,E → d
Minimum Distance =570 miles
6. 1 → 11, 2 → 8, 3 → 7, 4 → 9,5 → 10,6 → 12
Minimum distance =125 kms
7. (i) Debenture : 6000
(ii) Stocks : 1000
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LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0.0043 0.0086 0.0128 0.0170 0.0212 0.0253 0.0294 0.0334 0.0374 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
1.1 0.0414 0.0453 0.0492 0.0531 0.0569 0.0607 0.0645 0.0682 0.0719 0.0755 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
1.2 0.0792 0.0828 0.0864 0.0899 0.0934 0.0969 0.1004 0.1038 0.1072 0.1106 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
1.3 0.1139 0.1173 0.1206 0.1239 0.1271 0.1303 0.1335 0.1367 0.1399 0.1430 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
1.4 0.1461 0.1492 0.1523 0.1553 0.1584 0.1614 0.1644 0.1673 0.1703 0.1732 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
1.5 0.1761 0.1790 0.1818 0.1847 0.1875 0.1903 0.1931 0.1959 0.1987 0.2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
1.6 0.2041 0.2068 0.2095 0.2122 0.2148 0.2175 0.2201 0.2227 0.2253 0.2279 3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
1.7 0.2304 0.2330 0.2355 0.2380 0.2405 0.2430 0.2455 0.2480 0.2504 0.2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1.8 0.2553 0.2577 0.2601 0.2625 0.2648 0.2672 0.2695 0.2718 0.2742 0.2765 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
1.9 0.2788 0.2810 0.2833 0.2856 0.2878 0.2900 0.2923 0.2945 0.2967 0.2989 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
2.0 0.3010 0.3032 0.3054 0.3075 0.3096 0.3118 0.3139 0.3160 0.3181 0.3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
2.1 0.3222 0.3243 0.3263 0.3284 0.3304 0.3324 0.3345 0.3365 0.3385 0.3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.2 0.3424 0.3444 0.3464 0.3483 0.3502 0.3522 0.3541 0.3560 0.3579 0.3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
2.3 0.3617 0.3636 0.3655 0.3674 0.3692 0.3711 0.3729 0.3747 0.3766 0.3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
2.4 0.3802 0.3820 0.3838 0.3856 0.3874 0.3892 0.3909 0.3927 0.3945 0.3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
2.5 0.3979 0.3997 0.4014 0.4031 0.4048 0.4065 0.4082 0.4099 0.4116 0.4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
2.6 0.4150 0.4166 0.4183 0.4200 0.4216 0.4232 0.4249 0.4265 0.4281 0.4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
2.7 0.4314 0.4330 0.4346 0.4362 0.4378 0.4393 0.4409 0.4425 0.4440 0.4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
2.8 0.4472 0.4487 0.4502 0.4518 0.4533 0.4548 0.4564 0.4579 0.4594 0.4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
2.9 0.4624 0.4639 0.4654 0.4669 0.4683 0.4698 0.4713 0.4728 0.4742 0.4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
3.0 0.4771 0.4786 0.4800 0.4814 0.4829 0.4843 0.4857 0.4871 0.4886 0.4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
3.1 0.4914 0.4928 0.4942 0.4955 0.4969 0.4983 0.4997 0.5011 0.5024 0.5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
3.2 0.5051 0.5065 0.5079 0.5092 0.5105 0.5119 0.5132 0.5145 0.5159 0.5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3.3 0.5185 0.5198 0.5211 0.5224 0.5237 0.5250 0.5263 0.5276 0.5289 0.5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
3.4 0.5315 0.5328 0.5340 0.5353 0.5366 0.5378 0.5391 0.5403 0.5416 0.5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
3.5 0.5441 0.5453 0.5465 0.5478 0.5490 0.5502 0.5514 0.5527 0.5539 0.5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
3.6 0.5563 0.5575 0.5587 0.5599 0.5611 0.5623 0.5635 0.5647 0.5658 0.5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
3.7 0.5682 0.5694 0.5705 0.5717 0.5729 0.5740 0.5752 0.5763 0.5775 0.5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.8 0.5798 0.5809 0.5821 0.5832 0.5843 0.5855 0.5866 0.5877 0.5888 0.5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.9 0.5911 0.5922 0.5933 0.5944 0.5955 0.5966 0.5977 0.5988 0.5999 0.6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
4.0 0.6021 0.6031 0.6042 0.6053 0.6064 0.6075 0.6085 0.6096 0.6107 0.6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
4.1 0.6128 0.6138 0.6149 0.6160 0.6170 0.6180 0.6191 0.6201 0.6212 0.6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.2 0.6232 0.6243 0.6253 0.6263 0.6274 0.6284 0.6294 0.6304 0.6314 0.6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 0.6335 0.6345 0.6355 0.6365 0.6375 0.6385 0.6395 0.6405 0.6415 0.6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.4 0.6435 0.6444 0.6454 0.6464 0.6474 0.6484 0.6493 0.6503 0.6513 0.6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.5 0.6532 0.6542 0.6551 0.6561 0.6571 0.6580 0.6590 0.6599 0.6609 0.6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.6 0.6628 0.6637 0.6646 0.6656 0.6665 0.6675 0.6684 0.6693 0.6702 0.6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
4.7 0.6721 0.6730 0.6739 0.6749 0.6758 0.6767 0.6776 0.6785 0.6794 0.6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
4.8 0.6812 0.6821 0.6830 0.6839 0.6848 0.6857 0.6866 0.6875 0.6884 0.6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
4.9 0.6902 0.6911 0.6920 0.6928 0.6937 0.6946 0.6955 0.6964 0.6972 0.6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
5.0 0.6990 0.6998 0.7007 0.7016 0.7024 0.7033 0.7042 0.7050 0.7059 0.7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.1 0.7076 0.7084 0.7093 0.7101 0.7110 0.7118 0.7126 0.7135 0.7143 0.7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
5.2 0.7160 0.7168 0.7177 0.7185 0.7193 0.7202 0.7210 0.7218 0.7226 0.7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
5.3 0.7243 0.7251 0.7259 0.7267 0.7275 0.7284 0.7292 0.7300 0.7308 0.7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
5.4 0.7324 0.7332 0.7340 0.7348 0.7356 0.7364 0.7372 0.7380 0.7388 0.7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
Tables 281
LOGARITHM TABLE
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.5 0.7404 0.7412 0.7419 0.7427 0.7435 0.7443 0.7451 0.7459 0.7466 0.7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.6 0.7482 0.7490 0.7497 0.7505 0.7513 0.7520 0.7528 0.7536 0.7543 0.7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.7 0.7559 0.7566 0.7574 0.7582 0.7589 0.7597 0.7604 0.7612 0.7619 0.7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
5.8 0.7634 0.7642 0.7649 0.7657 0.7664 0.7672 0.7679 0.7686 0.7694 0.7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
5.9 0.7709 0.7716 0.7723 0.7731 0.7738 0.7745 0.7752 0.7760 0.7767 0.7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
6.0 0.7782 0.7789 0.7796 0.7803 0.7810 0.7818 0.7825 0.7832 0.7839 0.7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.1 0.7853 0.7860 0.7868 0.7875 0.7882 0.7889 0.7896 0.7903 0.7910 0.7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
6.2 0.7924 0.7931 0.7938 0.7945 0.7952 0.7959 0.7966 0.7973 0.7980 0.7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
6.3 0.7993 0.8000 0.8007 0.8014 0.8021 0.8028 0.8035 0.8041 0.8048 0.8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.4 0.8062 0.8069 0.8075 0.8082 0.8089 0.8096 0.8102 0.8109 0.8116 0.8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.5 0.8129 0.8136 0.8142 0.8149 0.8156 0.8162 0.8169 0.8176 0.8182 0.8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.6 0.8195 0.8202 0.8209 0.8215 0.8222 0.8228 0.8235 0.8241 0.8248 0.8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.7 0.8261 0.8267 0.8274 0.8280 0.8287 0.8293 0.8299 0.8306 0.8312 0.8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
6.8 0.8325 0.8331 0.8338 0.8344 0.8351 0.8357 0.8363 0.8370 0.8376 0.8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
6.9 0.8388 0.8395 0.8401 0.8407 0.8414 0.8420 0.8426 0.8432 0.8439 0.8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.0 0.8451 0.8457 0.8463 0.8470 0.8476 0.8482 0.8488 0.8494 0.8500 0.8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
7.1 0.8513 0.8519 0.8525 0.8531 0.8537 0.8543 0.8549 0.8555 0.8561 0.8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.2 0.8573 0.8579 0.8585 0.8591 0.8597 0.8603 0.8609 0.8615 0.8621 0.8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.3 0.8633 0.8639 0.8645 0.8651 0.8657 0.8663 0.8669 0.8675 0.8681 0.8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.4 0.8692 0.8698 0.8704 0.8710 0.8716 0.8722 0.8727 0.8733 0.8739 0.8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
7.5 0.8751 0.8756 0.8762 0.8768 0.8774 0.8779 0.8785 0.8791 0.8797 0.8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.6 0.8808 0.8814 0.8820 0.8825 0.8831 0.8837 0.8842 0.8848 0.8854 0.8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
7.7 0.8865 0.8871 0.8876 0.8882 0.8887 0.8893 0.8899 0.8904 0.8910 0.8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.8 0.8921 0.8927 0.8932 0.8938 0.8943 0.8949 0.8954 0.8960 0.8965 0.8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
7.9 0.8976 0.8982 0.8987 0.8993 0.8998 0.9004 0.9009 0.9015 0.9020 0.9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.0 0.9031 0.9036 0.9042 0.9047 0.9053 0.9058 0.9063 0.9069 0.9074 0.9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.1 0.9085 0.9090 0.9096 0.9101 0.9106 0.9112 0.9117 0.9122 0.9128 0.9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.2 0.9138 0.9143 0.9149 0.9154 0.9159 0.9165 0.9170 0.9175 0.9180 0.9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.3 0.9191 0.9196 0.9201 0.9206 0.9212 0.9217 0.9222 0.9227 0.9232 0.9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.4 0.9243 0.9248 0.9253 0.9258 0.9263 0.9269 0.9274 0.9279 0.9284 0.9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.5 0.9294 0.9299 0.9304 0.9309 0.9315 0.9320 0.9325 0.9330 0.9335 0.9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.6 0.9345 0.9350 0.9355 0.9360 0.9365 0.9370 0.9375 0.9380 0.9385 0.9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
8.7 0.9395 0.9400 0.9405 0.9410 0.9415 0.9420 0.9425 0.9430 0.9435 0.9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.8 0.9445 0.9450 0.9455 0.9460 0.9465 0.9469 0.9474 0.9479 0.9484 0.9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
8.9 0.9494 0.9499 0.9504 0.9509 0.9513 0.9518 0.9523 0.9528 0.9533 0.9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.0 0.9542 0.9547 0.9552 0.9557 0.9562 0.9566 0.9571 0.9576 0.9581 0.9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.1 0.9590 0.9595 0.9600 0.9605 0.9609 0.9614 0.9619 0.9624 0.9628 0.9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.2 0.9638 0.9643 0.9647 0.9652 0.9657 0.9661 0.9666 0.9671 0.9675 0.9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.3 0.9685 0.9689 0.9694 0.9699 0.9703 0.9708 0.9713 0.9717 0.9722 0.9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.4 0.9731 0.9736 0.9741 0.9745 0.9750 0.9754 0.9759 0.9763 0.9768 0.9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.5 0.9777 0.9782 0.9786 0.9791 0.9795 0.9800 0.9805 0.9809 0.9814 0.9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.6 0.9823 0.9827 0.9832 0.9836 0.9841 0.9845 0.9850 0.9854 0.9859 0.9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.7 0.9868 0.9872 0.9877 0.9881 0.9886 0.9890 0.9894 0.9899 0.9903 0.9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.8 0.9912 0.9917 0.9921 0.9926 0.9930 0.9934 0.9939 0.9943 0.9948 0.9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9.9 0.9956 0.9961 0.9965 0.9969 0.9974 0.9978 0.9983 0.9987 0.9991 0.9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.00 1.000 1.002 1.005 1.007 1.009 1.012 1.014 1.016 1.019 1.021 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.01 1.023 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.033 1.035 1.038 1.040 1.042 1.045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.02 1.047 1.050 1.052 1.054 1.057 1.059 1.062 1.064 1.067 1.069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.03 1.072 1.074 1.076 1.079 1.081 1.084 1.086 1.089 1.091 1.094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
0.04 1.096 1.099 1.102 1.104 1.107 1.109 1.112 1.114 1.117 1.119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.05 1.122 1.125 1.127 1.130 1.132 1.135 1.138 1.140 1.143 1.146 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.06 1.148 1.151 1.153 1.156 1.159 1.161 1.164 1.167 1.169 1.172 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.07 1.175 1.178 1.180 1.183 1.186 1.189 1.191 1.194 1.197 1.199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0.08 1.202 1.205 1.208 1.211 1.213 1.216 1.219 1.222 1.225 1.227 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.09 1.230 1.233 1.236 1.239 1.242 1.245 1.247 1.250 1.253 1.256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.10 1.259 1.262 1.265 1.268 1.271 1.274 1.276 1.279 1.282 1.285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
0.11 1.288 1.291 1.294 1.297 1.300 1.303 1.306 1.309 1.312 1.315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
0.12 1.318 1.321 1.324 1.327 1.330 1.334 1.337 1.340 1.343 1.346 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
0.13 1.349 1.352 1.355 1.358 1.361 1.365 1.368 1.371 1.374 1.377 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.14 1.380 1.384 1.387 1.390 1.393 1.396 1.400 1.403 1.406 1.409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.15 1.413 1.416 1.419 1.422 1.426 1.429 1.432 1.435 1.439 1.442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.16 1.445 1.449 1.452 1.455 1.459 1.462 1.466 1.469 1.472 1.476 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.17 1.479 1.483 1.486 1.489 1.493 1.496 1.500 1.503 1.507 1.510 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.18 1.514 1.517 1.521 1.524 1.528 1.531 1.535 1.538 1.542 1.545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
0.19 1.549 1.552 1.556 1.560 1.563 1.567 1.570 1.574 1.578 1.581 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
0.20 1.585 1.589 1.592 1.596 1.600 1.603 1.607 1.611 1.614 1.618 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
0.21 1.622 1.626 1.629 1.633 1.637 1.641 1.644 1.648 1.652 1.656 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
0.22 1.660 1.663 1.667 1.671 1.675 1.679 1.683 1.687 1.690 1.694 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
0.23 1.698 1.702 1.706 1.710 1.714 1.718 1.722 1.726 1.730 1.734 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.24 1.738 1.742 1.746 1.750 1.754 1.758 1.762 1.766 1.770 1.774 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.25 1.778 1.782 1.786 1.791 1.795 1.799 1.803 1.807 1.811 1.816 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
0.26 1.820 1.824 1.828 1.832 1.837 1.841 1.845 1.849 1.854 1.858 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
0.27 1.862 1.866 1.871 1.875 1.879 1.884 1.888 1.892 1.897 1.901 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
0.28 1.905 1.910 1.914 1.919 1.923 1.928 1.932 1.936 1.941 1.945 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.29 1.950 1.954 1.959 1.963 1.968 1.972 1.977 1.982 1.986 1.991 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.30 1.995 2.000 2.004 2.009 2.014 2.018 2.023 2.028 2.032 2.037 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.31 2.042 2.046 2.051 2.056 2.061 2.065 2.070 2.075 2.080 2.084 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.32 2.089 2.094 2.099 2.104 2.109 2.113 2.118 2.123 2.128 2.133 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.33 2.138 2.143 2.148 2.153 2.158 2.163 2.168 2.173 2.178 2.183 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
0.34 2.188 2.193 2.198 2.203 2.208 2.213 2.218 2.223 2.228 2.234 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.35 2.239 2.244 2.249 2.254 2.259 2.265 2.270 2.275 2.280 2.286 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.36 2.291 2.296 2.301 2.307 2.312 2.317 2.323 2.328 2.333 2.339 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.37 2.344 2.350 2.355 2.360 2.366 2.371 2.377 2.382 2.388 2.393 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.38 2.399 2.404 2.410 2.415 2.421 2.427 2.432 2.438 2.443 2.449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
0.39 2.455 2.460 2.466 2.472 2.477 2.483 2.489 2.495 2.500 2.506 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
0.40 2.512 2.518 2.523 2.529 2.535 2.541 2.547 2.553 2.559 2.564 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
0.41 2.570 2.576 2.582 2.588 2.594 2.600 2.606 2.612 2.618 2.624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
0.42 2.630 2.636 2.642 2.649 2.655 2.661 2.667 2.673 2.679 2.685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
0.43 2.692 2.698 2.704 2.710 2.716 2.723 2.729 2.735 2.742 2.748 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
0.44 2.754 2.761 2.767 2.773 2.780 2.786 2.793 2.799 2.805 2.812 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
0.45 2.818 2.825 2.831 2.838 2.844 2.851 2.858 2.864 2.871 2.877 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.46 2.884 2.891 2.897 2.904 2.911 2.917 2.924 2.931 2.938 2.944 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.47 2.951 2.958 2.965 2.972 2.979 2.985 2.992 2.999 3.006 3.013 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
0.48 3.020 3.027 3.034 3.041 3.048 3.055 3.062 3.069 3.076 3.083 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
0.49 3.090 3.097 3.105 3.112 3.119 3.126 3.133 3.141 3.148 3.155 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
Tables 283
Mean Difference
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.50 3.162 3.170 3.177 3.184 3.192 3.199 3.206 3.214 3.221 3.228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
0.51 3.236 3.243 3.251 3.258 3.266 3.273 3.281 3.289 3.296 3.304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.52 3.311 3.319 3.327 3.334 3.342 3.350 3.357 3.365 3.373 3.381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
0.53 3.388 3.396 3.404 3.412 3.420 3.428 3.436 3.443 3.451 3.459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.54 3.467 3.475 3.483 3.491 3.499 3.508 3.516 3.524 3.532 3.540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
0.55 3.548 3.556 3.565 3.573 3.581 3.589 3.597 3.606 3.614 3.622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
0.56 3.631 3.639 3.648 3.656 3.664 3.673 3.681 3.690 3.698 3.707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.57 3.715 3.724 3.733 3.741 3.750 3.758 3.767 3.776 3.784 3.793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.58 3.802 3.811 3.819 3.828 3.837 3.846 3.855 3.864 3.873 3.882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
0.59 3.890 3.899 3.908 3.917 3.926 3.936 3.945 3.954 3.963 3.972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
0.60 3.981 3.990 3.999 4.009 4.018 4.027 4.036 4.046 4.055 4.064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
0.61 4.074 4.083 4.093 4.102 4.111 4.121 4.130 4.140 4.150 4.159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.62 4.169 4.178 4.188 4.198 4.207 4.217 4.227 4.236 4.246 4.256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.63 4.266 4.276 4.285 4.295 4.305 4.315 4.325 4.335 4.345 4.355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.64 4.365 4.375 4.385 4.395 4.406 4.416 4.426 4.436 4.446 4.457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.65 4.467 4.477 4.487 4.498 4.508 4.519 4.529 4.539 4.550 4.560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.66 4.571 4.581 4.592 4.603 4.613 4.624 4.634 4.645 4.656 4.667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
0.67 4.677 4.688 4.699 4.710 4.721 4.732 4.742 4.753 4.764 4.775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
0.68 4.786 4.797 4.808 4.819 4.831 4.842 4.853 4.864 4.875 4.887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
0.69 4.898 4.909 4.920 4.932 4.943 4.955 4.966 4.977 4.989 5.000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.70 5.012 5.023 5.035 5.047 5.058 5.070 5.082 5.093 5.105 5.117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
0.71 5.129 5.140 5.152 5.164 5.176 5.188 5.200 5.212 5.224 5.236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
0.72 5.248 5.260 5.272 5.284 5.297 5.309 5.321 5.333 5.346 5.358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
0.73 5.370 5.383 5.395 5.408 5.420 5.433 5.445 5.458 5.470 5.483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
0.74 5.495 5.508 5.521 5.534 5.546 5.559 5.572 5.585 5.598 5.610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
0.75 5.623 5.636 5.649 5.662 5.675 5.689 5.702 5.715 5.728 5.741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
0.76 5.754 5.768 5.781 5.794 5.808 5.821 5.834 5.848 5.861 5.875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
0.77 5.888 5.902 5.916 5.929 5.943 5.957 5.970 5.984 5.998 6.012 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
0.78 6.026 6.039 6.053 6.067 6.081 6.095 6.109 6.124 6.138 6.152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
0.79 6.166 6.180 6.194 6.209 6.223 6.237 6.252 6.266 6.281 6.295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
0.80 6.310 6.324 6.339 6.353 6.368 6.383 6.397 6.412 6.427 6.442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
0.81 6.457 6.471 6.486 6.501 6.516 6.531 6.546 6.561 6.577 6.592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.82 6.607 6.622 6.637 6.653 6.668 6.683 6.699 6.714 6.730 6.745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
0.83 6.761 6.776 6.792 6.808 6.823 6.839 6.855 6.871 6.887 6.902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
0.84 6.918 6.934 6.950 6.966 6.982 6.998 7.015 7.031 7.047 7.063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
0.85 7.079 7.096 7.112 7.129 7.145 7.161 7.178 7.194 7.211 7.228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
0.86 7.244 7.261 7.278 7.295 7.311 7.328 7.345 7.362 7.379 7.396 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
0.87 7.413 7.430 7.447 7.464 7.482 7.499 7.516 7.534 7.551 7.568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
0.88 7.586 7.603 7.621 7.638 7.656 7.674 7.691 7.709 7.727 7.745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
0.89 7.762 7.780 7.798 7.816 7.834 7.852 7.870 7.889 7.907 7.925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
0.90 7.943 7.962 7.980 7.998 8.017 8.035 8.054 8.072 8.091 8.110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
0.91 8.128 8.147 8.166 8.185 8.204 8.222 8.241 8.260 8.279 8.299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
0.92 8.318 8.337 8.356 8.375 8.395 8.414 8.433 8.453 8.472 8.492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
0.93 8.511 8.531 8.551 8.570 8.590 8.610 8.630 8.650 8.670 8.690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.94 8.710 8.730 8.750 8.770 8.790 8.810 8.831 8.851 8.872 8.892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.95 8.913 8.933 8.954 8.974 8.995 9.016 9.036 9.057 9.078 9.099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19
0.96 9.120 9.141 9.162 9.183 9.204 9.226 9.247 9.268 9.290 9.311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
0.97 9.333 9.354 9.376 9.397 9.419 9.441 9.462 9.484 9.506 9.528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
0.98 9.550 9.572 9.594 9.616 9.638 9.661 9.683 9.705 9.727 9.750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
0.99 9.772 9.795 9.817 9.840 9.863 9.886 9.908 9.931 9.954 9.977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
LogTable_BM_XII_EM.indd 285
0.00 1.00000000 2.71828183 7.38905610 20.08553692 54.59815003 148.41315910 403.42879349 1096.63315843 2980.95798704 8103.08392758
0.01 1.01005017 2.74560102 7.46331735 20.28739993 55.14687056 149.90473615 407.48332027 1107.65450490 3010.91711288 8184.52127494
0.02 1.02020134 2.77319476 7.53832493 20.49129168 55.70110583 151.41130379 411.57859573 1118.78661775 3041.17733294 8266.77708126
0.03 1.03045453 2.80106583 7.61408636 20.69723259 56.26091125 152.93301270 415.71502938 1130.03061019 3071.74167327 8349.85957218
0.04 1.04081077 2.82921701 7.69060920 20.90524324 56.82634281 154.47001503 419.89303489 1141.38760663 3102.61319033 8433.77705601
0.05 1.05127110 2.85765112 7.76790111 21.11534442 57.39745705 156.02246449 424.11303004 1152.85874278 3133.79497129 8518.53792457
0.06 1.06183655 2.88637099 7.84596981 21.32755716 57.97431108 157.59051632 428.37543686 1164.44516577 3165.29013436 8604.15065402
0.07 1.07250818 2.91537950 7.92482312 21.54190268 58.55696259 159.17432734 432.68068157 1176.14803425 3197.10182908 8690.62380571
0.08 1.08328707 2.94467955 8.00446891 21.75840240 59.14546985 160.77405593 437.02919472 1187.96851851 3229.23323664 8777.96602703
0.09 1.09417428 2.97427407 8.08491516 21.97707798 59.73989170 162.38986205 441.42141115 1199.90780061 3261.68757023 8866.18605226
0.10 1.10517092 3.00416602 8.16616991 22.19795128 60.34028760 164.02190730 445.85777008 1211.96707449 3294.46807528 8955.29270348
0.11 1.11627807 3.03435839 8.24824128 22.42104440 60.94671757 165.67035487 450.33871517 1224.14754609 3327.57802989 9045.29489144
0.12 1.12749685 3.06485420 8.33113749 22.64637964 61.55924226 167.33536962 454.86469450 1236.45043347 3361.02074508 9136.20161642
0.13 1.13882838 3.09565650 8.41486681 22.87397954 62.17792293 169.01711804 459.43616068 1248.87696691 3394.79956514 9228.02196918
0.14 1.15027380 3.12676837 8.49943763 23.10386686 62.80282145 170.71576832 464.05357086 1261.42838910 3428.91786799 9320.76513183
0.15 1.16183424 3.15819291 8.58485840 23.33606458 63.43400030 172.43149032 468.71738678 1274.10595517 3463.37906548 9414.44037876
0.16 1.17351087 3.18993328 8.67113766 23.57059593 64.07152260 174.16445561 473.42807483 1286.91093291 3498.18660376 9509.05707757
0.17 1.18530485 3.22199264 8.75828404 23.80748436 64.71545211 175.91483748 478.18610609 1299.84460280 3533.34396362 9604.62469001
0.18 1.19721736 3.25437420 8.84630626 24.04675355 65.36585321 177.68281099 482.99195635 1312.90825825 3568.85466082 9701.15277293
0.19 1.20924960 3.28708121 8.93521311 24.28842744 66.02279096 179.46855293 487.84610621 1326.10320561 3604.72224646 9798.65097920
0.20 1.22140276 3.32011692 9.02501350 24.53253020 66.68633104 181.27224188 492.74904109 1339.43076439 3640.95030733 9897.12905874
0.21 1.23367806 3.35348465 9.11571639 24.77908622 67.35653981 183.09405819 497.70125129 1352.89226737 3677.54246627 9996.59685944
0.22 1.24607673 3.38718773 9.20733087 25.02812018 68.03348429 184.93418407 502.70323202 1366.48906071 3714.50238251 10097.06432815
0.23 1.25860001 3.42122954 9.29986608 25.27965697 68.71723217 186.79280352 507.75548350 1380.22250409 3751.83375209 10198.54151171
0.24 1.27124915 3.45561346 9.39333129 25.53372175 69.40785184 188.67010241 512.85851094 1394.09397087 3789.54030817 10301.03855791
0.25 1.28402542 3.49034296 9.48773584 25.79033992 70.10541235 190.56626846 518.01282467 1408.10484820 3827.62582144 10404.56571656
0.26 1.29693009 3.52542149 9.58308917 26.04953714 70.80998345 192.48149130 523.21894011 1422.25653720 3866.09410048 10509.13334045
0.27 1.30996445 3.56085256 9.67940081 26.31133934 71.52163562 194.41596245 528.47737788 1436.55045304 3904.94899215 10614.75188643
0.28 1.32312981 3.59663973 9.77668041 26.57577270 72.24044001 196.36987535 533.78866383 1450.98802511 3944.19438198 10721.43191645
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0.29 1.33642749 3.63278656 9.87493768 26.84286366 72.96646850 198.34342541 539.15332908 1465.57069720 3983.83419453 10829.18409859
0.30 1.34985881 3.66929667 9.97418245 27.11263892 73.69979370 200.33680997 544.57191013 1480.29992758 4023.87239382 10938.01920817
0.31 1.36342511 3.70617371 10.07442466 27.38512547 74.44048894 202.35022839 550.04494881 1495.17718919 4064.31298371 11047.94812878
0.32 1.37712776 3.74342138 10.17567431 27.66035056 75.18862829 204.38388199 555.57299245 1510.20396976 4105.16000827 11158.98185341
0.33 1.39096813 3.78104339 10.27794153 27.93834170 75.94428657 206.43797416 561.15659385 1525.38177199 4146.41755226 11271.13148552
0.34 1.40494759 3.81904351 10.38123656 28.21912671 76.70753934 208.51271029 566.79631138 1540.71211367 4188.08974147 11384.40824018
0.35 1.41906755 3.85742553 10.48556972 28.50273364 77.47846293 210.60829787 572.49270901 1556.19652784 4230.18074313 11498.82344515
0.36 1.43332941 3.89619330 10.59095145 28.78919088 78.25713442 212.72494645 578.24635639 1571.83656296 4272.69476640 11614.38854204
0.37 1.44773461 3.93535070 10.69739228 29.07852706 79.04363170 214.86286770 584.05782889 1587.63378304 4315.63606270 11731.11508747
0.38 1.46228459 3.97490163 10.80490286 29.37077111 79.83803341 217.02227542 589.92770766 1603.58976783 4359.00892620 11849.01475419
0.39 1.47698079 4.01485005 10.91349394 29.66595227 80.64041898 219.20338555 595.85657969 1619.70611293 4402.81769423 11968.09933225
0.40 1.49182470 4.05519997 11.02317638 29.96410005 81.45086866 221.40641620 601.84503787 1635.98443000 4447.06674770 12088.38073022
0.41 1.50681779 4.09595540 11.13396115 30.26524426 82.26946350 223.63158768 607.89368106 1652.42634686 4491.76051155 12209.87097633
0.42 1.52196156 4.13712044 11.24585931 30.56941502 83.09628536 225.87912250 614.00311413 1669.03350774 4536.90345519 12332.58221972
0.43 1.53725752 4.17869919 11.35888208 30.87664275 83.93141691 228.14924542 620.17394801 1685.80757337 4582.50009296 12456.52673161
0.44 1.55270722 4.22069582 11.47304074 31.18695817 84.77494167 230.44218346 626.40679981 1702.75022115 4628.55498456 12581.71690655
0.45 1.56831219 4.26311452 11.58834672 31.50039231 85.62694400 232.75816591 632.70229281 1719.86314538 4675.07273551 12708.16526367
Tables
0.46 1.58407398 4.30595953 11.70481154 31.81697651 86.48750910 235.09742437 639.06105657 1737.14805735 4722.05799763 12835.88444790
0.47 1.59999419 4.34923514 11.82244685 32.13674244 87.35672301 237.46019276 645.48372697 1754.60668558 4769.51546949 12964.88723127
0.48 1.61607440 4.39294568 11.94126442 32.45972208 88.23467268 239.84670737 651.97094627 1772.24077593 4817.44989687 13095.18651418
0.49 1.63231622 4.43709552 12.06127612 32.78594771 89.12144588 242.25720686 658.52336322 1790.05209184 4865.86607325 13226.79532664
285
0.50 1.64872127 4.48168907 12.18249396 33.11545196 90.01713130 244.69193226 665.14163304 1808.04241446 4914.76884030 13359.72682966
Free World U 1 Grade 11, Algebra II, Evaluating Exponential Functions with Tables
26-02-2020 15:44:03
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION TABLE
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION TABLE
286
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LogTable_BM_XII_EM.indd 286
0.51 1.66529119 4.52673079 12.30493006 33.44826778 90.92181851 247.15112707 671.82641759 1826.21354282 4964.16308832 13493.99431650
0.52 1.68202765 4.57222520 12.42859666 33.78442846 91.83559798 249.63503719 678.57838534 1844.56729405 5014.05375679 13629.61121401
0.53 1.69893231 4.61817682 12.55350614 34.12396761 92.75856108 252.14391102 685.39821149 1863.10550356 5064.44583482 13766.59108401
0.54 1.71600686 4.66459027 12.67967097 34.46691919 93.69080012 254.67799946 692.28657804 1881.83002516 5115.34436165 13904.94762458
0.55 1.73325302 4.71147018 12.80710378 34.81331749 94.63240831 257.23755591 699.24417382 1900.74273134 5166.75442718 14044.69467150
0.56 1.75067250 4.75882125 12.93581732 35.16319715 95.58347983 259.82283632 706.27169460 1919.84551337 5218.68117245 14185.84619960
0.57 1.76826705 4.80664819 13.06582444 35.51659315 96.54410977 262.43409924 713.36984313 1939.14028156 5271.12979019 14328.41632413
0.58 1.78603843 4.85495581 13.19713816 35.87354085 97.51439421 265.07160579 720.53932925 1958.62896539 5324.10552531 14472.41930224
0.59 1.80398842 4.90374893 13.32977160 36.23407593 98.49443016 267.73561971 727.78086990 1978.31351375 5377.61367541 14617.86953434
0.60 1.82211880 4.95303242 13.46373804 36.59823444 99.48431564 270.42640743 735.09518924 1998.19589510 5431.65959136 14764.78156558
0.61 1.84043140 5.00281123 13.59905085 36.96605281 100.48414964 273.14423800 742.48301872 2018.27809772 5486.24867780 14913.17008727
0.62 1.85892804 5.05309032 13.73572359 37.33756782 101.49403213 275.88938323 749.94509711 2038.56212982 5541.38639368 15063.04993840
0.63 1.87761058 5.10387472 13.87376990 37.71281662 102.51406411 278.66211763 757.48217064 2059.05001984 5597.07825281 15214.43610708
0.64 1.89648088 5.15516951 14.01320361 38.09183673 103.54434758 281.46271848 765.09499302 2079.74381657 5653.32982444 15367.34373205
0.65 1.91554083 5.20697983 14.15403865 38.47466605 104.58498558 284.29146582 772.78432554 2100.64558942 5710.14673375 15521.78810420
0.66 1.93479233 5.25931084 14.29628910 38.86134287 105.63608216 287.14864256 780.55093713 2121.75742858 5767.53466250 15677.78466809
0.67 1.95423732 5.31216780 14.43996919 39.25190586 106.69774243 290.03453439 788.39560446 2143.08144525 5825.49934952 15835.34902351
0.68 1.97387773 5.36555597 14.58509330 39.64639407 107.77007257 292.94942992 796.31911202 2164.61977185 5884.04659134 15994.49692704
0.69 1.99371553 5.41948071 14.73167592 40.04484696 108.85317981 295.89362064 804.32225214 2186.37456223 5943.18224271 16155.24429358
0.79 2.20339643 5.98945247 16.28101980 44.25640028 120.30136866 327.01302438 888.91356183 2416.31758219 6568.23217547 17854.30616767
0.80 2.22554093 6.04964746 16.44464677 44.70118449 121.51041752 330.29955991 897.84729165 2440.60197762 6634.24400628 18033.74492783
0.81 2.24790799 6.11044743 16.60991822 45.15043887 122.73161752 333.61912567 906.87080695 2465.13043529 6700.91926702 18214.98707751
0.82 2.27049984 6.17185845 16.77685067 45.60420832 123.96509078 336.97205363 915.98501008 2489.90540804 6768.26462527 18398.05074107
0.83 2.29331874 6.23388666 16.94546082 46.06253823 125.21096065 340.35867907 925.19081248 2514.92937342 6836.28681562 18582.95422504
0.84 2.31636698 6.29653826 17.11576554 46.52547444 126.46935173 343.77934066 934.48913473 2540.20483383 6904.99264036 18769.71601992
0.85 2.33964685 6.35981952 17.28778184 46.99306323 127.74038985 347.23438048 943.88090667 2565.73431683 6974.38897011 18958.35480204
0.86 2.36316069 6.42373677 17.46152694 47.46535137 129.02420211 350.72414402 953.36706749 2591.52037541 7044.48274457 19148.88943544
0.87 2.38691085 6.48829640 17.63701820 47.94238608 130.32091690 354.24898027 962.94856581 2617.56558819 7115.28097317 19341.33897375
0.88 2.41089971 6.55350486 17.81427318 48.42421507 131.63066389 357.80924171 972.62635979 2643.87255970 7186.79073580 19535.72266207
0.89 2.43512965 6.61936868 17.99330960 48.91088652 132.95357405 361.40528437 982.40141722 2670.44392068 7259.01918349 19732.05993893
0.90 2.45960311 6.68589444 18.17414537 49.40244911 134.28977968 365.03746787 992.27471561 2697.28232827 7331.97353916 19930.37043823
0.91 2.48432253 6.75308880 18.35679857 49.89895197 135.63941441 368.70615541 1002.24724229 2724.39046634 7405.66109828 20130.67399118
0.92 2.50929039 6.82095847 18.54128746 50.40044478 137.00261319 372.41171388 1012.31999453 2751.77104573 7480.08922969 20332.99062831
0.93 2.53450918 6.88951024 18.72763050 50.90697767 138.37951234 376.15451382 1022.49397962 2779.42680452 7555.26537625 20537.34058145
0.94 2.55998142 6.95875097 18.91584631 51.41860130 139.77024956 379.93492954 1032.77021496 2807.36050830 7631.19705565 20743.74428576
0.95 2.58570966 7.02868758 19.10595373 51.93536683 141.17496392 383.75333906 1043.14972818 2835.57495047 7707.89186111 20952.22238178
0.96 2.61169647 7.09932707 19.29797176 52.45732595 142.59379590 387.61012424 1053.63355724 2864.07295251 7785.35746218 21162.79571750
0.97 2.63794446 7.17067649 19.49191960 52.98453084 144.02688737 391.50567075 1064.22275054 2892.85736422 7863.60160548 21375.48535043
0.98 2.66445624 7.24274299 19.68781664 53.51703423 145.47438165 395.44036816 1074.91836700 2921.93106408 7942.63211550 21590.31254971
0.99 2.69123447 7.31553376 19.88568249 54.05488936 146.93642350 399.41460993 1085.72147619 2951.29695948 8022.45689535 21807.29879823
The number e (~ 2.71828183) is the base of the natural logarithm, loge (x ) = ln(x ). This table is for the exponential function eˣ for a given value x .
Free World U 2 Grade 11, Algebra II, Evaluating Exponential Functions with Tables
26-02-2020 15:44:03
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Tables 287
289
Notes
290