Animals Immunization Platform LEARN MORE

Dictionary > Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Table of Contents 

Asexual Reproduction
Definition
eɪˈsɛkʃuəl ɹiːpɹəˈdʌkʃən
What is asexual reproduction? Asexual
In asexual reproduction, the organism is
reproduction is a mode of reproduction that does
capable of reproducing an offspring in the
absence of a mate. not entail the union of sex cells or gametes.
Unlike in sexual reproduction wherein male and
female gametes unite to reproduce an offspring, in asexual reproduction, this union is
not necessary. The organism can reproduce in the absence of a mate in which, in this
case, produces offspring which is usually a clone of the parent. The different types of
asexual reproduction are binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation
(sporogenesis), fragmentation, parthenogenesis, and apomixis. The organisms that
reproduce through asexual means are bacteria, archaea, many plants, fungi, and
certain animals.

BiologyOnline TV

asexual reproduction (biology definition): a mode of reproduction in which the

offspring comes from a single organism, and not from the union of gametes as it is
in sexual reproduction

Reproduction is one of the biological processes that are commonly carried out by an
organism. In fact, the ability to reproduce is one of the major characteristics of a living
thing. There are two major modes of reproduction, sexual and asexual.

Reproduction: Asexual vs. Sexual

As mentioned earlier, there are two modes of reproduction: (1) asexual and (2) sexual.
Below is the table to show the main differences between the two.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

One parent is involved Two parents are involved: paternal

and maternal
 Syngamy is absent Syngamy is present; sperm cell
(male gamete) and ovum or egg cell
(female gamete) unite during
fertilization

Meiosis usually is not needed to complete Meiosis is a required step to

the process produce gametes

Offspring is often genetically identical to or Offspring is genetically unique,

a clone of the parent meaning it is genetically different
from its parents

Types: binary fission, budding, vegetative Types: syngamy and conjugation

propagation, spore formation
(sporogenesis), fragmentation,
parthenogenesis, and apomixis

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

In the asexuals, producing offspring is more quickly and relatively more
straightforward than in the sexuals. That’s because only one participant is needed.
There is no need to wait or search for a willing mate. It skips the courtship rituals as
seen in higher forms of sexual animals. The organism can reproduce many offspring of
its own kind in the absence of mating. Asexual reproduction, therefore, is less costly in
terms of energy and time expenditure. It also gives the asexuals the advantage to
colonize a habitat faster than the slowly-reproducing sexuals.

Look at the diagram below. It shows the “two-fold cost” of sexual reproduction (first
described by the mathematician, John Maynard Smith) (Ref.1). In (a), the sexual
population size remains the same with each generation if each individual were to
contribute to the same number of offspring. In (b), the asexual population size doubled
in size with each generation, implicating that the asexual population can grow at a
faster rate than the sexual population. And while sexual reproduction necessitates
males and females to expend time and energy to find each other and copulate, in
asexual reproduction, this is not necessary.

Credit: Michael Reeve, CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

If asexual reproduction is less costly, less complicated, and faster, then why is sexual
reproduction so prevalent among eukaryotes? Researchers estimate that 99.9% of
eukaryotes do it. (Ref. 2) And some eukaryotes capable of asexual reproduction will
only resort to it if sexual reproduction has become less feasible. For instance, the
female smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) in captivity have been shown to reproduce
asexually possibly due to pressures of finding mates in a low population density. (Ref. 3)
In pure asexuals, the parent organism reproduces offspring that is a clone of itself. It
becomes a disadvantage in the long run when the genetic diversity within the species is
considered. It leads to low genetic variation. Unlike in sexuals that incorporate
recombination and segregation during meiosis and the union of the sex cells with
unique genetic materials, pure asexuals do not go through these processes. And
skipping meiotic events could mean less genetic diversity, and therefore, may poise as a
long-term evolutionary disadvantage.

For instance, the lone parent passes along the same genetic material to the clone. In
the event that they have to deal with a sudden disturbance in their environment, e.g. a
virulent disease, both of them may be similarly susceptible because they possess the
same characteristics and genes. Or, both of them may be lacking the genes that could
make them resistant or at least capable of withstanding the disease. As a result, they
are at risk of getting wiped out by the disease. This makes sexual reproduction crucial
in terms of increasing the odds of producing species with genes that enable them to
become a better fit for a new environment. In the sexuals, higher genetic diversity is
achieved through crossing over, independent assortment, and gamete fusion. Purely
asexual parents can get new genetic material, for example, through mutation.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

What are the 7 types of asexual reproduction? The different types of asexual reproduction
are (1) binary fission, (2) budding, (3) vegetative propagation, (4) spore formation
(sporogenesis), (5) fragmentation, (6) parthenogenesis, and (7) apomixis.

Binary fission
Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein a cell divides to produce two
identical cells. Each of these two cells has the potential to grow to the size of the
original cell. See the diagram below.

Binary fission steps. The figure shows how bacteria reproduce through binary fission. (1)
Chromosome, duplicated. (2-4) Chromosomes segregating. (5) Septum forms in the middle of
the cell. (6) Two cells are produced. Credit: Ecoddington14, CC BY-SA 3.0

The organisms that reproduce asexually through binary fission are the prokaryotes
(bacteria and archaea) and certain protozoans. The diagram above shows the
fundamental steps of binary fission in prokaryotes. In certain protozoans, binary fission
can be of different types based on how the cell divides. For instance, it can be an
irregular type, meaning the cell divides along any plane (as observed in certain
amoeba). It can also be longitudinal, as exemplified in Euglena, transverse-type, as in
Paramecium, or oblique-type, as in Ceratium.

 
 

Budding
Budding reproduction refers to the formation of an outgrowth (or bud) from an
organism that is capable of developing into a new individual. The outgrowth is
genetically the same as the parent but relatively smaller. It may stay attached or
eventually split off from the parent.

Budding is the mode of reproduction in certain bacteria, such as Caulobacter,

Hyphomicrobium, and Stella spp., fungi (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and certain asexual
animals, such as hydra, corals, echinoderm larvae, and some acoel flatworms. (Ref.4)
Refer to the figure below as an example of budding in hydra.

Stages of budding in hydra: (1) the hydra prior to bud formation, (2-4) bud growing out,
(5) daughter Hydra detaches by cleaving, (6) new Hydra that is a clone of the parent.
Image credit: A.houghton19 (author), CC BY-SA 4.0

‌
 

Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is when a new
plant emerges from vegetative parts, such as specialized stems, leaves, and roots. Then,
they form their own root system and grow. This form of reproduction is used by
horticulturists in propagating economically-important plants. The process does not
involve pollination. Rather, new plants are grown out of vegetative parts with a
specialized reproductive function. There are many forms of vegetative propagation
that can be classified into two major types: natural means and artificial means. Examples
of natural means are those emerging from runners (stolons), bulbs, tubers, corms,
suckers (root sprouts), and plantlets.

(A) ‘Lipstick’ strawberry plant with runners (stolons), which are modified stems. Credit:
Dr U, Public Domain (B) shallot bulbs: modified stems with fleshy leaf bases (scales). (C)
potato tubers (modified stems). (D) Corms of the taro plant. Credit: Wibowo Djatmiko,
CC BY-SA 3.0. (E) A root sprout (sucker) emerging from the base of a juvenile tree.
Credit: Ginkgo100, CC By-SA 3.0. (F) Notice the new plant emerging on the leaf margin
of the plant, Kalanchoë pinnata. Credit: Eric Guinther, CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported. (G)
Phalaenopsis keiki growth (5 months). Credit: Caspase9, CC BY-SA 3.0.

As for artificial means, examples are those that arise from cutting, grafting, layering,
tissue culture, and offset.
(A) Cutting: the process of cutting a plant part and coax it to form roots. Credit:
Gmihail/Micki, CC BY-SA 3.0 rs. (B) Grafting: attaching a scion to the stem of another
plant (rootstock). In this photo, the tape is used to bind the rootstock and scion at the
graft. Credit: Tom Street, Public Domain. (C) Air layering. Credit: Citron, CC BY-SA 3.0.
(D) Tissue culture: growing plant cells, tissues, or organs on a nutrient culture medium

Spore formation (sporogenesis)

Spore formation or sporogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction that involves
spores. Spores, from “sporā”, meaning “seed” and “genesis”, meaning “birth” or “origin”, are
dormant, reproductive cells that are similar to seed by serving as dispersal units. The
spores though aren’t seeds in a way that they lack the embryo produced by the fusion
of male and female gametes. Spores are thick-walled and highly resistant to various
unfavorable conditions, like high temperatures and low humidity. When the conditions
are suitable they germinate to give rise to new individuals. Vascular plants and fungi
are examples of asexual organisms that reproduce by spore formation. Below is a video
of how mushrooms (fungi) propagate through spores.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation refers to the parent organism breaking into fragments and each
fragment is capable of developing into a new organism. This is observed in fungi (e.g.
yeasts, and lichens), molds, vascular and nonvascular plants, cyanobacteria, and
animals (e.g. sponges, sea stars, planarians, and many annelid worms). This form of
asexual reproduction in animals may also be not intentional. Human activity, predation,
and other environmental factors may cause them to split into fragments. Below is a
fascinating video showing how fragmentation works — from being a headless fragment
can grow into a complete planarian.

 
 

Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is an asexual reproduction wherein the offspring develops from a
female gamete even without prior fertilization by a male gamete. The process may be
apomictic or automictic. Apomictic parthenogenesis is one in which the egg cells
produced by mitosis do not undergo meiosis and may grow to maturity to directly give
rise to embryos. The offspring will be clones of the parthenogenetic parent. In
automictic parthenogenesis, the reproductive cells go through meiosis. Then, the
mature egg cell can develop into an embryo also without prior fertilization by a sperm
cell. This is a more complicated form of asexual reproduction. In some cases, the
offspring are haploid whereas in other cases, the ploidy is restored by various means,
e.g. by doubling the chromosomes, by the fusion of the first two blastomeres, or by the
fusion of meiotic products. (Ref.5)

There are many animals that reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. Examples
of invertebrates capable of parthenogenesis are aphids, rotifers, and nematodes. Some
vertebrates that can also reproduce parthenogenetically are certain lizards, snakes,
birds, sharks, reptiles, and amphibians. Some of them reproduce by parthenogenesis
either facultatively (i.e. they can also reproduce sexually) or obligately (i.e. they have no
other means to reproduce but by parthenogenesis).

Plant Apomixis
Apomixis in plants refers to asexual reproduction without fertilization. In certain
plants, such as bryophytes and certain ferns, the gametophyte may give rise to a
sporophyte-looking offspring but with a ploidy level of a gametophyte. This is referred
to as apogamy. Then, there is also an instance wherein their sporophyte may give rise to
a gametophyte-looking offspring but with a ploidy level of a sporophyte. This, in turn, is
called apospory. (Ref. 6)
In flowering plants, the seed production from unfertilized ovules is referred to as
agamospermy. There are two major types: gametophytic apomixis and sporophytic
apomixis. (Ref. 6)

In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized ovum from a

gametophyte that came from a cell that did not complete meiosis. The major types of
gametophytic apomixis are diplospory (where the megagametophyte arises from a cell
of the archesporium) and apospory (wherein the megagametophyte arises from the
other cell of the nucellus. (Ref. 6)

In sporophytic apomixis (also called adventitious embryony or nucellar embryony), the

embryo arises not from a gametophyte but from the cells of the nucellus or of an
integument. (Ref. 6)

Asexual Reproduction Examples

Bacteria
Many bacteria reproduce by binary fission. The parent bacterial cell produces two
identical clone cells by first creating a copy of the DNA molecule. Then, this is followed
by chromosome segregation wherein DNA is pulled apart toward the opposite poles of
the dividing cell. The cell constricts at the equatorial plane (cytokinesis), separating the
cellular contents into two new cells. The process is similar to mitosis in eukaryotes.
However, there is no spindle apparatus involved. The duration varies between
bacterial species. Escherichia coli, for example, reproduce typically about every 20
minutes at 37 °C. (Ref. 7)

Escherichia coli. Credit: Eric Erbe from USDA, ARS, EMU, Public Domain.

 
 A growing colony of Escherichia coli. Credit: Stewart EJ, Madden R, Paul G, Taddei F –
Stewart EJ, Madden R, Paul G, Taddei F (2005). “Aging and death in an organism that
reproduces by morphologically symmetric division”. PLoS Biol. 3 (2): e45. PMID
15685293. CC BY 3.0.

Slime molds
When food is scarce and the conditions are not suitable, plasmodium slime molds
produce stalked reproductive fruiting bodies (sporangia) that contain spores. At the
apical portion of the sporangia, the cells undergo meiosis, producing haploid spores
that are dispersed by wind. When the conditions become favorable again, e.g. proper
moisture levels and temperatures, the spore germinates and releases a haploid cell.
(The haploid cells are involved in the sexual phase of the plasmodium slime mold life
cycle.)

Cellular slime molds also have asexual and sexual phases in their life cycle. However,
when the conditions are not favorable, they come together as a pseudoplasmodium.
They form a pseudoplasmodium because the cells remain distinct, each with a nucleus of
its own. A real plasmodium in slime molds is a single mass of cytoplasm undivided by
membranes and containing multiple nuclei. Nevertheless, both the cellular slime molds
and plasmodium slime molds produce fruiting bodies. Some of the cellular slime molds
in the colony form the stalk whereas the others form the sporangium where haploid
spores are produced and released from. Each spore germinates into an individual
amoeba-like cell. (Ref. 8)

 
 

New Mexico whiptail lizards

The New Mexico whiptails (Aspidoscelis neomexicanus) are lizards that are all females.
They reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis by doubling the chromosomal number
twice to restore diploidy. So to begin with, they produce eight copies of each
chromosome. Thus, after two rounds of cell division, four daughter cells, each with two
sets of chromosomes instead of just one. (Ref. 9)

Although they do not need a male mate, they still display mating behavior with other
females. A female whiptail mounts another female whiptail. This pseudocopulation
behavior seemingly promotes ovulation.

While other asexuals produce genetic clones, the New Mexico whiptails are still able to
produce genetically-diverse offspring. How is that possible? That’s because they are
facultatively parthenogenetic. They have a so-called “hybridization event” wherein
females mate with males of another species. (Ref. 10)

New Mexico Whiptail (Aspidoscelis neomexicana). Credit: Greg Schechter, CC BY 2.0.

Summary of the different types of asexual reproduction:

Types of Description Examples

Asexual
Reproduction

Binary fission A cell divides to produce Many bacteria, protists,

two identical cells. Each cell unicellular fungi
has the potential to grow to
the size of the original cell.
 Budding The formation of an Yeasts, hydra, certain bacteria
outgrowth (or bud) from an (Caulobacter, Hyphomicrobium,
organism capable of and Stella spp.)
developing into a new
individual. The outgrowth is
genetically the same as the
parent but relatively
smaller.

Vegetative A new plant emerges from Various plants, e.g. those

propagation vegetative parts, such as naturally emerging from
specialized stems, leaves, stolons, bulbs, tubers, corms,
and roots, and then they suckers (root sprouts), and
take root and grow. plantlets, and those artificially
grown by cutting, grafting,
layering, tissue culture, and
offset.

Spore formation An asexual reproduction Fungi, slime molds, and vascular

wherein spores are plants
produced to germinate into
new individuals

Fragmentation The parent organism breaks Certain fungi (e.g. yeasts, and
into fragments. Each lichens), molds, vascular and
fragment is capable of nonvascular plants,
developing into a new cyanobacteria, and certain
organism. animals (e.g. sponges, sea stars,
planarians, and many annelid
worms)

Parthenogenesis The offspring develops from Certain invertebrates (e.g.

a female gamete even aphids, rotifers, and nematodes)
without prior fertilization and certain vertebrates (e.g.
by a male gamete. some lizards, snakes, birds,
sharks, reptiles, and
amphibians).

Plant apomixis Reproduction in plants Bryophytes, certain ferns, and

without fertilization flowering plants

References:
1. Smith, J. Maynard (1978). The Evolution of Sex. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
9780521293020.
2. Otto, S. P. (2008). Sexual Reproduction and the Evolution of Sex. Nature Education
1(1):182. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-
evolution-of-sex-824/

3. Fields, A. T., Feldheim, K. A., Poulakis, G. R., & Chapman, D. D. (2015). Facultative
parthenogenesis in a critically endangered wild vertebrate. Current Biology, 25(11),
R446–R447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.04.018
4. Budding Definition and Examples – Biology Online Dictionary. (2020, March 3).
Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online.
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/budding
5. Wikipedia Contributors. (2020, June 8). Parthenogenesis. Wikipedia; Wikimedia
Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesis#Automictic
6. Wikipedia Contributors. (2020, June 19). Apomixis. Wikipedia; Wikimedia
Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis
7. Sezonov, G.; Joseleau-Petit, D.; D’Ari, R. (28 September 2007). “Escherichia coli (E
coli) Physiology in Luria-Bertani Broth”. Journal of Bacteriology. 189 (23): 8746–8749.
doi:10.1128/JB.01368-07. PMC 2168924.
8. Chapter 17: Concept 17.3. (2020). Mtchs.Org.
https://bodell.mtchs.org/OnlineBio/BIOCD/text/chapter17/concept17.3.html

9. Yong, E. (2010, February 21). Extra chromosomes allow all-female lizards to

reproduce without males. Discover Magazine; Discover Magazine.
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/extra-chromosomes-allow-all-
female-lizards-to-reproduce-without-males
‌10. How an Asexual Lizard Procreates Alone. (2016, October 19).
Nationalgeographic.Com.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/11/basic-instincts-whiptail-
lizard-asexual-reproduction/

©BiologyOnline.com. Content provided and moderated by BiologyOnline Editors.

Quiz
Choose the best answer. 

1. What is asexual reproduction?

Reproduction by means of gametes

Reproduction by other means apart from the union of sex cells

Reproduction by meiotic division

2. Which of the following is NOT an asexual type of reproduction?

Budding

Binary fission

Syngamy

3. A cell divides to produce two identical cells.

Parthenogenesis

Binary fission

Budding

4. The formation of an outgrowth from an organism

Parthenogenesis

Binary fission

Budding

5. Offspring develops from a female gamete even without prior fertilization

by a male gamete

Parthenogenesis

Binary fission

Budding

Send Your Results (Optional)

Your Name

Your Name

To Email

To Email

Submit The Result Now

 Last updated on June 28th, 2021

You will also like...

The
Bryophytes Meiosis and Evolutionary
Alternation of Development
Bryophytes of Multicellular
Generations
(nonvascular Organisms
plants) are a plant Plants are
group characterized by Multicellular
characterized by having alternation organisms evolved.
lacking vascular of generations in The first ones were
tissues. They their life cycles. likely in the form of
include the mosses, This tutorial is a sponges.
the liverworts, and review of plant Multicellularity led
the hornworts. mitosis, meiosis, to the evolution of
These groups of and alternation of cell specializations
plants require generations. .. that form tissues.
external water, Another major
usually in the form ​ event was the
of dew or rain. evolution of sexual
Some of them grow reproduction. The
exclusively in dark, emergence of sex
damp cells in the timeline
environments in provided a means
order to provide for organisms to
moisture. Find out further diversify.
more about them Know more about
here... these crucial events
in geologic time in
​ this tutorial...

ADVERTISEMENT

Related Articles...
Malaria : Plasmodium togetherness a strategy for breeding success

Macrophytes

See all Related Topics 

 Home / Dictionary / Articles / Tutorials / Biology Forum / About Us / Contact Us / Partners / Editorial Guidelines

The content on this website is for information only. It is not intended to provide medical, legal, or any other professional advice. Any information here should not be
considered absolutely correct, complete, and up-to-date. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of Biology Online, its staff, or its partners. Before using our
website, please read our Privacy Policy.

© 2001-2021 BiologyOnline. All Rights Reserved