1 FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction

Nutrition is a process of intake of nutrients (like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and

A. CELL

A cell may be defined as the smallest unit of structure and functions of living organisims. The word cell
is derived from latin word “cellula” meaning small room. Smallest ‘unit of structure’ means, the
smallest structures by the union of which the body of an organism is constructed. Study of structure and
composition of cell is called as “Cytology”. Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork
slice in the year 1665. He described about this in his book “Micrographia”. First living cell was
discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek. Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as
sarcode. The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839 ultrastructure (fine structure) of cell and
various cell organelles in 1940s.

Check Point - A

1. Who discovered cell and how ?

2. Why the cell called the structural & functional unit of life ?

B. CELL THEORY

Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann’’ gave the “Cell theory” which was later on expanded by
“Rudolf Virchow”. Cell theory states that –
(i) All plants and animals are composed of cells.
(ii) Cell is the basic unit of life.
(iii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.

Check Point - B

1. Who proposed cell theory ?

2. Who expended cell theory and why ?

C. TYPES OF CELL

(a) On the basis of type of organization, cells are of two types :

(i) Prokaryotic cells (ii) Eukaryotic cells
(i) Prokaryotic cells : These are primitive and incomplete cells. They have less developed nucleus
without nuclear membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Bacteria.

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 Bacteria
(ii) Eukaryotic cells : These are well developed cells. They have advanced nucleus with nuclear
membrane
(b) On the basis differentiation :
(i) Undifferentiated : These are unspecialized cells which by mitotic divisions give rise to new cells
for the formation and maintenance of tissues.
(ii) Differentiated : These are specialized cells formed from the unspecialized cells by change in
structure and function during development and growth of an organism.
(iii) Dedifferentiated : These are specialized cells reverted to a more generalized (embryonic), actively
dividing state. Dedifferentiation often occurs for regeneration.

Check Point - C

1. What is the difference between undifferentiated and differentiated cell ?

2. What is nucleoid ?
3. Define plasmid.

D. CELL SHAPE

Cells are of various shapes and sizes. Their shape is according to the function. Generally cells are
spherical but they may be elongated (e.g., nerve cell), branched (e.g., pigmented cells), discoidal (e.g.,
RBC), spindle shaped (e.g., muscle cell) etc.

Cells of Various Shapes

Check Point - D

1. Cell shape differentiate according to their function explain.

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E. CELL SIZE

Size of cell is variable depending upon the type of organism. Some are microscopic while some are
visible with naked eyes. Their size may vary from 0.2 m to 18 cm.
Size of a typical cell in a multicellular organism ranges from 20-30 m.
The largest cell is ostrich egg (18 cm. in diametre with shell & 15 cm. in diametre without shell)
The longest cell: in animal is nerve cell. (upto 1m. or more) in plants longest cell is hemp fibre

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
The longest living cell in the body are brain cell which can live an entries life time
Smallest cells so far known are PPLOs (pleura pneumonia like organism).e.g. Mycoplasma (0.1m in dia).
SMALLER THE CELL MORE ACTIVE IT IS
The smaller cells have more surface area per unit volume. It ensures more diffusion of
(i) Nutrients into the cells.
(ii) Respiratory gases i.e. O2 into the cells and CO2 out of the cells.
(iii) Waste products out of the cells.

Check Point - E

1. Which is the longest cell?

2. Give name of smallest cell.

F. COMPONENTS OF A CELL

There is an occurrence of division of labour within a cell as they all got certain specific components
called “Cell organelles” each of them performs a specific function.
The three basic components of all the cells are
(a) Cell coat (b) Nucleus (c) Cytoplasm

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(a) Cell coat :
(i) Cell wall :
It is the outermost covering of the plant cells.
It is absent in animal cells.
Cell wall is rigid, strong, thick, porous and dead structure. It is made up of cellulose and
hemicellulose.
Cell walls of two adjacent cells are joined by a layer called middle lamellae. It is made up of
calcium and magnesium pectate.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Fibres of cotton, jute and coconut which are of great economic value are the cell walls of dead cell.

NATURE LOCATION
Ligning or cellulose Plant tissues (most of them)
Suberin Cork tissues of some plants
Mucliage or chitin Fungi
Silica Plant protistans (diatoms)
Peptidoglycan Bacteria

Functions of cell wall :

It provides and maintains the shape of a cell.
It provides strength and plant bears stress and strain because of cell wall
It is permeable and allows entry of molecules of different sizes.

Cell Wall
(ii) Cell membrane
Cell membrane is also called as Plasma Membrane or Plasmalemma.
Plasma membrane name was given by Nageli.
It is found in both plant as well as animal cells.
It is the outer most covering of a cell in case of animals & lies below the cell wall in case of plants.
It is made up of proteins and lipids where proteins are sandwiched between bilayer of lipids.
Viruses lack any membrane & hence do not show characteristics of life untill they enter a living
body and use its machinery to multiply
Singer and Nicholson gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane. According to him it
consists of a protein layer sandwiched between two layers of lipids. It is in quasifluid state. It is 75
Å thick.
It is flexible and can be folded, broken & reunited.
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature. It allows or permits the entry and exit of some
selective materials only.

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 Fluid Mosic Model of Cell Membrane
Functions of Plasma membrane:
It provides and maintains the shape of cell.
It provides mechanical support for the protection of internal structures of a cell.
It allows only useful substances to enter into the cells.
It provides specificity to the cells.
It is the limiting boundary of each cell which separates the cytoplasm from its surroundings.
(I) Transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane: This can be done by following ways:
(1) Diffusion: Movement of molecules or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration is
called as diffusion.e.g.,CO2 & O2 move across the membrane.
(2) Osmosis: The movement of solvent or water from lower concentration of solution to higher
concentration of solution through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis
can also be called as “diffusion of solvents”.
Differences between diffusion and osmosis
S.no. Diffusion Osmosis
1. Diffusion can occur in any medium In occurs only in liquid medium
2. The diffusing molecules may be solids, It involves movement of solvent molecules
liquids or gases only
3. Semipermeable membrane is not required Semipermeable membrane is required
4. It is dependent upon the free energy of Though it is the diffusion of solvent molecules
the molecules of diffusing substance only, yet influenced by the presence of other
only; presence of other substance in the substance (solutes) in the system.
system is of no importance

Endosmosis: Movement of solvent into the cell is called as Endosmosis.

Exosmosis: Movement of solvent outside the cell is called as Exosmosis.
Both diffusion & osmosis do not require energy so called as passive transport.
(3) Mediated Transport: Some molecules are moved across the membrane by special proteins
called transport proteins or permeases. Permeases form a small passageway through the
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 membrane, enabling the solute molecule to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Permeases are
usually quite specific, recognising and transporting only a limited group of chemical substances
or perhaps even a single substance.
(4) In Facilitated transport/diffusion– The permease assists a molecule to diffuse through the
membrane that it cannot otherwise penetrate.
(II) Types of solutions on the basis of concentration :
(1) Isotonic solution: When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is equal to the
concentration of cytoplasm of the cell it is called as isotonic solution.
(2) Hypertonic solution: When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is more than that
inside the cell. Due to this cell looses water and becomes plasmolysed.
(3) Hypotonic solution: When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is lesser than that
of cytoplasm of cell. Due to this cell swells up and bursts.

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
→ Shrinking of protoplasm
In plant cell → Plasmolysis
In animal cell → Crenation
→ The process of taking in a bulk of materials from external environment into the cell is known as
Endocytosis. It is of two
Type–
Phagocytosis(cell eating) and Pinocytosis (cell drinking).
→ Phagocytosis + Pinocytosis → Endocytosis

Movement of water in a cell in different types of solution

(b) Nucleus:

Nucleus
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 Nucleus-Headquarter of the cell.
Discovered by – Robert Brown (1831).
“Nucleus is double membrane bound dense protoplasmic body, which controls all cellular metabolism
and encloses the genetic information of cell”.
Nucleus is consider as controller or director of cell.
Structure : It is made up of following four contents.
(i) Nuclear membrane / Nuclear envelope / Karyotheca.
(ii) Nuclear sap / Nucleoplasm / Karyolymph.
(iii) Nucleolus.
(iv) Chromatin threads.
(i) Nuclear envelope : Nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, that separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm.The nuclear membrane has minute pores. These are called nucleo-pores.
(ii) Nucleoplasm : The part of protoplasm which is enclosed by nuclear membrane is called
nucleoplasm.It contains chromatin threads and nucleolus.
(iii) Nucleolus: Discovered by Fontana. Usually one nucleolus is present in each nucleus but
sometimes more than one nucleoli are present. It is a store house of RNA.
(iv) Chromatin threads: A darkly stained network of long fine threads called chromatin threads.
Chromatin threads are intermingled with one another forming a network.

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
→ Nucleopore takes part in exchange of different substance between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
→ Chromosomes are chemically made up of DNA and histone proteins. DNA carries all genetic
information which is pass ed on to next generation. The functional segment of DNA is called
genes.

Functions of nucleus : The nucleus performs following functions :

It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
It brings about growth of the cell by directing the synthesis of structural proteins.
It takes part in the formation of ribosomes.
It regulates cell cycle.
It contains genetic information and is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from one
generation to another.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PLANT & ANIMAL CELLS

S.NO. CHARACTERS ANIMALS CELL PLANT CELL
1. Cell wall Absent Present
2. Plasma membrane Only cell membrane Present
3. Microtubules Present Present
Microfilaments
4. Lysosomes Lysosomes occur in Lysosome usually not evident
cytoplasm
5. Nucleus Present Present
6. Shape Round (Irregular shape) Rectangular (Fixed shape)
7. Chloroplast Animal cell don’t have Plant cell have chloroplasts because they
chloroplast make their own food
8. Cytoplasm Present Present
9. Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
10. Ribosomes Present Present

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 11. Mitochondria Present Present
12. Vacuole One or more small One large central vacuole taking up 90%
vacuoles (much smaller of cell volume.
than point cells)
13. Centrioles Present in all animal cell Only present in lower plant forms
14. Golgi Apparatus Present Present

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
S.NO. CHARACTERS PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Nuclear body Incipient nucleus, No nuclear True nucleus, Nuclear membrane
membrane Nucleous absent. present Nucleolus Present.
2. Mitosis No mitosis Mitosis found
3. DNA arrangement Single closed loop, (histones Multiple chromosomes, (histones
absent) present in chromosome)
4. Respiratory system In plasma membrane, In mitochondria
(mitochndria absent)
5. Photosynthetic In internal membrances, In chloroplasts
apparatus (Chloroplasts absent)

(C) Cytoplasm :
Cytoplasm was discovered by Kolliker in 1862.
It is the site of both biosynthetic and catabolic pathways.
It can be divided into two parts :
(i) Cytosol : Aqueous soluble part contains various fibrous proteins forming cytoskeleton.
(ii) Cytoplasmic Inclusion : In the cell cytoplasm, there are present numerous living and non-living
structures, collectively called cytoplasmic inclusions.
(I) The living cytoplasmic inclusions are called cell organelles or protoplasmic inclusions or organoids
and
(II) The non-living structures are called Deutoplasmic or ergastic bodies.
Role of Cytoplasm :
Participates in intracellular distribution of nutrients, metabolites and enzymes.
Helps in exchange of materials between cell organelle.
Acts as a site of chemical reactions like glycolysis (step of respiration), synthesis of fatty acids.

(d) Cell Organelles :

These are living sub-cellular structures of the cytoplasm and are also called protoplasmic bodies or
organoids. These include -
(i) Double membranous : Plastid and Mitochondria.
(ii) Single membranous : Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, peroxisomes,
Glyoxysomes etc.
(iii) Non-membranous: Ribosomes etc.
(i) Double Membranous cell organelles
(I) Plastid
Plants and some protists have several types of double membrane bound organelles called plastids,
which harvest solar energy, manufacture nutrient molecules and store materials.
Plastid term was coined by E. Haeckel.
Plastids generally contain pigments and may synthesize & accumulate various substances.
Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types.

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 S.NO. LEUCOPLAST CHROMOPLAST CHLOROPLAST
1. Non pigmented White in colour Coloured pigments All Green pigment chlorophyll
colours except gree is found in them.
Phaeoplast – Brown
Rhodoplast – Red
2. Generally found in underground Found in flowers, Fruits, Found in aerial parts of
parts Important fro food storage. leaves etc. plant which are green in
e.g. Aleuroplast (Protein). colour
Elaioplast (Oil), Amyloplast
(Starch)

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
→ During ripening of fruits, the colour changes from green to yellow or reddish because of the
degeneration of chlorophyll and the masked carotene pigments take over.

(i) Chloroplast :
It is a double membranous discoidal structure, found only in plant cells.
Chloroplast was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek and named by Schimper.
Besides being discoidal or rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae they
can be ‘U’ shaped , spiral , coiled, ribbon shaped etc.
Each chloroplast consists of two parts.
Grana : It constitutes the lamellar system. These are found layered on top of each other, these
stacks are called as Grana.
Each granum of the chloroplast is formed by superimposed closed compartments called Thylakoids.

Internal structure of Chloroplast

In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present which are called as Photosynthetic units.
Each quantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.
Functions : Grana are the sites of light reaction of photosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic
pigment chlorophyll.
Stroma: It is a granular transparent substance also called as matrix.
Grana are embedded in it. Besides grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains, ribosomes etc.
Function : This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis.

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 (ii) Mitochondra :

Mitochondria
It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except mammalian RBC’s.
These are also absent in prokaryotes.
Maximum mitochondria are found in metabolically active cells.
It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.
It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins while inner membrane
is folded inside to form chambers called Cristae.“Cristae” are the infoldings of inner mitochondrial
membrane that possess enzymes for respiratory cycles like Kreb Cycle. ATP synthesizing units are
called Oxysomes or F0 – F1 Particles.
Space between inner and outer mitochondrial membranes is called as perimitochondrial space. The
fluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix.
Functions:
Its main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
It is the site of Kreb’s cycle of respiration, as it contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.
Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Plastids and mitochondria are semi autonomous cell organelle as they are having ribosome DNA and
enzyme which are useful in protein sysnthesis.

(ii) Single membranous cell organelles :

(I) Endoplasmic reticulum :

Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is the network of membranes present in the cytoplasm.
It was discovered by Porter, Claude and Fullan.
These are present in all cells except prokaryotes and mammalian erythrocytes.
They are made up of three components :
Cisternae :
These are long, flattened, parallely arranged, unbranched tubules.
These form successive layers of nucleus.
These are found in cells which are active in protein synthesis and are 40 – 50 m in diameter.
Vesicles : These are rounded or spherical, They are found in synthetically active cells.

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 Tubules : These are small, smooth walled and have tubular spaces. These are found in non secretory as
well as steroid synthesizing cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscles are called as sarcoplasmic reticulum.
(1) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (B) Rough endoplasmic reticulum

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SMOOTH AND ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

S.NO. CHRACTER SER RER
1. Components Made of tubules mainly. Made of cisternae & vesicles.
2. Ribosomes Absent Present
3. Position Mainly present near cell membrane Mainly present near the nucleus
Helps in steroid, lipids &
4. Functions polysaccharide synthesis. Helps in protein synthesis.
Helps in membrane biogenesis
5. Occurrence Mainly found in lipid forming cells Mainly found in protein forming cells
like adipocytes (Fat cells) like Nissl’s granules of nerve cells.

Functions
ER increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for various metabolic activities of the cell.
It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix i.e. cytoplasm.
It functions as an intracellular transport system for various substances.
Materials synthesized can be stored in different parts of ER.
Protein synthesis occurs on the surface of rough ER by ribosomes. These proteins are either used within
the cell or exported outside the cell.
Synthesis of lipids in collaboration with Golgi complex occurs on the surface of the smooth ER.
Smooth ER helps in the synthesis of sex hormones like testosterone in the testis and estrogens in ovary.
(II) Golgi Apparatus :

Golgi apparatus
Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1998) in nerve cell of owl
Position : It is located near the nucleus.
Golgi bodies are pleomorphic structures, because component of golgi body are different in structure &
shape in different cells.
It contains a pile of flattened sacs named cisternae along with small vesicles and tubules.
Functions :
It is involved in cell secretion and acts as storage, modification and condensation or packaging
membrane.
It forms the acrosome of sperm.
It forms lysosomes.
Synthesis of cell wall material
Formation of plasmalemma
Cell plate formation(phragmoplast) during plant cell division formation.
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 KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
In plants golgi body is called as Dictyosomes.
It is absent in prokaryotes, mammalian RBC’s and sieve cells.
Acrosome is a bag like structure filled with lytic enzymes which dissolve egg membrane at the time
of fertilization.

(III) Lysosomes : (Discovery : Christian de Duve) (Lyso = digestive, soma = body)

It is a small vesicle or sac like structure scattered in the cytoplasm.They do not have a definite shape or
size.
It contains 40 type of enzymes which are called as hydrolases
They occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
Lysosomes exhibit polymorphism i.e. they occur in different forms.

Polymorphism in Lysosome
Functions :
Their main function is phagy = digestion(intra cellular digestion)
They are kind of waste disposal system.
They help in digesting foreign materials and worn out cells.
During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage lysosomes burst and their
enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own cell so they are also called as
“Suicidal Bags”.
(IV) Peroxisomes :
The term ‘peroxisome’ was first used by de Duve and also called as uricosomes.
Peroxisomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited by a single unit membrane and have a diameter of
0.5 to 1.0 m.
(iii) NON-MEMBRANOUS CELL ORGANELLES
(I) Ribosomes
Chemically a ribosome is made of proteins and RNA.
First reported by Claude and named by G.Palade.
They are small granular structures visible only under electro microscope.
They are usually attached on the outer surface of endoplasmic reticulum as well as freely in the
cytoplasm.
They are the only organelles which are present in all types of cells.
They help in protein synthesis and are known as “protein factories”
Each ribosomes consists of two unequal subunits, larger dome shaped and small ovoid.

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 The size of ribosome is determined by sedimentation coefficient in the centrifuge.
The cytoplasmic ribosomes of eukaryotes are 80S and in prokaryotes and cell organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplast ,it is 70S type. The two sub units of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while
70S type ribosomes have 50S and 30S subunits.

(II) Centrosomes : It is found in animal cells whereas absent in plant cells with a very few exceptions.
It is present near the nucleus.It is differentiated into a clear, homogeneous mass of cytoplasm called
centrosphere and one or a pair of microtubular centrioles.
Functions of centrosome
The centrosome is concered with
The process of cell division.
The formation of basal bodies of cilia and flagella.
(III) Microtubules : These are very fine microscopic tube-like structures which may be present
independently or as parts of some organelles such as centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, flagella etc.
Fuctions of Microtubules :
The microtubular structures provide strength and
They also help in bringing about various movements inside the cell.
(iv) ERGASTIC BODIES : It include non-living structures.
(I) Vacuole :
Vacuoles are non-living structures of cytoplasm.
These are membrane bounded regions in the cytoplasm containing water and other substances.
They are bounded by a single membrane called Tonoplast.
In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and numerous while in plant cells a single large vacuoleis
found which occupies about 90% of the volume of cell.
Functions :
It helps in maintaining osmotic pressure in a cell.
It stores toxic metabolic products of plant cell.
It contains various coloured pigments like anthocyanins.
(II) Granules : These are also non-living cytoplasmic inclusions. These are small particles, crystals or
droplets.
Function :
Starch grains, fat droplets help in the storage of food in cells.

Check Point - F

1. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain their own genetic material?
2. If the organisation of a cell is destroyed due to some physical or chemical influence. What will happen?
3. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?
4. Where are proteins synthesised inside the cell?
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G. MICROSCOPE

It is an instrument which is used to study those objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye or with
the help of a hand lens. A microscope has more than one lens. The 1st compound microscope was built
by F. Janssen and Zacharias Janssen (1590).

(a) Structure of Microscope :

The microscope used in schools is called compound microscope. a compound microscope has following parts :
(i) Base : It is the basal,metallic,horse- shoe shapedstructure. It bears the whole weight of
microscope.
(ii) Handle : It is the curved part to hold the microscope.It is also called as arm
(iii) Stage : It is a strong metallic,rectangular,horizontal plate fixed to the handle.
(iv) Stage Clips : Two clips are attached to stage used for holding the slide in position.
(v) Condenser : Below the stage is present a condenser for concentrating the light rays.
(vi) Body tube : it is wide, hollow tube attached to the upper part of the arm. To this tube lenses are
attached
(vii) Adjustment Screw :
(I) Coarse adjustment : it is bigger sized screw used to move the body tube up and down.
(II) Fine adjustment : It is a smaller sized screw for fine focussing.
(viii) Reflecting Mirror : It is meant for reflecting the light rays,so that light passes through the object
which is to be seen.

Microscope
Knoll and Ruska (1932) of Germany designed the electron microscope which was employed to study the.

(b) Preparation of microscopic slide :

The object to be viewed under microscope is called the specimen. A thin sheet of glass called a
microscopic slide is used to hold a small sample of the specimen. A second much thinner glass sheet is
placed over the sample, called as coverslip.
(i) Take a clean glass slide.
(ii) With a dropper, put a drop of water in the middle of the slide.
(iii) Gently put the object to be observed in the drop of water on the slide with the help of a brush.
(iv) Objects, if transparent, are first stained with a proper chemical.
(v) Hold the coverslip over the object in such a manner that it touches the edge of the drop of water.
Gently lower the coverslip onto the water.

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 Slide Preparation
(vi) Dry the extra water that may come out from under the coverslip with the help of a blotting paper.
Take care that the slide thus prepared is clean and dry.

Check Point - G

1. What is the use of stage clip in microscope?

2. Write down the function of fine adjuster?

ACTIVITY :
To observe the plant cells (e.g., onion peel cell / Rheo leaf Cell ) under a microscope.
Materials required : Onion, glass slide, coverslip, stain, microscope

WHY DO WE STAIN CELLS

Staining is done to bring bucleus into prominence
Procedure : Cut a slice of an onion and peel off its skin. Take out the thin membrane present between
the two fleshy layers. Place it on a clean glass slide. Put a drop of water on it and place coverslip overit.
Observe the slide under a microscope. Prepare another slide of onion peel stained with safranine.
Observe it also under a microscope.

Making a slide of an onion peel

Observations : It is observed that :
A number of cells lie side–by–side.
Each cell has a distinct wall. This is called the cell wall.
At the centre of each cell, there is a nucleus.
Some large empty spaces exist within the cell. These are vacuoles.

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 BOARD LEVEL EXERCISE

TYPE (I): VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: [01 MARK EACH]

1. Why are lysosomes known as ‘suicide-bags’ of a cell?

2. Do you agree that “A cell is a building unit of an organism”. If yes, explain why?

3. Why does the skin of your finger shrink when you wash clothes for a long time?

4. Why is endocytosis found in animals only?

5. A person takes concentrated solution of salt, after sometime, he starts vomiting. What is the
phenomenon responsible for such situation? Explain.

TYPE (II): SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: [02 MARKS EACH]

6. Write the name of different plant parts in which chromoplast, chloroplast and leucoplast are present.

7. How is a bacterial cell different from an onion peel cell?

8. How do substances like carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) move in and out of the cell?

9. How does amoeba obtain its food?

10. Name the two organelles in a plant cell that contain their own genetic material and ribosomes.

TYPE (III): LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [04 MARK EACH]

11. Why do plant cells possess large sized vacuole?

12. How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each other?

13. What are the consequences of the following conditions?

(a) A cell containing higher water concentration than the surrounding medium
(b) A cell having low water concentration than the surrounding medium.
(c) A cell having equal water concentration to its surrounding medium

TYPE (IV): VERY LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [05 MARK EACH]

14. Draw a neat labelled diagram of an animal cell.

15. Draw a well labelled diagram of an eukaryotic nucleus. How is it different from nucleoid?

16. Differentiate between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. How is endoplasmic reticulum
important for membrane biogenesis?

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 EXERCISE – 01

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A): CELL

A-1 Write down the definition of cell.

A-2 Who wrote micrographia.

SECTION (B): CELL THEORY

B-1 Define omnis cellula e cellulae

B-2 Who gave the cell theory? What does it state? Which organism is an exception of cell theory?

SECTION (C): TYPES OF CELL

C-1 Define prokaryotic cell.

C-2 Give one example of dedifferentiated cell.

SECTION (D): CELL SHAPE

D-1 Give one-one example of spindle shape cell,discoidal and branched cell.

SECTION (E): CELL SIZE

E-1 Write down the name of largest plant cell.

E-2 Write down the name of smallest cell of human body.

SECTION (F): COMPONENTS OF A CELL

F-1 Define protoplast.

F-2 What is the composition of protoplasm?

F-3 Who gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane?

F-4 What is osmosis?

F-5 Which cell organelle is called as the head quarter of cell?

F-6 What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?

F-7 Why plasma membrane is called as selectively permeable membrane?

F-8 Draw a neat and labelled diagram of nucleus. State it’s main functions.

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F-9 State any two functions of golgi body.

F-10 Describe the types of endoplasmic reticulum and draw necessary figure. Give it’s main functions also.

F-11 Which organelle controls osmotic pressure in a cell?

F-12 State any two functions of golgi body.

F-13 State the main functions of lysosomes?

SECTION (G): MICROSCOPE

G-14 Write down name of the all parts of microscope.

G-15 How can prepare microscopic slide explain.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A): CELL

A-1 The first person to observe a cell under microscope was –

(A) M. Schleiden (B) T. Schwann (C) Robert Hooke (D) A.V. Leeuwenhoek

A-2 The word cell was coined by –

(A) Robert hooke (B) Weismann (C) Cuvier (D) Darwin

A-3 What is protoplasm:

(A) Nucleoplasm-cytoplasm (B) Cytosole only
(C) Nucleoplasm + cytoplasm (D) Trophoplasm of cell

A-4 What is cytology?

(A) Study of cytoplasm (B) Study of structure and composition of cell
(C) Study of animal cell only (D) Study of plant cell only

A-5 Protoplasm was coined by

(A) Robert hooke (B) Felix dujardin (C) Robert brown (D) none of these

SECTION (B): CELL

B-1 Cell theory was propounded by –

(A) Morgan (B) Haldane
(C) Schleiden and Schwann (D) Robert Hooke

B-2 Cells are autonomous because:

(A) They synthesize components of living protoplasm from nonliving materials.
(B) They are able to grow
(C) Spindle
(D) Bean shape

SECTION (E): CELL SIZE

E-1 Smallest cells so far known are –
(A) bacteria (B) blue green algae (C) PPLOs (D) human egg
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E-2 Which of the following is the longest cell of animal kingdom?
(A) Bacteria (B) Nerve cell (C) Virus (D) Muscle cell

E-3 Which one of the following is the smallest in size?

(A) Bacteria (B) Mitochondrion (C) Mammalian cell (D) Virus

SECTION (F): COMPONENTS OF A CELL

F-1 Aleuroplst stores -

(A) Protein (B) Carbohydrate (C) Fat (D) All

F-2 Which organell know as ‘storage battery’ -

(A) ER (B) Mitochondria (C) Plastid (D) Golgi body

F-3 Which orgenell plays a Crucial role in detoxification of drug and Poisonous -
(A) SER (B) RER (C) Golgi body (D) None

F-4 Which organell provide endoskeleton to cell -

(A) Lysosome (B) Mitochondria (C) ER (D) Plastid

F-5 Fragmoplast formation occur by

(A) Golgi body (B) Glyoxisome (C) Peroxisome (D) All of the above

SECTION (G): MICROSCOPE

G-1 Which part of the folloiwng used in slide adjustment.

(A) Coarse adjustment (B) Fine adjustment
(C) Base (D) both (A) & (B)
G-2 Who was build first compound microscope -
(A) Jansen and Janssen (B) Robert hook
(C) Robert bron (D) None of these

EXERCISE – 02

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which one is present in bacteria?
(A) Nucleus (B) Golgi apparatus (C) Mitochondria (D) Ribosomes

2. Grapes were put in a concentrated sugar solution. On examination after 12 hours, the grapes were
shrunken. This is because,
(A) Grapes become sweeter (B) Water evaporates from the solution
(C) Sugar induces disintegration of grapes (D) Loss of water from grapes by osmosis

3. Osmosis takes place between two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane because.
(A) Water molecules move from the more dilute solution to the less dilute solution
(B) Solute molecules move from the less dilute solution to the more dilute solution
(C) Water molecules move from the less dilute solution to the more dilute solution
(D) Solute molecules move from the more dilute solution to the less dilute solution

4. Plasmolysis is not observed in boiled plant tissue because:

(A) The cell wall becomes impermeable to water
(B) The cell membrane disintegrates
(C) The cell wall disintegrates
(D) The cell membrane becomes impermeable to water
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5. When a cell is fully turgid, which one of the following will be zero?
(A) turgor pressure (B) wall pressure (C) suction pressure (D) osmotic pressure

6. Mammalian liver cells will swell when kept in

(A) hypertonic solution (B) hypotonic solutions (C) isotonic solution (D) isothermal solutions

7. Mitochondrial matrix contains:

(A) Enzymes (B) DNA and RNA (C) Ribosomes (D) All of the above

8. Mitochondria are semi autonomous due to:

(A) Presence of functional naked DNA (B) Presence of ribosomes
(C) Synthesize its own Protein (D) All of the above

9. Chromoplasts are formed from chloroplast during:

(A) Ripening of tomato (B) Ripening of chilli
(C) Development of carrot (D) Both A and B
10. Endoplasmic Reticulum is absent in:
(A) Animal cells (B) Prokaryotes (C) Plant cells (D) Protista and fungi

11. Which one of the following provides mechanical support to cell?

(A) Ribosomes (B) Golgi bodies (C) Lysosomes (D) Endoplasmic reticulum

12. Ribosomes develop from:

(A) Nucleus (B) Nucleolus
(C) Endoplasmic reticulum (D) Mitochondria

13. Proteins are synthesized on,

(A) Cytoskeleton (B) Mitochondria (C) Ribosomes (D) Golgi apparatus

14. If the analogy of a city is applied to a eukaryotic cell then which of the following statements is correct?
(A) Nucleus as a library and ribosome as a slaughter house
(B) Nucleus as a police station and mitochondria as powerhouse
(C) Mitochondria as powerhouse and Golgi as a cargo sorting facility
(D) Mitochondria as powerhouse and nucleus as slaughter house

15. If you fractionate all the organelles from the cytoplasm of a plant cell. In which one of the following
sets of fractions will you find nucleic acids?
(A) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, cytoplasm
(B) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, glyoxysome
(C) nucleus, chloroplast, cytoplasm and peroxisome
(D) nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, Golgi bodies

16. Microtubules are present in:

(A) Bacteria (B) Viruses (C) Eukaryotes (D) Mycoplasma

17. The following structure is NOT found in plant cells

(A) vacuole (B) nucleus (C) centriole (D) vitamin D

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 EXERCISE – 03

NTSE PROBLEMS (PREVIOUS YEARS)

1. Cell organelle which differentiates plant cell from animal cell is – (Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/13)
(A) Cell Membrane (B) Plastids (C) Nucleolus (D) Vacuoles

2. Example of cell organelle which do not have a unit membrane is (Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/07)

(A) Mitochondria (B) Lysosome (C) Ribosome (D) Plastid

3. Chromosome reaches the equator during which stage of cell division? (Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/07)
(A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Anaphase (D) Telophase

4. Decreasing order of size is: (Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/06)

(A) DNA, t RNA, m RNA (B) m RNA, DNA, t RNA
(C) t RNA, DNA, m RNA (D) DNA, m RNA, t RNA

5. Sequence of cell cycle is: (Raj/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell /07)

(A) GI, GII S (B) S, GI, GII (C) GI, S, GII (D) GI, GII, GIII

6. Mitosis (Delhi/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013)
(A) leads to recombinant daughter cells
(B) is a reduction division
(C) leads to formation of parental type of daughter cells
(D) occurs in gametes

7. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar because (Delhi/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2013)

(A) Both have nuclei (B) Both have 80s ribosomes
(C) Both have DNA (D) Both have signle membrane envelope

8. Nucleus of the cell was discovered by (Rajasthan/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2018)

(A) Robert Hooke (B) Leeuwenhoek (C) Robert Brown (D) Virchow

9. Turgidity of cell is maintained by (Rajasthan/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2018)

(A) Vacuole (B) Lysosome (C) Plastid (D) Golgi body

10. Power house of cell is known as: (MP/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)

(A) Golgi bodies (B) Mitochondria (C) Ribosome (D) Lysosome

11. DNA (De-oxyribonucleic acid) is not present in one of the following

(Jharkhand/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)
(A) Chloroplast (B) Nucleus
(C) Mitochondria (D) TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)

12. Blood cell without nucleus are (UP/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)

(A) Red blood corpuscles (B) White blood corpuscles
(C) Blood platelets (D) None of these

13. Which is the largest cell in human body? (Gujrat/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)

(A) Liver cell (B) Nerve cell (C) Muscle cell (D) Kidney cell

14. Who has given the word 'cell'? (Gujrat/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)

(A) Robert Hook (B) Robert Brown (C) Watson and crick (D) Flamming

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15. Which part of the cell is also termed as 'suicide bags of the cell'?
(Chandigarh/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)
(A) Ribosomes (B) Golgi bodies (C) Lysosomes (D) Mitochondria

16. Match the words in column / with those which are most appropriate in column II
(Hariyana/NTSE/Stage-1/Cell/2017)
Column I Column II
(A) Karyokinesis (1) Meiocytes
(B) Cytokinesis (2) Plant cell
(C) Meiosis (3) Nuclear division
(D) Cell plate (4) Cytoplasmic division
(A) A=1, B=2, C=3, D=4 (B) A=2, B=1, C=4, D=3
(C) A=3, B=4, C=1, D=2 (D) A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1

17. DNA is not present in: [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Chloroplast (B) Mitochondria (C) Nucleus (D) Ribosome

18. Cell division in plants is promoted by: [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Abscisic acid (B) Gibberllin (C) Ethylene (D) Cytokinin

19. Chemical composition of chromosome is [Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) DNA and lipid (B) DNA and carbohydrates
(C) Proteins and lipids (D) DNA and proteins

20. DNA replication (synthesis) occurs in [Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) G-phase (B) S-phase (C) G2 phase (D) M phase

21. Cristae is associated with [Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Nucleus (B) Chloroplast (C) Cell Wall (D) Mitochondria

22. Lipoprotein is found in [Madhya Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Cell membrane (B) Nucleus (C) Cytoplasm (D) Cell wall

23. Madhya P When ATP is converted in to ADP it releases radesh [NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Enzymes (B) Secretions (C) Energy (D) Hormones

24. Which is a Prokaryotic cell amongst the following.... [Chhattisgarh NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Amoeba (B) Yeast (C) Euglena (D) Bacteria
25. Movement of molecules during diffusion can be described all of the following except -
[Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Each molecule moves randomly.
(B) Solute molecules always moves down the concentration gradient
(C) Each molecule moves independently of other molecule
(D) Net movement of solute molecules u is from region of higher to region of lower concentration
26. Plasma membrane consists mainly of: [Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Protein embedded in carbohydrate (B) Phospholipids embedded in protein bilayer
(C) Protein embedded in phospholipid bilayer (D) Protein embedded with polymer of glucose

27. All of the following statements about the process of cell divisions are true except one, mark it.
[Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Spindle fibres are made of microtubules.
(B) All eukaryotic cells possess centriole
(C) Many of the microtubules are attached to the centromere of the chromosomes.
(D) Centriole consists of nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a circle.

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28. In typical cell divisions by mitosis and meiosis, all of the following contributes to genetic variation
except: [Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Anaphase of meiosis (C) Crossing over (exchange of Genes)
(B) Random fusion of egg and sperm (D) Anaphase of mitosis

29. When the concentration of solutes differs on the two sides of a membrane permeable only to water, then –
[Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Water will move across the membrane by active transport.
(B) Water will move across by the process of Osmosis.
(C) Water will move across through plasmolysis
(D) Water will move across by diffusion

30. When deciduous trees drops their leaves during fall, the colour of leaves turn to various shades of red,
orange and yellow due to the presence of: [Bihar NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Chlorophyll A & B (B) Presence of Fungal growth
(C) presence of carotenoids (D) insufficient ATP

31. In Simple organism, exchange of gases and excretion occur through [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Osmosis (B) Diffusion (C) Imbibition (D) All of the above

32. The eukaryotic chromosomes are made up of [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) DNA (B) DNA and Lipids (C) NA (D) DNA and Proteins

33. What is the number of chromosomes present in human gametes? [Jharkhand NTSE Stage-1/2018]

34. Which of the following is known as 'Currecy of Energy'- [Uttar Pradesh NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) DNA (B) RNA (C) ATP (D) NAD

35. DNA is not present in: [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Chloroplast (B) Mitochondria (C) Nucleus (D) Ribosome

36. Cell division in plants is promoted by: [Delhi NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Abscisic acid (B) Gibberllin (C) Ethylene (D) Cytokinin

37. Entry of water into roothairs is an example of - [Haryana NTSE Stage-1/2018]

(A) Diffusion (B) Imbibition (C) Osmosis (D) Plasmolysis

38. By using only one of the two strands of DNA, mRNA is produced this process is called as..........
[Maharashtra NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Transcription (B) Translation (C) Translocation (D) Replacement

39. Identify phase in mitosis shown by: centromeres split and thereby sister chromatids of each
chromosome seperates and they are pulled apart in opposite direction.
[Maharashtra NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Telophase (B) Prophase (C) Metaphase (D) Anaphase

40. If the embryonic cells are divided into two groups 8 days after the zygote formation then there is high
possibility of formation of .......... [Maharashtra NTSE Stage-1/2018]
(A) Genetically different twin girls (B) Siamese twins
(C) Genetically different twin boys (D) Genetically different one boy one girl

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Answer Key

EXERCISE – 01

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1. C A-2. A A-3. C A-4. B A-5. B

SECTION (B) : CELL THEORY

B-1. C B-2 . D

SECTION (C) : TYPES OF CELL

C-1. C C-2. D C-3. C

SECTION (D) : CELL SHAPE

D-1. B D-2. A

SECTION (E) : CELL SIZE

E-1. C E-2. B E-3. D

SECTION (F) : COMPONENTS OF A CELL

F-1. A F-2. B F-3. A F-4. C F-5. A

SECTION (G) : MICROSCOPE

G-1. D G-2. A

EXERCISE – 02

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. D D A B D B D D D B D B C C A C C

EXERCISE – 03

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B C C D C C C C A B D A B A C C D D D B
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. D A C D A C B D B C B D B C D D C A D B

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