Alternative Cycles Based On Carbon Dioxide For Central Receiver Solar Power Plants
Alternative Cycles Based On Carbon Dioxide For Central Receiver Solar Power Plants
Alternative cycles based on carbon dioxide for central receiver solar power plants
R. Chacartegui*, J.M. Muñoz de Escalona, D. Sánchez, B. Monje, T. Sánchez
Thermal Power Group (GMTS), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros, Camino de los descubrimientos s/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Research in concentrated thermal solar power plants of all types and, in particular, those based on central
Received 24 July 2010 receiver, namely solar tower plants, has experienced great impetus in the last decade, reaching full
Accepted 6 November 2010 commercial operation with the PS10 plant in Spain. In spite of previous demonstration plants testing
Available online 13 November 2010
different receivers and power cycle layouts, this first commercial power plant adopted a cavity receiver
generating saturated steam and therefore penalising cycle efficiency in order to gain plant reliability.
Keywords:
According to the experience gained, if a competitive Levelised Cost of Electricity is to be reached, capital and
Solar tower
maintenance costs must be reduced and efficiencies must be increased. To achieve these goals, modifying
CRS
Combined cycle
the power cycle is deemed essential, whether using superheated steam or alternative fluids.
Carbon dioxide In this work, the use of supercritical and transcritical carbon dioxide cycles for this application is
Supercritical CO2 proposed. Three different cycles are considered, the first two of which are stand-alone closed cycle gas
S-CO2 turbines using carbon dioxide. The third proposal is a combined cycle that comprises a topping carbon
Organic Rankine Cycle dioxide gas turbine and a bottoming Organic Rankine Cycle. Preliminary results show that these cycles
ORC are promising technologies for solar tower plants, having the potential to compete in terms of efficiency
and costs with other conventional technologies.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction analysis by Segal and Epstein [8] concluded that the optimum
power plant performance would correspond to a receiver temper-
Concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants have been given ature close to 1600 K, what would allow using conventional gas
great impetus in the last years, especially in countries like Spain turbine and combined cycle technologies.
where the installed CSP power capacity currently exceeds 430 MW Alternative power cycles, or cycles that make use of non-
and is expected to double by 2011, with plants in different conventional fluids, are a different option to achieve higher efficien-
construction stages [1]. The development of these power plants has cies without reaching such high temperatures in the receiver. Among
been associated to the adaptation of proven steam power genera- them, the supercritical and transcritical closed Brayton cycles
tion technologies combined with particular concentrating solar working with carbon dioxide are deemed interesting. This cycle has
power components. Among others, the latter components include been studied for the last 40 years, since firstly proposed by Feher and
heliostats or solar receivers for central receiver solar power plants Angelino [8,9], for nuclear power production in gas reactors, though
(CRS) [2e4] and linear collectors, oil pumps and oil to water/steam its applicability to solar power plants has also been explored [11e13].
heat exchangers for parabolic trough power plants. For the first Thermodynamically, the main advantage of the Brayton carbon
type of plants, the high solar flux hitting the receiver (averaging dioxide cycle relies on its high useful to expansion work ratio (i.e.
between 300 and 1000 kW/m2) enables operating at rather high much lower compression work than expansion work) which is in the
temperatures of up to 1000 C [5], even if the maximum receiver range 0.7e0.85 when compressor inlet is in supercritical conditions.
temperature is limited to around 700 C at the current stage of At cycle level, different layouts were studied by Carstens et al. [14] and
development [2]. Higher temperatures have nonetheless been Dostal et al. [15] in order to increase cycle efficiency. From the point of
obtained in experimental or demonstration plants like the Directly view of major equipment, the necessary features of turbomachinery
Irradiated Annular Pressurised (DIAP) facility [6] of the Weizmann were analyzed by Vilim et al. [16] and Gong et al. [17] and heat transfer
Institute (Israel), with temperature exceeding 1300 C when pres- and heat exchanger layouts were analyzed by Utamura [18].
surised air at 10e30 bar and multistage receivers are used [7], with In the same category of alternative cycles, Organic Rankine Cycles
air temperature in the range of 800e1000 C. In this sense, an (ORC) yield higher efficiencies than conventional steam cycles when
heat delivery is at temperatures below 370 C [19] and when a low
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 954 48 72 42; fax: þ34 954 48 72 43. power output does not allow exploiting the highest efficiency of
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Chacartegui). more complex steam turbine designs (reheat or feedwater heating
1359-4311/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.11.008
R. Chacartegui et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 872e879 873
Table 1
Main assumptions of carbon dioxide and ORC cycles.
Fig. 3. CO2 cycle (layout 1). Effect of compressor inlet pressure (P01) on specific work
Fig. 2. TeS diagram of the supercritical carbon dioxide cycle (layout 2). and recuperator hot delivery temperature (T04p). Carbon dioxide cycle (layout 1).
874 R. Chacartegui et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 872e879
Fig. 6. TeS diagram of the transcritical carbon dioxide cycle and ORC combined cycle
(layout 3).
Fig. 4. CO2 cycle (layouts 1 and 2). Efficiency vs specific work for different turbine inlet
temperature (TIT).
cycle shown in Fig. 6, which seems to be slightly less complex than
the carbon dioxide only cycle of layout 2 studied before.
where compressor inlet conditions remain constant at 308 K and
75 bar and pressure ratio is left to vary from 1.5 to 3. A clear
3.1. Organic working fluids
improvement in cycle performance is observed when layout 2 is
adopted, yielding higher efficiencies and specific works than layout
A preliminary analysis of candidate working fluids for the Organic
1 for the same TIT.
Rankine Cycle is presented in this Section, where only dry fluids are
TeQ diagrams of the recuperative heat exchangers are shown in
taken into consideration. First, a summary of some important
Fig. 5, corresponding to layouts 1 and 2 optimised for 1100 K turbine
parameters, including fluid properties and cycle specifications, is
inlet temperature and transcritical operation. For each stream, mean
shown in Table 2. This relevant information includes maximum
heat capacity rates are given, defined as mass flow rate multiplied by
temperature beyond which the fluid starts to degrade (Tmax) [24],
_ p ). It is worth noting that hot
specific heat at constant pressure (m$C
critical temperature and pressure (Tcrit, Pcrit), condenser pressure (P1)
and cold stream temperatures are closer for the optimised L2,
and maximum temperature and pressure that avoid condensation
yielding higher heat recovery efficiency. Nevertheless, in spite of L2
within the turbine (Tmax, Pmax). In all cases, saturated live vapour at
having two serial recuperators, more heat is recuperated in layout 1
turbine inlet is considered, thus avoiding the superheated region that
due to the different optimum pressure ratios that bring about
does not provide further advantages for the dry fluids analyzed as
a lower turbine exhaust temperature in case L2. The low delivery
was shown in [20]. Additionally, it is worth noting that Isopentane,
temperature of the recuperator hot stream in layout 2 (T04pp), con-
R245fa and Isobutane yield cycles where pressure is always above
strained by compressor delivery temperature, limits heat recovery
ambient (P1 > 1), thus preventing non-condensable gases (air) from
from the exhaust of this layout.
leaking into the system.
Table 3 provides additional properties of the fluids, mainly
3. Combined cycle CO2eORC related with hazard: lower and upper flammability limits (LFL and
UFL, which are the leaner and richer fluid/air mixtures that will
In this section, the analysis of combined cycles composed by burn), autoignition temperature, global warming potential (GWP),
a topping carbon dioxide cycle and a bottoming ORC cycle is pre- ozone depletion potential (ODP) and flammability class according
sented. For the former, layout 1 was selected yielding the combined to the National Fire Protection Association of the US (NFPA). From
this information, it is concluded that R245fa and Isobutane are the
least and most hazardous fluids among those included in the
analysis.
Table 2
Organic Rankine cycles data.
Organic fluid Tmax (K) Tcrit (K) T3max (K) Pcrit (bar) P3max (bar) P1 (bar)
Toluene 671.9 591.7 569 41.26 31.16 0.05
Cyclohexane 560.7 553.6 536 40.75 32.67 0.16
n-Hexane e 507.9 491 30.58 26.63 0.25
Isopentane e 460.4 448 33.7 27.87 1.09
R245fa e 427.2 403 36.51 23.33 1.77
Fig. 5. CO2 cycle (layouts 1 and 2). TeQ diagram within the recuperator (maximum Isobutane 413.3 407.8 380 36.4 22.5 4.05
cycle temperature 1100 K).
R. Chacartegui et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 872e879 875
Table 3
Relevant properties of organic working fluids.
Organic fluid M [g/mol] Autoignition [K] LFL [%v] UFL [%v] NFPA GWP ODP
Toluene 92.14 695 1.1 7.1 3 NA NA
Cyclohexane 84.16 518 1.3 8.4 3 NA NA
n-Hexane 86.18 496 1.1 7.5 3
Isopentane 72.15 693 1.4 7.6 3
R245fa 134 e e e 0 950 0
Isobutane 58 693 1.8 8.4 4 3 0 Fig. 8. Effect of live vapour (T3) temperature on HRVG and bottoming cycle efficiencies
(n-Hexane, Cyclohexane and Toluene).
876 R. Chacartegui et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 872e879
Table 4
Combined CO2eIsopentane cycle performance (recuperative and non-recuperative).
hCC hTC hBC hORC hHRVG hCC hTC hBC hORC hHRVG
1100 47.49 38.34 16.08 18.07 88.96 47.51 38.34 16.12 21.24 75.87
1050 46.23 37.03 15.78 18.07 87.34 46.22 37.03 15.78 21.24 74.27
1000 44.71 35.55 15.32 18.07 84.77 44.7 35.55 15.31 21.23 72.09
950 42.85 33.89 14.58 18.07 80.68 42.88 33.89 14.63 21.24 68.9
900 40.69 31.99 13.73 17.16 80.04 40.69 31.99 13.73 19.77 69.47
850 38.28 29.81 12.92 16.17 79.91 38.29 29.81 12.93 19 68.05
800 35.57 27.28 12.15 15.84 76.68 35.57 27.28 12.15 17.94 67.72
(hsolth ¼ hopt $hrec ), is based on results reported in literature for the same order or even slightly higher are expected for the former
state of the art heliostats and central receivers. Nevertheless, even systems but with a simpler and more compact layout than those
though the reported combined solar-to-thermal efficiency varies in currently commercialised and based on steam technology.
the range 60e69% [25,26], a more conservative value of 62% is
adopted here. Further discussion on this selection is given in the 5.2. Some technoeconomical considerations
next section.
For the superheated steam cycles, 600 and 850 K live steam As it has been stated in the previous sections, the proposed cycle
temperatures are considered while the remaining temperatures and has not been developed yet and the estimated performance and cost
pressures are taken from typical subcritical steam power plants with of technology shown here are based on theoretical studies and
similar layout. For the PS10-like case, live steam temperature is projections departing from the existing experience with similar
imposed by the need to have saturated steam at the rated operating technology. This approach has been successfully applied by the
pressure. For all the carbon dioxide based systems, two different authors to the analysis of turbomachinery and heat exchangers in
turbine inlet temperatures have been considered: 850 and 1000 K. carbon dioxide based cycles in a recent publication [30].
These different reference temperatures derive from the dissim- In the commercial CRS thermal solar power plant, tower and
ilar characteristics of solar receivers and working fluids to be used in receiver account for 14% of the total cost of the plant while the
each case. Thus, for steam power plants, saturated steam receivers fraction corresponding to the power block is estimated at around
formed by bundles of pipes with horizontal or vertical arrangement 32% [5]. In sight of these values, additional considerations about
and their evolution to reheated steam generation have been costs and performance of both blocks with the proposed tech-
considered. For the alternative CO2 cycles, a volumetric receiver for nology will be later discussed.
gas heating [27e29] is used instead owed to the inherent difficulties For the power block, and even though dedicated turboma-
of the aforementioned steam receivers to work with gas due to the chinery for supercritical carbon dioxide applications is not available
very low heat transfer coefficient and thermal inertia of this latter yet, it can be anticipated that radial turbomachinery is likely to be
fluid [5]. These volumetric receivers present several advantages like more suitable than axial devices for the power range of current
simplicity and control of the solar shape, which is easier with Central Receiver Solar power plants. These radial turbines and
a single phase receiver than with a biphasic one, especially when compressors are favoured by an extremely compact design for the
reheat is used, as demonstrated in Solar One [5]. range of specific works presented in Figs. 3 and 4 in which they
From the results shown in Table 5, the stand-alone L2 CO2 achieve higher internal efficiencies than other working fluids like
system and the combined cycle formed by a topping L1 CO2 turbine air or helium, thus increasing the potential of supercritical CO2
and a bottoming R245fa cycle give highest efficiencies and, there- cycles [15,30,31].
fore, they have the potential to be competitive options against the The most challenging part of system development is compressor
next generation of steam-based solar tower plants. Efficiencies of design though, since operating in the vicinity of the critical point
yields abrupt variations of fluid properties within the machine [17].
In this regard, it must be highlighted that the proposed combined
cycle avoids this problem thanks to the optimised transcritical
solution, which clearly simplifies the design of new turbomachinery.
At the other side of the proposed combined cycle, ORC systems
are already commercialised by manufacturers like ORMAT or Tur-
boden, despite continuous product development and potential
scale up/down benefits that can derive from adapting either
working fluid or component design to the singularities and power
output of a power plant in particular. Still, equipment costs,
900e2000 $/kW depending on power output, and performances
can be estimated rather accurately based on existing cycles.
With regard to costs in a carbon dioxide cycle, heat exchangers
play a fundamental role: solar receiver, recuperator and heat
recovery vapour generator. The recuperator is likely to be of the
Printed Circuit type (PCHE), which is currently being considered for
nuclear applications and, in some cases, withstands extreme
pressures and temperatures as high as 500 bar and 1073 K [32].
These heat exchangers are very compact in size and achieve
Fig. 11. Comparison of cycle efficiencies vs maximum temperature (T03) plots for a remarkably high effectiveness, in some cases exceeding 97% [33].
stand-alone carbon dioxide systems (layouts 1 and 2) and CO2eORC combined cycles. Thus, in a water/water application, the cost of a PCHE can be up to
878 R. Chacartegui et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (2011) 872e879
Table 5
Estimated performance of a central receiver solar power plant using different power cycles.
PS10 (saturated steam) Steam CO2 (type 1) CO2 (type 2) CO2 (type 1) e ORC
(R245fa)
TIT [K] 524 600 850 850 1000 850 1000 850 1000
Cycle efficiency [%] 30.7 36.63 41.93 30.59 33.8 36.39 42.48 38.82 43.96
WT/mass flow [kW kg1 s] 608.9 770.8 1274 88.11 114.2 107.5 155.8 117.2 161.6
Q [kJ$kg1] 1986.3 2105 3038 293.9 343.9 295.3 366.8 295.6 360.2
Global Efficiency [%] 19 22.62 25.89 18.89 20.87 22.47 26.23 23.71 27.14
Net Power [W m2] 136.46 226.11 258.95 185.12 205.06 224.79 262.29 244.95 276.34
thirty times smaller than the equivalent shell and tube heat exchangers in the system except for the heat addition process,
exchanger [34], and in other applications can reach a 85% smaller whether with a CO2 volumetric receiver or by means of an inter-
footprint [35]. mediate heat transfer fluid, for which Inconel 617 or similar is
There also exists previous experience in designing receiver to recommended. Economically, reference [41] estimates the cost of
work with incondensable gases. For instance the SOLGATE project a supercritical carbon dioxide recuperator at $16/KWe while for the
[36], where a pressurised volumetric air receiver was used with intermediate heat exchanger this value falls to $6.4/KWe, provided
a secondary concentrator receiver technology called REFOS. SS 347 is used. If Incoloy-800 had to be used for temperatures
Following this concept, the configuration would be a group of around 1273 K, an increase in cost by a factor of seven is projected.
parallel interconnected single receiver modules subdivided into low
temperature (up to 873 K), medium-temperature (up to 1073 K) and
6. Conclusions
high-temperature units (up to 1273 K). According to their temper-
ature level, these unit receivers would be located in the low, medium
In this paper, the application of carbon dioxide Brayton to
and high-flux region of the focal spot [27]. The receiver finally
concentrated solar power plants with central receiver has been
adopted in the proposed supercritical carbon dioxide system should
studied yielding the following conclusions:
combine the basis of REFOS technology with the PCHE design due to
the very high pressures found in the heating process.
Amongst the two closed Brayton cycles considered, the more
The size of a receiver of any type relies strongly upon optical
complex layout L2 working with supercritical conditions at
considerations even if for supercritical carbon dioxide it is expected
compressor inlet and with improved heat recovery achieves
to have the small size typical of the aforementioned PCHE heat
higher cycle efficiency. The improvement with respect to
exchangers. In reference [27], estimated costs are 16 k€/m2, 33 k
simpler schemes can be as high as 7e12 percentage points,
€/m2 and 37.5 k€/m2 for the low, medium and high-temperature air
depending on turbine inlet temperature.
modules respectively. The costs for CO2 receivers at a future
For the CO2 and ORC combined cycle proposed in this work,
commercial stage are expected to be in the same order. Other
a simpler topping cycle layout (L1) is selected. For this layout,
interesting option is making use of an intermediate fluid like, for
designs with lower compressor inlet pressures and higher
instance, molten salts. In this case, the expected receiver efficiency
pressure ratios yield similar specific work, as shown in Section
is in the range from 75 to 90% [5,29,37,38], similar to other volu-
2, but higher turbine exhaust temperature, thus favouring
metric receivers and slightly lower than pipe receivers used with
bottoming cycle performance. This combined cycle layout has
water/steam, 80e93% [5,39].
lower complexity than layout L2 in the topping cycle and takes
Finally, some considerations are given with respect to the Heat
advantage of already commercial ORC technology in the bot-
Recovery Vapour Generator (HRVG) which is specific of the
toming system.
combined cycle proposed. Table 6 shows the dependence of HRVG
Combined cycle analysis shows that recuperative ORC systems
design and performance with respect to the cold side working fluid
do not provide a significant advantage due to rather low Heat
and for the optimised solution. Interestingly, Isobutene requires
Recovery Vapour Generator efficiency.
minimum heat transfer area and, therefore, its cost is lowest.
There is not a single organic fluid able to optimise combined
However, R245fa yields higher efficiency at a minimum extra cost,
cycle efficiency independently of turbine inlet temperature of
still far from the required surface for other fluids. This interesting
the topping cycle. As a general rule of thumb, there exist
behaviour adds up to the previous thermodynamic advantages
a parallel trend between topping cycle (T03) and critical
leading to the conclusion that R245fa is the most interesting fluid of
temperature of the organic fluid. Thus, highest combined cycle
choice for the bottoming Organic Rankine Cycle.
efficiency when high turbine inlet temperatures are used in
Some final considerations are given with regard to materials
combination with organic fluids with high critical temperature,
that meet the high pressure and temperature requirements typical
the opposite being also true. Nevertheless, some exceptions
of supercritical carbon dioxide cycles. Thus, stainless steels SS 316
exist, like n-Hexane, that are usually related with the location
(873 K) or SS 347 (948 K) [40,41] can be used for the different heat
of the minimum temperature difference within the economiser
Table 6
of the Heat Recovery Vapour Generator.
Summary of HRVG characteristics for a number of organic working fluids in the Amongst the organic fluids considered, Cyclohexane, Iso-
bottoming cycle (results expressed per unit mass flow of CO2 in the topping cycle). pentane and R245fa in decreasing temperature (T03) order
Fluid Global HRVG optimise combined cycle efficiency.
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