PERSONAL

IDENTIFICATION

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 PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION REVIEWER

METHODS OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

1. Tattoo or tattooing-
tattooing- originate in Haida Tribe in Columbia
- Tattoos was made of Waska
- Wolf Gens (Male) Bear Gens (Female)

2. Scarification - leaving scars on some parts of the body, originate in Cougohatvile Congo
Region in Africa.

3. Portrait Parle-
Parle- Speaking likeness or personal description

4. Anthropometry-
Anthropometry- methods of identificatiuon by means of body measurement. Invented by
Alphonse Bertillon the father of scientific identification.

5. Photography-
Photography- identification through the was of photographs

6. DNA (Blood, Hair, orthodontology

7. Fingerprint-
Fingerprint- Positive means sof personal identification

DACTYLOSCOPY-The
DACTYLOSCOPY-The science of fingerprint identification. It is the study of interpretation,
identification and classification of fingerprint.

DACTYLOGRAPHY-The
DACTYLOGRAPHY-The scientific study of fingerprint. It is the art of fingerprint
identification and comparison plus the case presentation in court.

CHIROSCOPY-The
CHIROSCOPY-The scientific study of palm print identification.

PODOSCOPY-The
PODOSCOPY-The scientific study of foot print identification.

Poroscopy-The
Poroscopy-The scientific study of pores for the purpose of identification.

Dactylomancy – Is the study of fingerprint for the purposes of interpreting ones personality.

Historical Background of fingerprints

From the beginning to present:

300 B.C. History of fingerprints identification had its origin in china.

The Chinese employed the fingerprint system for the signing of contract on the part of
illiterate persons in foundling asylum; every infant in its reception was recorded for possible
identification.

The design of its fingertips being the most important part of the record, were every
Chinese mother is familiar with the fingerprint of her new born.

Thumbprints begin to be used in clay deals in China to “sign” documents.

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 The Chinese though well acquainted with the types of pattern found in fingerprints, but
did not develop into a system of classification.

1000-2000 B.C. fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transaction in
ancient Babylon.

618-907 A.D. During the T’ANG dynasty, a time when imperial china was one of the
most powerful and wealthy regions of the world, fingerprints are reportedly used on official
documents.

1684 Dr. Nehemiah Grew was a fellow of the Royal Society and of the college
Physicians, he describe the “innumerable little ridges” in philosophical transaction for 1684.

For if anyone will but take the pains, with an indifferent glass to survey the palm of his hand,
he may perceive … innumerable little ridges, of equal bigness and distance, and everywhere
running parallel one with another and specially, upon the hands and first joints of the fingers
and thumb. They are very regularly disposed into spherical triangles and elliptics. Dr. Grew
published extremely accurate drawings of finger patterns and areas of palm.

In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna,

noted in his treaties; ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. He made no mention of their value
as a tool for individual identification. Marcello Malpighi is an Italian anatornist and.
microscopist who described the patterns on the tips of fingers as part of an overall study of
human skin. He is regarded by some to be the first histologist. (Histology is the study of
tissues.) The lower epidermis “Malpighian layer~~ is named. After him, which is
approximately 1.8mm thick.

He was noted for his discovery of the inner and outer structures of the skin, he boar the inner
layer dermis and the outer one epidermis.

He is also originated the terms loops and spiral. He then became the Grandfather of
fingerprint.

1747 Christian Jacob HINTZ published his work on Dermatography -

recognizing the pattern formation with which the friction skin surfaces of the hands and feet are
furrowed.

1770 Thomas BEWICK (1753—1828) English author, designer and engraver used his
own fingerprint as a decoration for his books between 1770 and 1824

1788, J.C. Mayers wrote in his i11ustrated textbook Anatomical Copper—plates with
appropriate explanations that “the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons

Mayers was one of the first scientist to recognize that friction ridges are unique

1812 in France, Francois Eugene Vidocq estasblishes Europe’s first official detective
branch and pioneers the use of physical evidence

In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinje, a professor of anatomy at the University of

Breslau, published his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but he too made no mention of
the value of fingerprints for personal identification.

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A Czechoslovakian physiologist who, in 1823 discovered the ff:

Dr. Purkinje recognized the classification element of friction ridge formations but did not
associate friction ridges to a means of personal identification.

He was later known as the father of dactyloscopy.

1849 Adolphe Quetelet a Belgian statistician who proposed a startling theory that there
are no two persons in the world are exactly of the same physical measurements. His rule stated
that ‘nature never duplicates his works and creations.”

In 1858, Sir William Herschel begins privately experimenting with finger prints in
India. In 1856, Sir William Herschel , Chief Administrative office, Bengal India, first used
fingerprint on native contracts.

Working as assistant joint Magistrate and Collector on colonial India, Herschel is credited with
being the first European to recognize the value of fingerprint for identification purposes

In 1859 he began collecting, as keepsakes, the fingerprint of his friends and relatives
and took notes of how each impression was unique to the individual and observed that the
patterns did not change over time.

His fingerprinting ideas were not implemented until 1877 when he has finally able to
implement their official use under his own authority, from 1877 — 1878 “government
pensioners in his region signed for their monthly payments with fingerprints. At the registry of
deeds, land owners impressed fingerprints to authenticate their transactions. At the court house,
convicts were forced to fingerprint their jail warrants so hired substitutes could not take their
place in prison.’

He made a thorough analysis and study of the first joint of the finger instead of the
whole palms to prevent any attempt toward future trickery. He was also known as the father of
chiroscopy.

1860 Stevens a warden of Louvain prison in France who for the first time employed
Quetelets theory in 1860 by taking measurements of the anatomical appendages of criminals
for this reason he is acclaimed as the first man to identify criminals scientifically.

1865 Bidloo wrote a book, Human anatomy in which he included a drawing of

thumbprint showing the configuration. of a whorl pattern.

1870 The Claimant” sues for the title of Baronet of Tichborne, falsely identifying
himself as the true heir, who has lost at sea fifteen years earlier. This case eventually sparks
fingerprint concept in Dr. Henry Faulds’s minds.

1877 Herschel, still in India, begins year-long use of fingerprints as signatures on land tittles
and jailers’ warrant.

Henry Faulds was a Scottish physician and medical missionary. While working as
missionary in Japan in 1878, Faulds discovered fingerprints on ancient pottery and soon after
began extensive research - including many experiments to reveal permanence and uniqueness
of fingerprints.

Alphonse Bertiilon began working as an assistant clerk in the records office at the
Prefecture of Police, Paris, and France beginning in March 1879.

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Only 5 months later, Bertillon devised a very meticulous method of measuring body parts as a
means of identifying criminals. It was very easy at this time for criminals to give a false name
to hide their criminal past.

In October 1879, Bertiilon prepared a report on the system that would eventually bear
his name — “Bertillionage”. It was initially rejected but approximately three years later the
system of ‘Anthropometry’ was given a chance.

Faulds becomes first person to publicly suggest fingerprints as a method of criminal

identification in a letter published in Nature.

In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds, who was working in Tokyo, Japan, published an article in the
Scientific Journal, “Nautre” (nature) Faulds is credited with being the first European to publish
an article suggesting that fingerprints may assist crime investigations by the “scientific
identification of criminals”: when bloody finger marks or impressions on clay, glass, etc. exist,
they may lead to the scientific identification of criminals. Already I have had experience in two
such cases ... There can be no doubt as to the advance of having, besides their photographs, a
nature-copy of the forever unchangeable finger furrows of important criminals (Nature,
October 28, 1880). He also discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification, and the
use of printers ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints. He is also credited with the first
fingerprint identification of a greasy fingerprint left in an alcohol bottle.

During the1880’s, Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and a cousin of Charles
Darwin, began his observation on of fingerprints as a means of identification.

1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own
fingerprints on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of fingerprint in the
United States.

In 1883 Mark Twain’s book, “Life on the Mississippi”, a murderer was identified by
the use of fingerprint identification. In a later book by’Mark Twain, “Pudd’n Head wilson’,
there was a dramatic court trial on fingerprint identification.

1883 Alphonse Bertillon, in Paris, identifies his first habitual criminal using his newly
installed anthropometric system of measurement.

1886 Henry Faulds begins trying to convince Scotland Yard to adopt fingerprints.

In 1891, Juan Vucetich, and Argentine Police Official, began the first fingerprint files
based on Galton pattern types. At first, Vucetich included the Bertillon system with the files.

In 1892, Juan Vucetich made the first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able
to identify a woman by the name of Rojas, who had murdered her two sons, and cut
her own throat in an attempt to place blame on another. Her bloody print was left on a door
post, proving identity as the murderer.

In 1892, he published his book, “Fingerprints”, establishing the individuality and

permanence of fingerprints. The book included the first classification system for fingerprints.

Galton identified the characteristics by which fingerprints can be identified. These same
characteristics (minutia) are basically still in use today, and are often referred to as Galton’s
Details.

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 Francis Galton was considered to be one of the ~greatest scientist of the 19th century.
He studied Bertillon’s method as well as fingerprinting and believed fingerprinting to be the
superior method.

He reviewed research material prepared by Henry Faulds and William Herschel.

Despite the fact that, “Herschel’s letter (published in Nature) did not hold a candle to the rich
and varied contents of Faulds’s”, Galton chose only to correspond with Herchel, being familiar
with his family name and status. 1892 he published the book “Finger Prints” and, in doing so,
significantly advanced the science of fingerprint identification. Sir Francis Galton established
the fact that the pattern and ridge characteristics persist throughout life without change.

Juan Vucetich was employed by the LaPlata Office of Identification and Statistics. He had
read an article from revue Scientifique that reported on Galtons’ experiment with fingerprints
and their potential use in identification. He immediately started to collect impressions of all ten
fingers include with the anthropometric measurements he took from arrested men.

He also devised his own fingerprint classification method. It wasn’t until 1894,
however, that his superiors were convinced that anthropometry measurements were not
necessary in addition to full sets of fingerprint records, By this time he had refined his
classification system and was able to categorize fingerprint cards into small groups that were
easily searched.

1894 Adolf Beck, an innocent man, is jailed for five years after being wrongly
recognized as a known con artist by police and a witness. Fingerprints would have shown he
was the wrong man.

In 1897, The National Bureau of criminal Investigation, based Chicago, Illinois, was
established by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. Its function was to serve as a
central storage and retrieval depot for criminal records and it’s cost was to be shared by all
police organization that used its services. The records were classifies and filed based on
Bertillionage, otherwise known as Anthropometry. (U.S.A.)

In Canada, the U.K.’s success in identifying criminal using Anthropometry did not go
unnoticed. On June 13, 1898, the identification of criminals act was passed into law, by the
federal government. The act sanctioned the use of the Bertillon system for use by the Canadian
police services.

1900 The Belper Committee in England was established to look into “the working of the
method of Identification of Criminals by measurement and fingerprints. Edaward Richard
Henry was one of the experts who gave evidence in support of using fingerprints as a means
of identification. In December 1900, the Belper Committee recommended that the current
method of Bertillonage’ be replaced by 1Mr.Henry’s system’. (UK)

On July 1, 1901, Edward Henry was put in charge of Scotland Yard’s new Fingerprint
Branch. The previous requirement to take prints only of habitual criminals widened to include
all prisoners whose sentence was more’ than one month. (UK)

Introduction of fingerprints for criminal identification in England & Wales, using

Galton’s observations and revised by Sir Edward Richard Henry. Thus began the Henry
Classification System, used even today in all English speaking countries.

He is considered as the father of fingerprint science because his persistence in devising

workable system of classification.

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 The first conviction in the U.K. of an individual was made as result of fingerprints
found at the scene of the crime in June 1902. A burglar by the name of Harry Jackson left his
thumbprint on the paintwork of a house he entered on South London and, despite the enormous
task of comparing thousands of prints, Detective—Sergeant Charles Stockley Collins and his
colleagues at the Branch identified it with Jackson’s record card. In September the burglar was
sentenced to seven years. Fingerprinting as a means of identification had been vindicated in the
English courts. (UK)

1902 the New York City Civil Services commission started using fingerprints to prevent
impersonations during examinations, and the first to utilize fingerprints was Dr, Henry P. De
Forest. Also in 1903, fingerprinting was implemented by the New York State prison system
and at Leavenworth Penitentiary. By 1906 there were six police departments in the United
States collecting finger prints for identification purposes.

1903 Will West, a criminal received at Leavenworth was found to be not identical with
one William West, an inmate already incarcerated at this institution. Although both individuals
Bertillon measurements were nearly identical and both had an identical facial resemblance, the
fingerprints of each were found to be not identical.

IN AMERICA

Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New Mexico, adopted the first individual use of
fingerprint in august 8, 1882 as a protection to prevent tampering with the pay order.
Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Francisco who advocated the use of the
system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.
Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An Englishman who informally introduced Dactyloscopy
in the United States in his book “ Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pupp n Head Wilson”.
Francis Galton
Dr. Henry p De Forest = Utilized the first Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for
Criminal Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New York).
Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first state and penal use of fingerprint adopted in
SingSing prison on June 5, 1903 later on Auburn Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police Dept.
Missouri.
Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth.
Established the first official National Government use of fingerpprint.
Mary K. Holand = first American instructress in dactyloscopy.
FBI = identification unit herein was officially established by an act of congress in 1924.
Institute of Applied Science = First private school to install laboratories for instruction
purposes in dactyloscopy.
People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 = United States leading case wherein the first
conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by the judicial authorities (14 points).

IN THE PHILIPPINES

Mr. Jones = one who first taught FP in the Phils. (1900)

Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint was used.
Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by P.C.
Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Dept. and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI Washington
– gave the first examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of the Phils. Top the
Examination

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 People of the Phils. Vs. Medina- First conviction base on Fingerprint and leading case
decision in the Phil. Jurisprudence (10 points).
Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now known as Phil. College of Criminology, first
government recognized school to teach the Science of Fingerprint and other Police Sciences.
John Dellinger – known U.S. public enemy number one who attempt to destroy his own
prints using corrosive acids.
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his own fingerprints and was named
“Man without fingerprint”
Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who was identified through fingerprint.
Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the first scientific method of Identification
(Anthropometry)

“SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS”
- is the most positive means of personal identification. It has been found out that the
intricate pattern on the fingers is permanent, individual and never undergoes a natural
change, except in the size of the pattern during the life time of individual.

Friction skin patterns/designs/ formations appear on the finger tips, palms of the hands
and soles of the feet five (5) months before birth this remained unchanged during the life
of individual until decomposition sets in after DEATH.

FINGERPRINTS offer an INFALLIBLE (unerring) means of personal identification.

This is an essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of establishing
identity of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. Other personal characteristics
change but fingerprints do not.

DEFINITION OF FINGERPRINTS
As an IMPRESSION:
It is the reproduction of on some smooth surfaces of the pattern or design formed by
the ridges on the inside of the end joint of the fingers or thumb, through the medium of
ink or any coloring substance capable of producing visibility.

As a SCIENCE:

It is the identification of person by means of the ridges appearing on the fingers, on the
palms and on the soles of the feet.

PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINTS
1) INDIVIDUALITY:
That the complex of the ridge details in a single fingerprints or even part one is not
duplicated in any other finger.

2) PERMANENCY:
That fingerprints do not change in its ridge characteristics of fingerprint pattern
through out or life time of an individual and they persist after DEATH until the skin is
decomposed.

3) INFALLIBILITY:
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 That fingerprint is absolute and cannot be forged.

IMPORTANCE OR VALUE OF FINGERPRINTS?

Prevent impersonation (changing personal data)
Speedy identification of wrongdoer (falsification, forgery)
Serve to give evidence (identification of criminals)
Helps to identify victims of disasters, calamities, floods, etc.
Identifies bodies whose cadaver is beyond recognition.
Aids judiciary in penal treatment (fingerprinting of prisoners)
Prevent criminal substitution of the newly born.

FINGERPRINT AND THE FRICTION SKIN

Fingerprint- is an impression design by the ridges on the inside of the last joint of the
finger or thumb on any smooth surface through the media of an ink, sweat, or any
reagents capable of producing visibility.
Friction Skin-
Skin- is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the
hands and feet covered with minute ridges and furrows and without pigment or coloring
matters.

COMPONENTS OF FRICTION SKIN

A. Ridges Surface-
Surface- is that component of the friction skin that actually forms the fingerprint
impression.
1. Ridges-
Ridges- are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis layer of the skin
containing sweat pores. Its appears as black lines in tiny white dots called pores in an
inked impression.
2. Furrows- are the canal-like impression or a depression found between the ridges which may
be compare with the low area in a tire thread. They appear as white lines in an
inked impression.

B. Sweat Pores
- is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface but is usually found near the
center. Sometimes called an “islands which colors white in plain impression and it’s
considered as individual as the fingerprints

C. Sweat Duct
is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat that exists as its
mouth, the pore.

D. Sweat Glands
are that glands found in the dermis layer of the skin which is responsible for the
production of the sweat (watery substance).

FUNDAMENTAL LAYERS OF THE FRICTION SKIN

Epidermis - the outer covering of the skin
2 Main Layers of the epidermis
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Stratum Corneum-
Corneum- the outer layers
Stratum Mucosum-
Mucosum- immediately beneath the covering layers

5 Subdivision of the Stratum Corneum

Corneous layer
Transparent layer
Granular layer
Malphigian layer
Generating layer

B. Dermis
the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, various glands and nerves. It is where
the dermal papillae are found.

Dermal Papillae
are irregular blunt pegs composed or delicate connective tissues protruding and forming
the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the feet.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Fingerprint are resolved into three (3) large general groups of patterns:

1.ARCH- 5%
a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch

2. LOOP- 60%
a. Radial Loop
b. Ulnar Loop

3. WHORL- 35%
a. Plain whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop
c. Double Loop
d. Accidental Loop

Interpretation

Pattern area is that part of a loop or a whorl in which appear the delta, core and the ridges
with which we are concern in classifying fingerprints.
Type lines are the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge or tend to surround the
pattern area. Typelines are not always two continuous ridges in fact they are
more often found to be broken when there is a definite break in a typeline the ridge
immediately outside of it is considered as its continuation
Divergence is the spreading a part of two lines which have been running parallel or nearly
parallel
Focal points-within
points-within the pattern area of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which
are used to classify them.
Delta is that point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of the
typelines.

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It may be:
a bifurcation
an abrupt ending ridge
a dot
a short ridge
a meeting of two ridge
a point on a long ridge

Core-The
Core-The approximate center of fingerprint impression. It is also known as Inner Terminus.

Ridge Characteristics

Bifurcation is a single ridge that divides itself in two or more branches. it is sometimes called
as fork, making its impression.
Converging ridges-
ridges- is a ridge formation characterized by a closed angular end and serves as a
point of convergence (meeting of two ridges that were previously running side by side
Diverging ridges-two
ridges-two ridges that are flowing side by side and suddenly separating or spreading
apart.
Enclosure or lake or eyelet a ridge that divides into two branches and meets to form the
original ridge.
Ending ridge-refers
ridge-refers to an end point of a ridge, or a ridge with abrupt ending.
Islands or dots-a
dots-a ridge that resembles a dot, fragment or a period.
Recurving or looping ridge-is
ridge-is a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction from
which it started. it looks like a hairpin.
Sufficient recurve-is
recurve-is a recurving ridge complete its shoulder and is free from any appendage.
Appendageis
Appendageis a ridge found at the top or at the summit of a recurving ridge.
Rod or a baris
baris a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge of a loop type pattern.
Obstruction ridge is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge that spoiled the
inner flow towards the center of the pattern.

Arch Pattern
Plain Arch – the ridge enter on the either side of the impression and flow out or tend to flow
out to the other side with a rise or wave in the center.
Plain Arch is the simplest of all fingerprint patterns, and it is easily distinguished.

Tented Arch most of the ridges enter upon one side of the impression and flow out o tend to
flow out upon the other side, however the ridge at the center don’t.

Three Types of Tented Arch

1. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle i. e. 90 or less. 2. The
type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. is an ending ridge at any length
rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane at least 45 or more.
3. Approaching the loop type – possessing two of the three basic characteristic of the loop, but
lacking the third element.

LOOP TYPE PATTERN

A Loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters or either
side of the impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to
the core, and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression

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 from whence such ridge or ridges entered.

Requisites of a Loop
a. It must have a delta
b. It must have a core
c. It must have a ridge count across the looping ridge of at least one.
d. It must have a sufficient recurved

Radial Loop a fingerprint pattern in which the downwad slant or ridge flow from the little
finger toward to the radius bone.

Ulnar Loopa
Loopa fingerprint pattern in which the downwad slant or ridge flow from the radius
bone toward to the little finger.

Plain whorl this is a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge makes a
turn through one complete circuit .an imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch
or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the pattern area .the pattern could be a spiral,
oral circular, oval or any variant of a circle .The plain whorl consist of the simplest form of
whorl construction and is the most common of whorl sub-division. It is designated by the
symbol w. Both for general classification and extension purposes.

Central Pocket Loopis

Loopis a pattern in which some of the ridges represent the pattern known as
loop, but where one or more of the ridges within such loop or those surrounding the core
recurved somewhat like spiral, so as to be at right angle to a line drawn through its axis,
thereby forming the second delta.

Double Loop consist of two separate loop formation with two separate and distinct set of
shoulders and two deltas.

Accidental Whorl is a pattern in which two or more of the different types of patterns are
represented.

IMPORTANT TERMS

Fingerprints- The most positive means of personal identification of persons. It is the

reproduction on some smooth surfaces of the pattern or design formed by the ridges on the
inside of the end joint of finger.

Fingerprinting- The process of recording fingerprints through the medium of fingerprint ink.

Fingerprint Identification- Sometimes referred as dactyloscopy, it is the process of comparing

questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions from fingers, palms, and toes to
determine if the impressions are from the same finger.

Fingerprint Expert- It refers to a person having knowledge in the field of fingerprint science
not known to persons education and experience in the same field. That when presented and
qualified as a witness, he is adjudged by the court as such.

Fingerprint Pattern- It is definite design or ridges through their formation and relationship

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from each other are divided into three general group.

Forensic Science- It is concerned with the application of the different filds of sciences to
elucidate legal problems.

Patent Prints-These
Prints-These are friction ridge impressions from a finger or palm deposited in a
material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Examples are melted candle wax, putty
removed from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts.
Photograph is used to preserve them.

Polydactylism-The
Polydactylism-The appearance of extra fingers
Post mortem Fingerprinting- Recording fingerprints of the dead.

Real Impressions--These
Impressions--These are prints of the finger bulbs and through the use of fingerprint ink
are reproduced on the surface of a fingerprint card or paper.
Recurving Ridge--A
Ridge--A ridge that curves back in the direction from which it started.

Incipient Ridges--Unusual
Ridges--Unusual type of ridges found in small percentage of patterns; short, narrow
and badly formed ridges found between two well-formed and full-boded ridges.

Fingerprint System- Is an arrangement, which in order to effectively utilize fingerprints in

criminal investigation, provides for their systematic collection, classification, arrangement,
custody and use.

Two Sub-System
1. Ten (10) fingerprint system
Include the ten (10) fingerprints in cards taken upon lawful arrest. This is to confirm
the identity and the criminal history of the arrested person.

2. Single Fingerprint System

Fingerprints of suspect collected one by one. This is to deduce the identity of the criminal
through his latent fingerprints. Under this system, the prints of all the ten (10) fingers are
kept one by one in custody as basic material.
Creases- --Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running traversely or formed side
by side , across the print causing puckering of the ridges.
Puckering--As
Puckering--As growth go, some or several ends of the ridges curls slightly.

Staple- Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.

Spike- An ending ridge at the center of a pattern, which forms the upthrust.

Ridgeology is defined as: ”The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge structures and their use
for personal identification.”

Fingerprint Classification

Ridge Counting
Refers to the process of counting the ridges that touches or creased an imaginary line
drawn between the core and the delta. This applies only to loops.
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Ridge Tracing
The process of locating the ridge continuity that emanates from the left delta toward the
right delta; Consider dropping to the lower ridge to see where it flows in relation to the
right delta.

Steps in Classification
1. Recording- Means the taking of fingerprint impressions, either rolled or plain impressions.
2. Interpretation- Means the naming or interpreting a fingerprint pattern.

3. Blocking It means designating by symbol the type of patterns with each finger and thumb
it bears and recording in the space provided for.
for.

4. Classification- It refers to the classification proper, this time interpreting the ten (10)
fingerprints. In general , it is refers to the sorting of things isnto division or groups for easy
location and reference.

Fingerprint Analysis-The
Analysis-The process of identifying and distinguishing fingerprint pattern
according to their design and formation.

Classification Formula- It is the result of combining all the patterns of the fingerprints and
recording them in a specific order or manner at the top right of the fingerprint card. It
represents the patterns of all ten (10) fingers of both hand combined.

Primary Classification- Consist of the numerical value of all whorl patterns and added to the
arbitrary value of one (1) for both numerator and denominator.

Secondary Classification- Compose the type of patterns in the index fingers, which be written
in capital letters. The secondary classification appears just to the right of the fractional
numerals, which represents the primary. It is shown in the formula y capital letters representing
the basic types of patterns appearing in the index of each hand, the right hand being the
numerator and the left hand the denominator.

Sub-Secondary Classification- Compose of the ridge tracing and ridge counting of the index
finger, midle finger, and ring fingers, placed to the right of the secondary classification. Only
six fingers are involved: 2,3,4,7,8 and 9.

Major Classification- Composed of the ridge tracing and ridge counting only of both thumbs
using the equivalent tables.

Final Classification- Compose of the ridge counting of both little fingers only. If both are
whorls treat it as loop and proceeded to ridge counting. If the little fingers are that of arch
patterns, it is represented by a dash (-) symbol. This is indicated at the extreme right of the
numerator in the classification.

Key Classification- It represents the ridge count of the first loop in an impression beginning at
the right hand excluding the little finger.

Fingerprint Classification Formula:

1. Checking
2. Blocking-out – is the process if placing under each pattern the letter symbols
representing their pattern interpretation prior to the actual classification formula.

14
 3. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

a. Primary Division. Always represented by a numerical value assigned to

whorl patterns depending on what finger they appear.
Arch and Loop are non-numerical patterns.
A, T, / \ = Zero (0)
Whorl patterns.(WCDX)
Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index (16)
Finger 3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8)
Finger 5 and 6 Right little and Left Thumb (4)
Finger 7 and 8 Left Index and Left middle (2)
Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left Little (1)

The sum of the numerical value assigned to even number of finger represent the
numerator and the sum of the assigned value to odd number represent the denominator Plus the
pre-established fraction of l/1 to complete the primary.

b. Secondary – Represented by Capital and small letter combination based on

interpretation made during the blocking.
Capital letter – derived from the index fingers which can be
(A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).

Small letter – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little fingers.
It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t).

c. Sub-secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of loop and ridge

Tracing of whorl found at the index, middle ring fingers only.

c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop

Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I
10 or more =0
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count =I
11 or more =0
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = I
14 or more =0

c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl

Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes above or inside the right delta and
there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes below or outside the right
delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two orless intervening ridge/s

c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always dash (-)

d. Major Division (Taken from Thumb fingers only)

d.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M.

d.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L
Table 1 Table 2
1 to 11 = S         1 to 17 = S
12 to 16 = M 18 to 22 = M
17 or more = L 23 or more = L
d.3 Arch = dash (-)

15
 e. Final Division (derived from the little fingers only).

e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge counting.

Radial or Ulnar
Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl = will be treated as an ulnar loop.
Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
Accidental Whorl = get the least ridge count.

e.2 Arch = dash (-)

f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge count of the first (l) loop except
the little fingers. In the absence of the loop, the first whorl will be ridge counted
for the purpose.

Rules in Classifying scarred pattern

1. When an impressions so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing
or counting can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both
the general type value an the classification value of the corresponding fingers of all of the other
hand.
2. When an impression is partially scarred, i.e large scars about the core so that the general type
cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridge allow reasonably accurate sb-
classification by the tracings or counting, the impression should be given the primary value of
the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub-classification value as indicated by the
ridges of partially scarred impression.3
3. When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined
with reasonably accuracy, but the ridge cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the
proper sub-secondary classification, the impressions should be given the ridge count or tracing
value of the corresponding finger is not of the general type, the scarred impressions should be
given the probable value and referenced to all other possibilities.
4. When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type pf pattern nor the ridge tracing
or count can be determined wit reasonable accuracy, and if it so happens that the
corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the
arbitrary value of whorl with meeting trace/tracings.

Classification of Amputations and fingers Missing at Birth

When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately
from those having no amputations in order to facilitate searching. It is to be noted that
before it may be filed in the amputation group, the card must contain a definite and
unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a certain fingers
have been amputated or were missing at birth. This prevents the appearance on later cards
of impressions of fingers thought to have been amputated but which in really were merely
injured and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.
Rules:
1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite
finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced to every other possible
classification.
2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classification identical with the fingers
opposite with no additional reference.
3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls
with meeting tracings.
4 When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the

16
missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical
classifications of the opposite fingers and are field in the amputation group.
5. If ten (10) fingers are amputated or missing at the classification will be
M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM
6. If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should taken as they, too, bear
friction ridges with definite patterns. A Footprints file is maintained by a certain agency
for purposes of identification in instances where the subject has all fingers amputated or
missing at birth.

Latent Prints--Are
Prints--Are those markings, usually raather indistinct left by oily matters or
perspiration exuded from the fingertips upon any substance, which the fingers may have
touched.
- Fingerprints found at the crime scene, imprinted by mere chance or without any
intention to produce the said print.

Classification of Latent Prints

Visible Prints- prints smeared with colored substances such as blood, ink, grease, dust or paint.
It is preserved through photographs.
Semi-visible or Plastic Impressions- impressions caused by plastic materials, such as soap,
melted candles, wax, paraffin and adhesive gums. They are preserved through photographs.
Invisible Latent Prints- most common types of impressions and are not seen by the naked eye.
They must be developed through the right kind of powder and or chemical to make tem visible.

Ken-saku-
Ken-saku- Is the method of searching activities for finding scene fingerprints and where they
are impressed.
- Most scene fingerprints are usually found at the points of entry, exit and point of attacked.

Methods of Developing Latent Prints

Powder or Mechanical Method- reagents which must adhere or stocked to the sweat must be
used. Suitable surfaces for this technique are glass, porcelain, ceramic, pottery, metallic item,
plastic and bamboo.
Liquid or Chemical Method- use of reagent on the suspected area and expose the fingerprint
marked there.

Other Methods
1. Gas Method- Latent fingerprint is developed by means of coloring by affixing gasified
reagent or by causing chemical change in elements of excreta, and then collected by
photographing or lifting onto lifting chemical. This method is suitable for developing
fingerprints from papers, unpainted woods and textiles.

2. Flame Method- it is done by affixing a soot to a latent or unclear print. The develop print is
collected by lifting it onto a lifting material or can also be collected by photographing it.
This is suitable for collection from metal or objects with porous surface.
3. Molding Method- this is a method of collecting visible fingerprints with a molding material,
and a suitable for collecting from an object with no complicated and uneven surface that
lifting it with a lifting material is unfeasible.

17
Methods of Developing Prints:
1. Dusting Method = considered as the simplest and traditional methods used in
developing prints at the scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and Brush)
2. Rolling Method = basically used in developing prints in paper done by simply
rolling the paper with powder spreading in its surface.
3. Fuming Methods = done by using chemical fumes such as Iodine and Ammonium
Fumes.
4. Silver Nitrate method – done by spraying a 5 percent solution of silver nitrate to the
surface of the paper.
5. Ninhydrin Method = is considered as one of the best method used in developing
prints in paper.
6. Laser Method = is a modern method of tracing and developing prints.

The following are the minimum equipment needed for taking fingerprint:

1. Inking Plate - It is also known as glass slab.

2. Card holder- It holds the fingerprint card during the process of fingerprinting.
3. The Roller- It sole function is to spread uniform film of ink on the glass slab.
4. The ink-refined heavy paste permanent ink, is commonly used; it has smooth texture and it
is free from lumpiness, it has consistency suitable for rolling into a thin film; when
transferred to a card as an ink impression it quickly dries up; it does dry too fast but usable
for several hours after a film has been rolled on the plate; not so sticky or slippery, yet it
flows evenly on the glass slab after few rolling of the rubber roller.

Basic Instrument in taking prints:

1. Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread for purpose
2. Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller designed to spread the fingeprint ink to the slab.
3. Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ink designed for taking fingerprint impression
sometimes submitted with a printer’s ink.
4. Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card designed for recording fingerprint impression
5. Card holder – usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed to prevent
the movement of the card in the course of the taking of the fingerprint.
Basic Rule in taking Fingerprints:
1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax facing the slab.
2. The subject hand should be completely dry
3. Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body while other fingers are rolled away from
the body.

TAKING FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

Preliminary Information

Height of Equipment: The fingerprint card should be placed in the card holder on an elevated
surface at a height that will allow the forearm of the person being fingerprinted t assume a
horizontal position.
A special fingerprint stand by Indicator Corporation is available that provides a
platform at the prescribed height for proper and easy fingerprinting.

Poor impressions are usually caused by one of the ff faults:

The use of poor, thin, or colored ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and
faint, or in which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best results will be obtained by
using heavy black printer’s ink, a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will
dry quickly and will not blur or smear with handling.

18
 Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of foreign substances
and perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of
characteristics. Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzene, and alcohol are good cleansing agents,
but any fluid may be used. In warm weather each finger should be wiped dry of perspiration
before printing.

Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other arid to ink the whole area from
tip below the first fissure. The results of this are that the focal points of the impressions (the
deltas or cores) do not appear. The whole finger surface from joints to tip and from side to side
should appear.

The use of too much ink will obliterate or obscured the ridges. If printers ink is used, just a
touch of the tube end to the inking plate will suffice to several sets of prints. It should be spread
to a thin, even film by rolling.

Insufficient ink, result in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.

Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, and false appearing
patterns. The fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure. The subject should be
warned not to try help but to remain passive.

Reasons for Poor Quality of Impressions

The most commonly seen problems in fingerprinting are associated with impressions that are
excessively light or dark.

Too Light: Usually caused by dry skin. The can be remedied by first, cleaning the fingers with
a fingerprinting towelette or other cleaning agent. Apply a hand lotion sparingly and wipe off
excess with a lint free cloth. Light prints may also be caused by too little pressure.

Too Dark: Usually caused by wet or oily skin, clean the fingers with a fingerprinting towelette
or other alcohol-based hand cleaner. Keep these handy to wipe any recurring respiration from
the fingers during printing. Dark prints may also be caused by excessive pressure.

Reasons for Poor Quality Inked Impressions

Poor impressions with ink are usually by one of the errors listed below:

Poor Ink: The use of old or poor ink, such as colored ink, thin ink, or stamp pad ink. These
result in blotchy, pale prints.

Improper Cleaning: Failure to clean the inking equipment or the fingers. Foreign particles
may cause false marking distorted ridges, or the disappearance of characteristics. Hands and
fingers should be wiped dry of perspiration. Cleaning fluid, denatured alcohol, or any good
cleaning agent may be used.

Incomplete Inking: Failure to ink the entire bulb the finger, front joint to tip and from side to
side of nail. Result: possible omission of deltas and cores. These ridge details are essential for
classifying fingerprints.

Improper Rolling: Failure to roll the finger fully from one side to the other.

Over Inking: The use of too much ink, filling between and incurring the ridges. Just
touch of the tube end will allow enough printers’ ink for several sets of print. The ink should be
spread to a thin, even firm with the roller.
Insufficient Inking: Insufficient ink, resulting in the ridges being too light to count or

19
trace.
Excessive Pressure: Ink is a grease base. Therefore too much pressure fills in between
the ridges

Reasons for Poor Quality Inkless Impressions

Poor impressions are much less frequent with inkless systems; however, they do occur.
Reasons are listed below:

Improper Rolling: Failure to roll the finger fully from one side to the other.

Failure to Replace Finger Pad: They do not last forever. Check and follow
manufacture’s recommendation for replacement

Modern Method of Identification

What is DNA fingerprinting?

DNA fingerprinting is a way of identifying a specific individual, rather than simply identifying
a species or some particular trait. It is also known as genetic fingerprinting or DNA profiling.
As a technology, it has been around since at least 1985, when it was announced by its inventor,
Sir Alec Jeffreys. DNA fingerprinting is currently used both for identifying paternity or
maternity and for identifying criminals or victims. There is discussion of using DNA
fingerprinting as a sort of personal identifier as well, although the viability of this is debatable.

The vast majority of a human's DNA will match exactly that of any other human, making
distinguishing between two people rather difficult. DNA fingerprinting uses a specific type of
DNA sequence, known as a microsatellite, to make identification much easier. Microsatellites
are short pieces of DNA which repeat many times in a given person's DNA. In a given area,
microsatellites tend to be highly variable, making them ideal for DNA fingerprinting. By
comparing a number of microsatellites in a given area, one can identify a person relatively
easily.

In human genetics, there are four general types of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). These are the
autosomal, mitochondrial, the X chromosome, and the Y chromosome DNA. All of these types
are built and encoded with a “program” that hugely predicts a person’s appearance, personality,
and intelligence. Only 0.1% of the human genetic structure is programmed differently, making
each person unique from each other.

The autosomal DNA makes up the 22 out of the 23 chromosome pairs in a human. The
autosomes are the genetic material that humans inherit from their parents, who inherit theirs
from their parents, and so on. Each autosome goes through a genetic process that randomly
pairs up the autosomes from each parent, called “recombination,” after which the newly paired
autosomes are passed down to the children. This is why children tend to look like their parents,
or even their great-grandparents, because the autosomes are imprinted with all the genetic
blueprints from each of the preceding generations. The autosomal DNA is very important in
finding out one’s ancestry and parentage, especially for people who question who their parents
are.

Mitochondrial DNA is another type that is contained inside the mitochondria, which is
considered the “powerhouse” of the cell. The mitochondria is basically the part that gives the
cell its energy, and it also contains its own DNA that separately reproduces its own copy.
Unlike autosomes that pass down genes from both parents, the mitochondria follows a maternal
line, although a mother also passes down her mitochondrial to her sons. This makes
mitochondrial testing less accurate if a person wants to trace her family tree, although it may be
more effective to use a maternity test to determine a person’s biological mother.

20
Of all the 23 chromosome pairs that make up a human being, only one pair is allocated to
determine the sex of the child. This particular pair is called the allosomal pair, which contains
the X and Y chromosome DNA. Females generally have two X chromosomes, while males
have one each of the X and Y chromosomes. During fertilization, the mother passes down one
of her X chromosomes to her offspring, regardless of its sex. The father’s sperm, on the other
hand, donates his X chromosome to make another female offspring, while passing down his Y
chromosome to a male offspring.

Each of these X and Y chromosomes contains ancestral genetic information like the autosomal
DNA, but the former chromosomes are not as accurate. The Y chromosome in particular may
provide less genetic information than the X, as it is only passed from father to son. Overall,
what is remarkable about all these types of DNA is that their primary structure remains
unchanged, even though they are produced by random fragments.

Fingerprint classification is the division of fingerprints into rough categories to make them
easier to match with existing records in a system. This was critical in an era when investigators
had to rely on paper files for fingerprint matching and needed a way for quickly narrowing
down the options when comparing fingerprints from a scene with those on file. Today,
electronic systems make comparisons easier and more reliable, but fingerprint classification can
still be important for investigators.

What is digital fingerprinting?

Also known as electronic fingerprinting, digital fingerprinting is a contemporary approach to

creating images of fingerprints that can be used for purposes of identification in a number of
settings. This type of resource may be used to enhance security measures at companies,
government buildings, and other physical locations, as well as create a more efficient means of
copyright protection and the identification of criminals involved in the commission of a
specific crime. Unlike older fingerprinting techniques, modern digital fingerprints are not
subject to deterioration and can be matched with various electronic records in very little time,
possibly even a few seconds in some applications.

What are the system of fingerprint?

There are three important different kinds of fingerprint system. One is the kind of system used
for collecting and processing fingerprints. A second is the type of system that allows for
identification of fingerprints that do not have a known owner. The third is the kind of system
that limits or restricts access to a certain place, machine, or collection of information based on
identity. A fourth kind of kit, however, is a child’s version of a fingerprint identification kit,
designed to give budding scientists a taste of forensic science.

For a long time, a key part of a fingerprint system for collecting fingerprints was the inkpad.
Recently, inkless systems have been brought into use. This type of system is used mainly for
applicants for employment, for licenses and permits, for immigration, and for booking suspects.
Systems are usually made to at least one of the specifications of the primary fingerprint
identification systems so they can be used in conjunction. In addition, systems are usually
enclosed in a kit of durable plastic with a handle, making it easily portable.

The second type of fingerprint system attempts to match one or more fingerprints collected
using a collection kit or lifted from a crime scene to a collection of fingerprint identification
records stored in a database. Because these databases contain measurements of physical
characteristics of individuals, they are referred to as biometric databases.

21
Two important databases that serve this function in the US are the Integrated Automated
Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) and the Next Generation Automated Biometric
Identification System (ABIS) (NGA). IAFIS is a national database that includes not only
fingerprint data, but also criminal history. It is maintained by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) Criminal Justice Information Services Division (CJIS). States may have
their own implementation of AFIS. Other countries also have their own systems. ABIS, which
is built to operate in sync with IAFIS, is a Department of Defense (DoD) project, designed,
built, and maintained by Lockheed Martin Corporation.

A fingerprint system can be used for security in a variety of situations. Electronic fingerprint
readers can be used to secure computers as well as access to facilities, specific rooms within
facilities, or a vehicle. Partly because such systems have been subject to abuse, variations are
now in use. One variation is each person being issued a personal device that is carried and used
to verify its owner’s identity. Hand geometry, retinal and iris scans, voice analysis, and facial
recognition all compete with fingerprint systems, with iris scanners considered better than all
the others except retinal scans, which are thought to be best.

What is biometric fingerprint?

Biometric fingerprinting is one method that is commonly used to automatically establish the
identity of an individual. There are a few different techniques that a computer can use to
compare fingerprints, and several methods that may be used to capture them for analysis. Most
biometric fingerprinting is accomplished through either pattern recognition or the identification
of minutia features. Capturing mechanisms include optical, ultrasonic, and capacitance, each of
which uses a different method to create a digital picture of a fingerprint. Fingerprint recognition
is a form of biometrics that is widely used in everything from secure facilities access to locking
data on personal computers.

Fingerprint analysis was traditionally a skilled activity performed by highly trained

professionals. Biometric fingerprinting is a similar process, though it uses a computer to
examine a digitally captured image specifically to establish a person's identity. This is
accomplished by imaging the fingerprint and comparing it to a stored picture. If the two match,
identity is considered to have been established.

When comparing fingerprints, a computer program typically looks at both patterns and minutia
features. The three main finger print patterns are arches, loops, and whorls. By determining
which category a fingerprint falls into, a program may very quickly determine that two
fingerprints do not match. If the two prints have the same type of pattern, then minutia features
may be examined to provide a more accurate comparison. The three main features that are
examined at this level are ridge endings, short ridges, and bifurcations.

In order to capture a fingerprint for digital analysis, any one of a variety of methods can be
used. The optical method essentially uses a digital camera to take a picture of a fingerprint.
This results in a picture that can then be analyzed. Optical biometric fingerprinting can have a
few shortcomings, such as a difficulty in telling the difference between an actual finger and a
picture. This can sometimes allow such a system to be bypassed by showing a picture of a
fingerprint to the sensor.

Another method of biometric fingerprinting involves the use of piezoelectric transducers to

generate an ultrasonic image. This method transmits ultrasonic sound waves through the outer
skin layer, so it actually creates an image using the inner layer. The advantage conferred by this
technology is that it can result in a good image even if the fingerprint is dirty or damaged.

Capacitive biometric fingerprinting works by using the inner dermal layer as one capacitor
plate, the epidermis as a dielectric, and the sensor as the second plate. These sensors may use
either passive or active capacitance. The principle that they operate by is that there is a
difference in capacitance between ridge and valley portions of a fingerprint. Since the inner

22
dermal layer is used, this method also allows accurate readings regardless of the condition of
the epidermis.

What is AFIS?

An automated fingerprint identification system is a type of modern technology that is mostly

used by law enforcement agencies. The basic concept behind this type of computer system is to
match one set of fingerprints with existing fingerprints that are contained within a large
database. By using this technology, law enforcement officials can identify criminals, verify
identification, and preserve public safety.

While similar, an automated fingerprint verification system is not the same as an automated
fingerprint identification system. Automated fingerprint verification systems are used by
companies and individuals in order to protect secure data. By matching an authorized user's
fingerprints with those contained within a database, classified information can be obtained.
Recently, this technology has been utilized by car manufacturers and home security companies.

In most cases, an automated fingerprint identification system is used to capture criminals, but
this is not always true. Various countries around the globe have instilled government automated
fingerprint identification systems in order to identify benefit recipients, check passports, and
perform background checks. Almost every country has some type of fingerprint system in
place. The United States has an automated fingerprint identification system that is maintained
by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom,
Israel, Pakistan, Argentina, Turkey, Morocco, Italy, Chile, Venezuela, Australia, and Denmark
all have similar systems.

To enter a collection of fingerprints into an automated fingerprint identification system, a

technician can either scan fingerprints into the system, or create an impression of fingerprints
that are captured on film. Computer algorithms help to match fingerprints with those prints that
are already contained within a database.

Some countries use custom designed fingerprint software that cannot be used by any other
country. Therefore, these systems vary greatly from country to country. When it comes to
matching prints across country borders, the International Criminal Police Organization
(INTERPOL), has an automated fingerprint identification system that can be used to identify
criminals from all around the world.

What is fingerprint technology?

Fingerprint technology has come a long way from its humble beginnings. Many years ago,
matching a person's fingerprints to prints that were already on file was a tedious endeavor.
Today, thanks to modern technology, matching fingerprints is easier than ever. However, this
system is hardly perfect, since it is entirely possible that a criminal's fingerprints may not be on
file at all. In this instance, police investigative work is necessary in order to identify a criminal
of any kind.

What is fingerprint matching?

Fingerprint matching is the process of comparing sets of fingerprints associated with a crime
with copies of fingerprints that are already on file with a law enforcement agency. In years past,
the process of matching prints was a manual one that required careful scrutiny, and could be
very time-consuming. Today, computer technology has made it possible to access vast
databases of fingerprints and identify possible matches within a matter of minutes.

When it comes to fingerprint biometrics, there are two generally recognized classes or
categories. One is known as the minutiae-based approach. With this strategy, the fingerprint
matching is based on identifying characteristics of the prints that are less obvious than the more

23
pronounced traits. In theory, this process makes it possible to narrow the range of possible
matches, since it can eliminate consideration of prints that may share one or more major traits,
but are devoid of some of the secondary aspects that are required in order to verify a match.

The second approach to fingerprint matching is known as the correlation-based method. This
approach relies on not only the identifying characteristics of the print patterns, but also the
positioning of those traits within the pattern. This involves the establishment of what are known
as registration points along the body of the print, effectively providing a point of reference for
the comparison process.

While both methods of fingerprint matching are effective, there are some drawbacks associated
with each. In the case of the minutiae-based method, the quality of the prints must be quite high
in order to verify a match. Prints that are somewhat blurred are much more difficult to deal
with, since identifying and comparing secondary traits is less likely. At the same time, the
effectiveness of the correlation-based approach depends on the ability of the examiner to
establish a common registration point on the two sets of prints under comparison, and
compensate for any differences in the rotation or image quality of the prints.

Since the advent of the computer in the middle of the 20th century, many law enforcement
agencies have developed electronic fingerprint libraries that make it possible to quickly scan
and identify possible matches. Most systems today make it easy to scan a new set of prints,
then compare those prints with others found in the library. Using criteria built into the search
function of the fingerprint software, the system will quickly identify and display any of the
archived images that have a good chance of being a match. At that point, experts can perform
visual comparisons and refine the results provided by the software.

In many countries around the world, national databases make it possible to conduct fingerprint
matching using the resources created by law enforcement agencies throughout the country.
Some countries also share their databases with other nations, making it possible to conduct
fingerprint matching on an international scale. The end result of these efforts has been easier
identification of matches within a shorter period of time, allowing law enforcement agencies to
make arrests and thus solve crimes in less time.

Who are the latent print examiner?

A latent print examiner is a crime scene analyst who examines items for fingerprints and
compares any fingerprints found against a central database. Latent fingerprints, which are
impressions made by distinct ridges in the skin that become coated with sweat, are not often
visible to the naked eye. Without exception, every person's fingerprints are unique and appear
the same from 16 weeks of gestation until death unless severe injury occurs.

One of the main jobs of a latent print examiner is to utilize chemical and physical fingerprint
identification techniques. Another part of the job is fingerprint analysis. A fingerprint examiner
seeks to find the many distinct characteristics possessed by each and every fingerprint. Since
there are over 100 unique identifiers per fingerprint, even a partial print may be considered
fingerprint evidence. Latent prints may easily be smudged, wiped or affected by some course of
events, making it a necessity for a latent print examiner to have a keen eye and thorough
understanding of the methods and technology used in this field of criminology.

Latent fingerprints can be made visible in a number of ways. Dusting with pigment, the use of
chemicals such as ninhydron or cyanoacrylate vapors as well as inking are all valid methods
that a latent print examiner may use. The method of visualizing a fingerprint depends upon a
number of factors, including but not limited to the composition and sensitivity of the surface
the prints are on, climate and the size of the object that is being examined for fingerprints.

Once these fingerprints are identified and analyzed, the criminologist may then begin
comparing the fingerprints found to a database of prints, or prints taken from a person

24
suspected of committing the crime. Fingerprinting a suspect includes pressing their fingers in
ink and rolling them onto paper in a controlled, scientific manner. From there, the latent print
examiner can scan the suspect's fingerprints into a computer and compare them with the prints
found at a crime scene, thereby eliminating or confirming a suspect.

The qualifications for becoming a latent print examiner vary by location and place of
employment. Within the United States, for example, it is generally accepted that in order to
become a latent print examiner, a person must have achieved certification through the
International Association of Identification (IAI), which also has affiliates in more than a dozen
other countries. Although different locations have different requirements for employment,
certification through the IAI is accepted almost everywhere.

What is fingerprint dusting?

Fingerprint dusting is a procedure used by police officers at crime scenes in an attempt to identify
suspects. Dusting powder over commonly touched surfaces, or surfaces that are particularly relevant to
the crime, in order to find fingerprints might help officers figure out who is responsible for a crime. The
powder is necessary to see fingerprints, which are usually not visible to the naked eye.

The process of dusting for fingerprints is pretty well captured by the name. Police brush different
powders on surfaces where they are likely to find fingerprints. For example, if officers are investigating
a home break-in, they might use fingerprint dusting around the door or window where they suspect the
intruder entered. Fingerprints are most easily detected on smooth surfaces, because texture is likely to
interfere with the pattern and not result in a clean print.

Powders used in fingerprint dusting can vary but are generally mineral-based with a low reactivity. On
dark surfaces, a white powder, perhaps made of talc or other chalky materials, is used. Lighter surfaces
require a darker powder to make the fingerprints visible, so it could be made from graphite or charcoal.
Using powder that contrasts with the color of the surface is important because it ensures that officers
will be able to easily detect any prints.

Ridges in human skin are responsible for the existence of fingerprints. The patterns formed by these
ridges are unique to each individual, which allows police to identify suspects after fingerprint dusting.
Natural oils in the skin make the finger pads act somewhat like a stamp when they touch a surface.
These oils create an outline of the unique ridges on whatever surface a person touches, resulting in a
fingerprint. Fingerprint dusting powder sticks to the oils, highlighting the pattern of the ridges and
revealing the fingerprint.

25
LIE DETECTION
(POLYGRAPHY)

26
 REVIEW NOTES ON LIE DETECTION & POLYGRAPHY

I. INTRO TO LIE DETECTION

The idea of searching the truth and detecting lies began when the first people became aware
that there are deceivers among them. The practice of detecting deception has been a constant
effort way back before the first scientific instrument for detecting deception was invented.

In searching the truth, one must be aware of the nature of the lies, deceits and fraud. A lie is a
falsehood or a false statement made deliberately. It refers to anything that deceives or creates a
false impression. It could be something that gives a false or misleading impression with or
without intention to deceive.

Deceit is a dishonest practice. Also called deceitfulness, it refers to an act or practice of

deceiving or misleading somebody. It is something that is done to trick or mislead somebody.

Lies and deceits are therefore synonymous and they can be used interchangeably. Based on
their definitions, these are means of committing deception.

In attempting to discover lies and deceit, primitive people developed methods that are founded
on magic and mysticism. Since early people believed that their gods send them messages
through fire and water, they used these things as means to know the truth. This practice
became known as TRIAL-BY-ORDEAL. In some situations, faith in mysticism surprisingly
let innocent people go unharmed while guilty ones die or get seriously injured during their
ordeal.

Dr. Pedro Solis, in his book Legal Medicine provided a more elaborate classification of lie
detection methods available today.

Methods involving the use of scientific devices that record psycho-physiological responses
– these methods include:

Word Association Technique (WAT)

Psychological Stress Evaluation (PSE)

Polygraph Method (Polygraphy)

Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the inhibitor” such as:

Administration of “truth serum”

Narcoanalysis (also called Narcosynthesis)

Intoxication with alcohol

Hypnosis (hypnotic induction)

Scientific observation and interrogation

However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception not mentioned by
Solis. These include the ff:

Computerized Voice Stress Analysis

Brain Scanning

27
Iris Analysis

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

A REVIEW ON HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The human nervous system is composed of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral
nervous system. CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

The peripheral branch includes all nerve tissues outside the central nervous system. It is
responsible for providing sensory information to the CNS and carrying motor commands out to
the body’s tissues.

The peripheral branch has two sub-divisions - the somatic nervous system (SoNS) and the
autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SoNS controls voluntary motor commands, such as
moving muscles to walk or talk. On the other hand, the ANS controls involuntary motor
commands, such as digestion and heartbeat.

The ANS, which acts as a self-regulating (autonomic) response of the body, is further divided
into two branches: sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system (SyNS), also called fight or flight mechanism, increases alertness,
stimulates tissue, and prepares the body for quick responses to unusual situations.
Parasympathetic nervous system (PaNS), also called rest and repose system, conserves energy
and controls sedentary activities, such as digestion.

SyNS and PaNS act opposite each other. When a person is under the influence of physical
stimulus (exertion) or emotional provocation (such as excitement, fear and anger), the SyNS
dominates and overrides the PaNS. Once there is shift from SyNS to PaNS (or vice-versa),
there will be changes in:

pulse (heart beat)

blood pressure

breathing

response-time

voice

other physiological reactions

When the conditions of stress are no longer present, PaNS works to restore things to normal.
Thus, the parasympathetic branch is dominant when things are normal and the person is calm,
contented and relaxed.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LIE DETECTION

Primitive methods of detecting deception were usually in the form of torture and trial by ordeal.
Some authors take trial separately from ordeal. Trial by ordeal involved the practice of settling
a dispute using divine intervention or Judicium Dei (God’s judgment).

Ordeal refers to a form of antiquated trial rooted on the practice of referring disputes to God’s
judgment, determined either by lot or by certain trials. The following were the various forms of
ordeal practiced in different parts of the world:

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1. FIRE (or HEAT) ORDEAL: In this ordeal, the accused who claims that he is innocent is
required to walk barefoot over red hot coals (or over a burning material). If he is unharmed (or
he escaped unhurt), then his claim is deemed to be true. In other words, he is declared
innocent. Fire ordeal was allowed only to persons of high rank.

2. WAGER (OF BATTLE): Wager involves a pledge to engage in a battle, especially in

order to establish guilt or innocence by single combat.

3. ORDEAL BY DIVINATION: This ordeal was practiced in Burma. The two parties
involved in a dispute were given each candle. These candles of equal size were then ignited at
the same time while being held by the parties involved. The party holding the last candle to die
would be considered as the winner.

4. ORDEAL BY COMBAT (also known as Trial by Combat and Judicial Duel)

In combat ordeal, the judgment of God is the primary determining factor. The aggrieved party
is given the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a champion to fight for him.

5. BALANCE ORDEAL: This was practiced by the members of the Institute of Vishnu in
India. The accused person involved in the dispute would stand on one end of a balance. At the
other end, a counterbalance is positioned. The accused would then step-out of the scale and a
judge will deliver an exhortation to the balance. He goes back to the balance and if the balance
shows that he is lighter than before, he is considered innocent and thus consequently acquitted

6. RICE-CHEWING ORDEAL: This ordeal was practiced by the Indians. A type of rice
called sathee is prepared with various incantations. The accused is required to chew a handful
of sathee while facing the east direction. After a few moments, he must spit on a pea leaf. If
saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared a
liar.

7. BOILING WATER ORDEAL: The ordeal of boiling water, according to the laws of
Athelstan, the first king of England, consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling water, where the
hand had to be dipped as deep as the wrist.

8. COLD WATER ORDEAL: This was the usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a
“no-win” situation just like some other dangerous forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the accused
was put into a sack then thrown into an icy pond. If the accused sank this showed he was
innocent, but he might well drown anyway. If he floated, this was taken proof that he was
lying and he would be hanged.

9. RED WATER ORDEAL: Red water ordeal, also called sassy bark ordeal, was practiced
somewhere in Eastern Africa. After fasting for 12 hours, the accused is required to swallow a
small amount of rice. He is then immersed in dark colored water (water mixed with juice of
sassy bark) which is actually emetic. If the accused ejects all the rice, he is considered
innocent.

10. BIER ORDEAL: A bier is a table on which a casket or a corpse is placed. Bier ordeal was
practiced in England. It was based on the belief that the dead could point out their killer. The
accused is required to approach the bier. If the wound of the dead starts to bleed again, then the
murderer is near.

11. CORSNAED ORDEAL (also called BLESSED BREAD ORDEAL)

29
In this ordeal, a priest would place hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused while uttering
imprecations. If the accused

swallowed the blessed bread, he would be considered free from punishment.

12. EUCHARIST TEST: This ordeal was for the clergy and monks as practiced in Europe,
particularly by the Catholics. Eucharist is a ceremony in many Christian churches during which
consecrated bread and wine are consumed to commemorate the last meal of Jesus Christ with
His disciples before His death. Accordingly, when the accused takes the host and he is guilty,
God would smite him with sickness or death.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNS/SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION

A. VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION

These signs are based on the manner of answering questions by the subject during interview or
interrogation session.

Repetition of question

Incomplete statements or fragmented sentences

Overly polite

Swearing to the truthfulness of assertion

Vague response

Use of “I don’t remember…” or “Not that I remember…” expression

Assertiveness

Inconsistencies

Slip of the tongue

Tirades

Pauses

Speed of speech

B. NON-VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION

Emblems

Manipulators

Breathing

Sweating and flushed face

Dryness of the mouth

Frequent swallowing

Facial muscle twitching

Gaze aversion

30
Facial expressions

Fidgeting

These telltale signs of deception can be shown simultaneously or one at a time by a deceptive
suspect while being questioned. The manifestations depend on the degree and type of lie the
suspect is using.

TYPES OF LIES

Law enforcement and criminal investigation books classify lies in this manner:

Direct denial - a lie that results to emotional disturbance

Lie of omission - the type of lie commonly used because it is easy to tell

Lie of exaggeration - the type of lie used by a person who overplays what actually happened

Lie of minimization - involves acceptance of a person that something happened but downplays
the implication or seriousness of the offense.

Fabricated lie - also called lie of fabrication, is the type of lie that is most difficult to use

Red lie - sometimes called misinformation, is a lie in the form of information that is seemingly
valuable but is intended to destroy a political belief or ideology. Red lie is better known in
politics as propaganda.

Malicious lie - a chronic (constant) lie that is intended to mislead justice. It is usually in the
form of a pure dishonest statement for the purpose of obstructing justice.

TYPES OF LIARS

Panic liar - a person who panics when questioned about his involvement concerning a crime
but immediately denies the truth to avoid shame or humiliation that it might cause to his family.
A panic liar decides to circumvent the truth in order to avoid humiliating consequences of his
confession to himself or to his family.

Occupational liar - an individual whose job is to tell lies and deceive other people. One who
is being paid to tell lies. He is a practical liar - he will tell lies if doing it provides a higher pay-
off than telling the truth.

Tournament liar - a person who uses the act of lying to test his ability and prove to his self
that he is capable of deceiving the police or authorities. One who is gratified by telling lies to
mislead others. His view is that telling lies is one form of contest.

Ethnological liar - a person trained to lie. Members of intelligence agencies are good
examples of this category of liars.

Psychopathic liar - an individual who has no conscience thus capable of lying to the point of
causing death to other people.

Pathological liar - a sick person who tells lies simply because he cannot distinguish what is
right from what is wrong.

Black liar - one who enjoys pretending. A liar of this type is also known as hypocrite.

II. FUNDAMENTALS OF POLYGRAPH SCIENCE

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POLYGRAPHY or POLYGRAPH SCIENCE is the scientific method of detecting deception
using an instrument called polygraph. Some people consider polygraphy as the new name of
lie detection. However, strictly speaking, polygraphy is just a part of the broad field of lie
detection.

A POLYGRAPH is an instrument whereby multiple signals from the sensors are recorded on a
single strip of moving paper. A polygraph is a scientific instrument that simultaneously records
the changes in physiological processes of the human body.

In polygraphy, the SUBJECT refers to the person to be (or being) examined, usually a
suspected criminal. The subject is also called examinee.

The EXAMINER is the expert in polygraph science who uses polygraph instrument to verify
truthfulness of a subject’s statement or testimony. Other descriptions for the examiner are
polygraphist, forensic psychophysiologist (FP) and polygraph examiner (PE).

The REQUESTING PARTY refers to the person or persons who ask for the services of the
examiner to help verify the truthfulness of a subject’s statement or testimony. The requesting
party is usually the investigator of the case that requires the polygraph examination.

POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION is a form of PVE which involves the examination of a

subject using the polygraph instrument that officially covers the moment the subject enters the
polygraph suite until he leaves. It may, however, include the time when the examiner
officially accepted the case and commenced gathering information from the requesting party.

POLYGRAPH TEST is the specific part of the polygraph examination that transpires from the
moment the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is turned off. It is the actual test
whereby the reactions of the subject on a specific stimulus are being recorded using the
polygraph instrument.

PRE-TEST INTERVIEW is the first official stage of polygraph examination whereby the
subject is informed about the nature of the examination including his rights in relation to the
examination and conditioned to take the test. During pre-test interview, the subject is
conditioned for the next stage of examination known as instrumentation.

INSTRUMENTATION is the stage of polygraph examination whereby polygraph instrument

is actually used while asking questions to the subject. This is also known as the actual test. It
encompasses chart collection and chart analysis.

POST-TEST QUESTIONING refers to the questioning that concludes the examination, either
in the form of post-test interview or post-test interrogation.

What are the objectives of using Polygraph services?

In crime detection and investigation, the common objectives of using polygraph services are the
following:

1.To ascertain if a person (witness/suspect) is telling the truth

2. To locate the fruit/s and/or instruments of the crime under investigation

3. To obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offense

4. To locate the whereabouts of suspects and wanted persons

5. To identify suspects, witnesses, and/or victims involved in the criminal/civil case.

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6. To recover valuable information from reluctant witnesses

7. To eliminate innocent suspects

What are the principal uses of polygraph examination?

There are 5 main uses of polygraph examination.

1. Aid in investigation of criminal and civil cases

2. Speeds up investigation process
3. Eliminate innocent suspects
4. Pre-employment screening
5. Personnel test for honesty

What are the limitations of the polygraph instrument?

The polygraph instrument is -invaluable investigative aid but never a substitute for an
investigation.

-
not a lie detector, it is only a scientific diagnostic instrument.
-
not capable of determining facts, it only records responses of
the subject.
- not 100% accurate or 100% reliable, its accuracy depends on
the examiner’s competency.
Most authors explain that polygraph examination progresses in 4 phases. The 4 stages of
polygraph examination are as follows:

1. Preliminary Preparation
2. Pre-test Interview
3. Instrumentation
4. Post-test Questioning
The main part of the polygraph examination is conducted by attaching the polygraph
instrument to three or more different body parts of the subject. The purpose is to collect
physiological data from at least three systems in the human body. Convoluted rubber tubes are
placed over the examinee's chest and abdominal area to record respiratory activity. Two small
metal plates are attached to the fingers to record sweat gland activity. A blood pressure cuff, or
similar device is wrapped over the arm to record cardiovascular activity.

Preliminary preparation basically involves the process of interviewing the requesting party.
The questioning is done by the polygraph examiner. In most criminal cases, the requesting
party is the investigator on case.

After the examiner’s interview with the requesting party, initial questioning of the subject (pre-
test interview) takes place. The examiner interviews the person to be tested for purposes of
gathering additional information thus finalizing the formulated questions that will be asked
during the actual test.

The instrumentation stage involves the actual test. At this stage, questioning of the subject by
the examiner must occur inside the polygraph room. Before actual questioning begins, the
examiner attaches first the polygraph sensors to the subject’s body. Polygraph sensors must be
properly fastened to various body parts such that subject’s physiological reactions towards the
examiner’s questions will be detected and recorded for evaluation later on.

TASKS OF THE FORENSIC PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIST (EXAMINER)

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Interview - gather facts/information about the case by asking questions

1. Profile the subject

2. Formulate polygraph questions
3. Prepare and set-up the polygraph instrument
4. Conduct pre-test questioning
5. Condition the subject to be tested
6. Collect polygrams
7. Analyze and interpret polygraph tracings
8. Conduct post-test questioning

PURPOSES OF THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW

To psychologically condition the subject for the test

To determine whether or not the subject is fit to take the test

To have an opportunity to observe and evaluate the subject thus determine the best type of
techniques applicable on the case

To enable the examiner establish rapport with the subject

To provide opportunity for the examiner to determine whether the subject voluntarily submits
himself to the test thus satisfy the requirement of Miranda Doctrine (if the subject is the
criminal suspect in the case that caused the examination)

CHART MARKING – Chart marking is the process of writing standard and customized signs
on the paper chart to denote the subject’s reactions and other circumstances that occur during
the actual test. Marking the paper chart while the pens are writing on it will facilitate the
evaluation and interpretation of the subject’s reactions.

CHART PROBING – Chart probing refers to the process of showing the polygram to the
subject and providing brief explanation on the dissimilarities of responses. The main purpose
of this is to determine the true cause of recorded responses and to clarify confusion or
misunderstanding that might have been caused by vague questions.

CHART INTERPRETATION – Chart interpretation is the process of reading and

deciphering the meaning of graphical responses of the subject based on the chart tracings.

MAJOR PARTS OF POLYGRAPH:

PNEUMOGRAPH - Records breathing or respiratory pattern. Tubes are fastened in the chest
(P1) and abdomen (P2). As the subject inhale & exhale, the tube will expand and contract.

GALVANOGRAPH - Records the skin resistance to a very small amount of electricity

attached on the index and ring finger. It has a longer pen that Pneumo & Cardio (4-7inches).

CARDIOGRAPH - Records blood pressure and pulse rate Arm cuff is placed around the arm,
inflated between 60-80mm

Pressure is measured by Sphygmomanometer

Normal BP: 120/80 for adult

Normal heart beat: 72-80 per minute

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KYMOGRAPH - Referred to as Chart Drive Module. Pulls the chart paper at the rate of 6-12
in. per minute. Chart roll is 100 ft. long, 6-12 in. width

PERSONALITIES Behind LIE DETECTION:

DR. HANS GROSS – Stated that “a large part of the criminal work is nothing more than a
battle of lies”. Known as the “Father of Criminalistics”

ANGELO MOSSO – Developed the “SphygMOmanometer” designed to measure the flow of

blood while a person lies on his back in a prone position.

CASARE LOMBROSO – Developed the “Hydrosphymograph” which is the first instrument

to detect deception.

WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON – Known as the “Father of Modern Polygraphy”.

JOHN LARSON – Developed the first instrument that simultaneously records blood pressure,
pulse and respiration.

LEONARDE KEELER – Invented the “Keeler Polygraph” that records BP, pulse, respiration
& GSR.Designed the Kymograph built-in in the polygraph instrument.

VITTORIO BENUSSI – Demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns indicate deception.

HAROLD BURTT – Said that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
determining deception than in respiration.

LUIGI GALVANI – Developed the GSR or the galvanometer.

VERAGUTH – First to use the term “psychogalvanic reflex”.

JOHN REID – Developed the “reviewed control question”

Discovered the “guilt-complex test”

CLEVE BACKSTER – Developed the “Zone Comparison Test” –designed to disclose

outside issue.

RICHARD O. ARCHER – Founded the “Journal of Polygraph Science” – oldest polygraph

publications.

RICHARD I. GOLDEN – Two answers in control question technique; one is TRUTH and the
other is a LIE.

FRANCIS GALTON - Developed the “Word Association Test”.

ALLEN BELL - Developed the “Psychological Stress Evaluator”.

ANTON MESMER - First to introduce “hypnotism” as means of detecting deception.

Digested Reviewer LIE DETECTION AND INTERROGATION

Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception done with the aid of a polygraph
machine.

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Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph = (writing
chart) is a scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in blood pressure,
pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a
lying subject when being questioned.
Thomas Jefferson (first man to used the word “polygraph”)
Polygraph machine is a sensitive machine which is likened or compared to an X-ray, which
requires proper interpretation for validation and its accuracy is said to be directly proportional
to the knowledge, skills, education, desire, competency and integrity of the operator. Hence,
the attitude of “let’s put them on the lie box” should be firmly discouraged. There are three
fundamental bases on the polygraph test and they are:
1. Mechanical Leg basic Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic record
containing reliable information regarding physiological responses of the subject.
2. Physiological Leg basic Premise = that among the physiological responses that may
be recorded are those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific
nervous component system.
3. Psychological Leg Basic Premise = states that specific nervous system component
whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary and
emotional processes of the individual who is continuously attempting concealment of
deception especially if that individual has something at stake and the prevailing
circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to deception is quite possible although
undesirable.

Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually given
with some justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low
pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle
of the diastolic stem.
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin changes
resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also referred to a
Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be beyond a
persons defensive power.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the time he
was conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their offspring
through the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to divulge information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading
impression with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an organism
or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to an
obstacle or trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a deviation
from the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which reach an
organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the
contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.

Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an earliest
known reference to a method of detecting deception.

36
Early methods of Detecting Deception
Trial by Combat
One of the ancient practice of detecting deception whereby an accuser will fight
against the accused or will hire a champion to fight the accused in a duel, whosoever lost the
duel, will be adjudged guilty.

Methods of Ordeal
1. Red hot Iron Ordeal (Accused touch his tongue to an extremely hot metal
for nine (9) times.)
2. Boiling Water Ordeal (Practice by Borotso Native in Bengal India)
3. Balance Ordeal
4. Rice Chewing Ordeal
5. The red Water Ordeal
6. The Donkey’s tail ordeal
7. The ordeal of the axe etc.

Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception

1. Polygraphy test
= aid and not a substitute or replacement for investigation.
= not admissible in court to prove the guilt of the subject.
= cannot be conducted if insufficient amount of information were gathered.
= minors, mentally-ill or retarded are exempted.
= cannot be conducted to unfit subject.
= polygraph machine is not a lie detector machine.
= the accuracy of the machine is directly proportion to the credibility of the
examiner.
= cannot be used for diagnostic purposes.
2. Use of Alcoholic Beverages
= the subject is made to drink hard liquor in such a mount that would make him
lose control or inhibitions.
= information gathered through this method is not admissible in court.
3. Narco-Analysis Test/Administration of Truth Serum
= use of narcotic or anaesthetic drug.
= drugs injected hypodermically or intravenously.
= dangerous and not admissible.
4. Word Association Test
= group of words, objects or photographs will be presented.
= time pressure.
This was first devised by F. Galton in 1870 and later was modified and
improved by others such as Munsterberg, Orosland, Luria and Jung. In the Galton’s
technique there are two main criteria for detecting indications of deception and these
are: (1) Incriminating answer words, and (2) Delayed answer.

5. Use of Hypnotism
= information gathered through this method is also not admissible in court.

Development of the Polygraph

A. Cardiosphygmograph
a. Cesare Lombroso (1895)
Credited to be the first to conceived the idea of utilizing scientific lie detection

b. Angelo Mosso (1895)

Utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the importance of fear as a strong
influence to deception
c. William M. Marston (1915)
37
 He made used of a sphygmomanometer and focus on the importance of the
Systolic Blood pressure. He also devised the discontinuous technique in
questioning.
d. John A. Larson (1921)
Devised the so-called “Bread Lie Detector”, a scientific instrument capable of
simultaneously recording changes in blood pressure, pulse beat and respiration.
B. Galvanograph
a. Sticker
Works on the galvanograph component and study the influence of the sweat glands
to skin resistance.
b. Veraguth
Formulated the term Psycho-galvanic skin reflex following the study of sticker
c. Richard O. Arthur
The person who developed a polygraph machine with two galvanic skin resistance.

C. Pneumograph
a. Vittorio Bennussi
Focus on the formulation of the Inhalation and Exhalation ratio.
b. Harold Burtt
Considered respiration as a weak basis in determining deception and incorporate
the systolic blood pressure to respiration.

D. Keymograph

Leonarde Keeler
Developed the kymograph machine and the Keeler’s Polygraph in the year 1926
as one of the great advancement to the development of the polygraph machine.

OTHER PERSONALITIES:
John E. Reid – Developed the Reid Polygraph with an incorporation of muscular resistance
compare to the Keelers and the Stoelting. Also developed the SAT test and Control Question
Test.
Francis Galton = Formulated the Word Association test.
Cleve Backster = Formulated the Numerical Scoring on the polygraph chart and standardizing
quantitative polygraph technique.
Sir James Mackenzie = a heart specialist who published in two British journal the machine he
used in his work and named it “ INK POLYGRAPH”

The Major Components and its Parts:

The Polygraph machine is basically composed of three major components serving as the
detecting mechanism and five major sections by adding kymograph component and pen and
inking system to serve as the recording mechanism.
1. Pneumograph – designed to detect changes in respiration of the subject consisting
of the Chest and the Abdominal Assembly with sub part:
a. Rubber Convulated Tube – a 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the
body of the subject.
b. Beaded Chairn – used to lock the rubber convulated tube.
c. Recording pen unit – consisting of two 5 inches recording pen
d. Resonance Control Unit
e. Centering knob
f. Sensitivity knob

2. Cardiosphygmograph – Designed to detect changes in blood pressure and pulse

beat of the subject
a. Blood pressure Cuff – attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above
the brachial artery.

38
 b. Sphygmamonometer – used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to
the system. Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
c. Resonance Control Unit
d. Recording pen unit – five (5) inches length
e. Air Pump – designed to supply air to the system
3. Galvanograph – to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject.
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.1 finger electrode plate and retainer bond – attached to the left index and
ring finger of the subject.
a.2 conecting plug – designed to attached the system to the machine
b. Recording pen unit – usually 7 inches
c. Amplifier Unit – designed to support the galvanometer in converting
electrical to mechanical current.
Kymograph – serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine. The one
that records the different trracing by driving the paper out under a recording pen unit.
a. Chart – (approximately 100 ft.) rolled graph paper composed of twelve
division in one minutes run designed to measure the rate of various body
functioning.
b. Cutter bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
c. Rubber roller – the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
d. Pen table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
e. Paper rail guide – serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the
chart paper or to ensure the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous motor = to run the chart paper at the uniform rate speed
regardless of the voltage change.
Pen and inking system = the one that provides for the permanent record of the test.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test:

Initial Interview
Conducted by an investigator handling the case, designed for the obtaining of
pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the test. This is falling short
of the basic process of investigation. All information gathered by the
investigator will be copied furnished to the investigator. As a rule no polygraph
test can be conducted if there is insufficient amount of data gathered.
1. Pre test Interview
An interview conducted by the polygraph examiner designed to prepare or
condition the subject for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30
minutes. There are four basic things being undertaken in this stage.
a. Informing the subect of His Basic Constitutional Rights
a.1 Right to remain silent
a.2 Right to be informed of the nature and the cause of his
accusation
a.3 Right to council
a.4 Right against self-incrimination
b. Taking of the subject consent
c. Taking of the subject personal data sheet
d. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological
suitability to undergo the test
d.1 the subject should stop from smoking at least 2 hours prior to
the test
d.2 the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the
test
d.3 the subject if female should not be: pregnant, having
menstruation or not wearing tight shirt or girdle.
d.4 the subject should not be hungry
d.5 the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
d.6 the subject should not be highly nervous. Etc.

39
 2. Actual Test
Is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph examiner:
        Condition of the room
1. It should be spacious for two
2. Well lighted
3. Well ventilated
4. Sound Proof
5. Not decorated

3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation

Is an interview or an interrogation administered by a polygraph examiner after
the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. An interview
is conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response and very cooperative
to the examiner. An interrogation is conducted when the subject shows sign of
deception and being uncooperative to open an information.

Types of Reaction
1. Internal Reaction – reaction of the internal organs which may not be readily
noticeable.
2. External Reaction – rreaction of an individual which are observable and which can
either be:
a. Facial
b. Postural
General Rules in formulating Test Questions:
1. Questions must be simple and direct
2. They must not involve legal terminologies
3. They must be as simple and as short as possible
4. Answerable by Yes or No.
5. They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
6. Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the subject
can easily understand.
7. They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part of the
subject.
8. They must refer to one offense only
9. They must refer to one element of the offense.
10. They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

Types of Questions
1. Irrelevant – questions pertaining to the basic background of the subject and are
generally not related to the case in issue but are designed to obtain or established
the individual norms of the subject.
= answerable by “yes”.
= designed to absorb the initial response as to the question sequence
commence and to produce little or no emotion change in the subjects
normal reaction under testing condition.
2. Relevant
= the primary of key questions asked by the examiner in order to resolve
specific subject matter.
=questions related to the issue which may either be:
a. Strong Relevant – directly proving the guilt of the subject
- questions with intense and specific relation to the crime or problem
being considered.

40
 - Constructed to test for direct involvement only and specifically to
produced emotional response in guilty subject.
b. Weak Relevant – indirectly proving the guilt of the subject and is further
sub-divided into three:

b.1 Knowledge – questions given for the purposes of determining

information known or the subject possess.
b.2 Evidence Connecting – designed to obtain link between the subject and
the crime.
b.3 Sacrifice – questions designed to determine truthfulness of the subject.
c. Control Questions – questions that either relevant or irrelevant designed to
established response from an innocent subject.
- further classified into primary based on a known lie and
secondary control question.
Types of Test
1. General Question Test
= consist of series of relevant and irrelevant questions in a planned order.
2. Peak of Tension test
= consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of the
asking of a series of question in which only one has any bearing upon the matter
under investigation.
= padding questions before the after the relevant questions.
3. Card test
= the subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards face down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of the
cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with
the instruction that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being
shown to him is the one he has seen earlier.

4. Guilt Complex Test

= used primarily for overly responsive subjects.
= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being investigated
and make him believe it is real.
= The purpose is to compare the response with those response made concerning
the actual matter under investigation
5. Silent Answer test
= Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only
answer in his mind.
6. Yes test
7. No test
8. Guilt complex test
9. Mixed test = consist essentially of an arrangement of the first and third test
questioned.
= administered response on earlier test or to compare the degree of
reaction between relevant and control questions.

41
QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT

42
 QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
I. GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible,

partially visible that may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in
the form of pencil, ink writing, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or
photographed; to maps or plans; to seals, plates or even stones on which inscriptions are
cut or engraved. In this plural form, “documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title,
letters, receipts, and other written instruments used to prove a fact.

 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson”, or example (in Medieval

Latin “instruction, or official paper”), OR
 French word “docere”, means to teach.

According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):

1. Formal piece of writing
2. Object containing information
3. Computer file

As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:

1. Record information in or on media
2. Support a claim with evidence

B. QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under
scrutiny.
C. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be
true, and are contested either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity or
origin. It may be a deed, contract, will, election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas,
application form, check writer, certificates, etc.
D. DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy
over the document, and strictly speaking this is true meaning.
In this text, as well as through prior usage, however, “disputed document” that is under
special scrutiny.
Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or the circumstance
and story regarding its production arouse suspicion as to its genuineness or it may
adversely scrutinize simply because it displeases someone. Further, it is said to be
questioned when it is disputed or origin, as to the material used in their production, and
as to its relation in some other document.
E. STANDARD a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT- Are condensed and compact set of
authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper, should contain a cross section of the
material from a known source.
“Standard” in questioned documents investigation, we mean those things
whose origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples
to compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consist of the known
handwriting of a person such case, “standard” has the same meaning as is understood by
the word “ specimen” of hand writing.
F. EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize
known material. Standard is the older term.

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 G.HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely written and signed by
one person: also known as a holograph. In a number of Jurisdictions a holographic will
can be probated without anyone having witnessed its execution.
H.REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material complied and organized by the document
examiner to assist him in answering special questions. Reference collections of
typewriting, check writing specimens, ink, pens, pencils and papers are frequently
maintained.
II. LEGAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENTS
A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:
1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by
which a right is established or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument
executed by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidence or set forth.
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical
embodiment of information or ideas: e.g. a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of
account, a blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).

B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT – notarized by a notary public or competent public official
with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT – issued by the government or its agent or its officers
having the authority to do so and the officers, which is accordance with their
creation, they are authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their
duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT - executed by a private person without the intervention of
the notary public or of any person legally authorized, by which documents, some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidence or set forth (US vs. Orera, 11 Phil.
596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT – executed in accordance with the Code of
Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commerce rights or
obligations.

N.B. – a private document may become a public or official document

when it partakes the nature of a public or official record. So if the falsifications
committed on such document that is, when it is already a part of the public
record, falsification of public or official document is committed. However, if such
private document is intended to become a part of the public record, even though
falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public document is committed.
III. WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS – based on some
Supreme Court Ruling.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority
( People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People
vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not
documents but are mere merchandise, ( People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 94).

IV. CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS.

1. Documents with questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

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 a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL – will entirely written in the handwriting of the
testator.
b. NOTARIAL WILL – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public
with 3 witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of the typewriting.
a. With a view of ascertaining their source
b. With a view of ascertaining their date
c. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations
or substituted pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some person
through handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscription, registrations, and miscellaneous writings.

DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. ADDITION – any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation
may referred to as addition.
B. CONCLUSION – A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by
logical, common-sense reasoning in accordance with established rules of laws. The
documents examiner’s conclusion, in legal term is referred to as “opinion”
C. DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them.
Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts, but
today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely
the examination of handwriting.
D. ERASURE – The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an
erasure. It maybe accomplished by either of two means. A chemical eradication in
which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink
eradicator); and an abrasive erasure is where the writing is effaced by rubbing with a
rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp with implement.
E. EXAMINATION – It is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and
with questioned documents, It is the process necessary to discover the facts about them.
Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual photographic chemical,
ultra violet and Infra-red examination.
F. EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to described a witness who by reason of his
special training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or
a certain aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action. Hi purpose is to
interpret technical information in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in
administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.
G. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION EXPERT. A common name for the
document examiner.
H. IDENTIFICATION (Identity) –as used in this text it is the state of being identical or
absolutely the same as in similarity of source or authorship of the questioned document
and the standard document.
I. INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION – The term “insertion” and “interlineations”
include the addition of writing and other material between lines or paragraphs or the
addition of whole page to a document.
J. NON-IDENTFICATION (Non-dentity) – as used in this text it means that the source
of authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens is different.
K. OBLITERATION – The blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original
invisible to as an addition.

45
 L. OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner’s conclusion.
Actually in court, he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates the reason for
arriving at his opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are used
synonymously.
M. QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability of a document
examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that
he is qualified in his field.

II. RATIONALE
Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific
Comparison” which means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification
or forgery lies on the availability of known standards for comparison. After thorough
comparison, the following principle of identification is applied.

“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically

oriented characteristic of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their
occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted for differences, it may be
concluded that they are same in their characteristics attributed to the same cause.”

III. DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration
or obliteration of documents.
Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents said that an
intelligent police investigation can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful
inspection of a document with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in determining the author
of writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.

IV. FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION
A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
1. Examinations of signatures and initials
2. Examinations of anonymous letters
3. Hand printing examinations
B. Examinations of Typewriting and typeprints.
C. Examination of Inks
D. Examinations of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
V. DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

46
 A. OBJECT- To furnish the investigator in the field with sufficient background
information concerning document examination.
B. VALUE-
1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ
one or more documents in furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against government, documents often play an
important part in proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual
may show that:
a. He committed the crime.
b. He had knowledge of the crime.
c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

C. PURPOSE- A document may be examined to know the following:

a. Identity of the author.
b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.

VI. THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION.

A. FIRST- ASCERTAIN THE FACTS: to select “QUESTIONED”,”DENIED” OR

“ADMITTED”,”AUTHENTIC” and “DOUBTFUL” documents.
1. Concerning the Document in Questioned.
a. Is only one signature in questioned?
b. Is any part of the document in question?
c. Is the date of the document is questioned?
d. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in questioned? Etc.
2. Regarding the Standards:
a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for
comparison submitted. If there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
b. Determined whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can
be built for admitting them in evidence.
B. SECOND – ANALYZED THE DETAILS. Synthesize the elements, date,
circumstances, conditions, technical problems and the like.
1. The examiner after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the
circumstances of the document in questioned, the conditions of an alleged writer, or of
any condition that may have affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part
of the technical problem with the document that is submitted to the expert.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows,
such as; was the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting
on bed, lying on his back or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a
moving automobile or while having a drink at the bar.
C. THIRD – QUALIFY THE CASE:
1. How much time is needed for the examination?
2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to
make special photo-enlargement for proper examinations?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it
advisable to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reason on which the
opinion is based, especially in court.

VII. SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

A. Analysis (Recognition) – properties or characteristics, observe or measured.

47
 B. Comparison – Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought
analysis are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation – Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each
have a certain value for identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The
weight or significance of each must therefore be considered.

VIII. CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

A. Accuracy – Correspondence between results obtained and the truth.
B. Precision - Measures of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or
experimentation.

In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic facts and then

reason carefully and logically from these facts according to established and recognized rules
in order to form an opinion or conclusion as to whether a questioned signature/handwriting
is genuine or forged.

IX. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATIONS OF DOCUMENTS – It is the initial

examination conducted on a document to determine whether it is genuine or not. It is
not a misnomer, for in reality it consists of painstaking analysis more than looking at a
document and expressing an off-hand opinion.
A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT:
1. Ensures preparedness;
2. Avoidance of delay; and
3. Ensures success of the case.
B. Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of
questioned documents. Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they
appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which ma have been an outline for the
signature of other writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed from on the back of the sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Is the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in an way, and if so, for what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and
alterations/substitutions of any kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by
transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the documents all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the
typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs or pages written on a
different typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size, position, and arrangement
of matters with original letterheads?

48
 21. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing and
opening of envelopes have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet place
above the paper examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal and
is it made in proper sequence?

C. Who Conduct the Preliminary Examination? – it should be conducted by the

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT.
D. Who is a Questioned Document Expert? A questioned Document Expert is one who has:
1. Attained the appropriate education and training;
2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document
examinations; and
3. A board experience in handling questioned document cases.
4. Testify in court
E. REASON FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:
1. Assurance of preparedness
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently,
they do not possess the knowledge of the documents expert’s ability of the various
method that exist for determining forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.
F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is
not based on through scientific examination.
G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINION- it has happened in some cases that an off-
hand opinion, has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer was given a chance to
escape.
X. INSTRUMENT AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
EXAMINATIONS
A. MAGNIFYING LENS – bank personnel and other people involved in currency
examinations usually use and ordinary hand-lens; the maximum diameter of which is
four inches, and this appears big with its wide frame it has a magnifying power of two
times the original only. Magnifying lenses of five times or more magnifying power,
with built-in-lighting are more useful.
B. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image form by casting a shadow, usually in the hands,
upon a rightful surface of screen.
C. STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – a tri-dimensional (3D)
enlargement is possible.
D. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) – those used for
signatures and type writings.
E. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck Lamp) – used for
controlled illumination; needed in sidelight examination wherein light is place at a low-
angle in a position oblique to plan or document.
F. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device where light comes from beneath or
behind glass on document is placed.
G. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP - this is usually used in the detection of counterfeited bills
but can actually be used to detect security features of qualified documents.
H. INFRARED VIEWER – primarily used to decipher writings in a charred document.
I. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.

XI. TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUEATIONED DOCUMENTS:

49
 A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – any examination or study which is made with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with
low and high power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-
lift in signature analysis.
With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in the decipherment of
erasures, some minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye and the
sequence of entries done by different writing instruments.
B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – in this examination, the document is
viewed with the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.
Document are subjected to this type of examination to determine the presence of
erasures, matching of serrations and some other types of alteration.
C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION – an examination with the illumination so
controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very
low angle. Decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced
forgery, embossed impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examination.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION – This type of examination is very essential in
every document examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.
E. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION – Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in
the wave lengths just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These
visible rays react on some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon
known as FLOURESCENCE.
This type of examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been warmed
up in order to give a maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-
violet light should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid fading of some writing
ink and typewriter ribbon.
The exposure of a document to ultra-violet light is useful when it consists of
several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and intensity of
fluorescence reaction is very apparent in case of substituted page. Mechanical and
chemical erasures will certainly change the reflectivity and fluorescence of the area
affected.
F. INFRARED EXAMINATION – This examination of documents employs invisible
radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually
recorded on a specially sensitized photographic emulsion.

XII. PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN QDE:

1. Serve as record of the initial condition of a disputed document;

2. Make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. Enlarge a writing in question so that every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly
and properly interpreted whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery.
4. Enable any number of accurate reproductions of document, thus affording unlimited
opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners, which
would not be possible by using the document alone;
5. Allow cutting part as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparisons;
6. Can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes,
which may otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted;
7. Can show very clearly and erasures by abrasions made by ordinary rubber eraser and it
can record in permanent form with the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens
and plate and inclined at just right angle of reflection so as to show differences in the
reflected light from different portions of the paper surface; and
8. With transmitted light, photographs is useful in:
a. Examination of watermarks
b. Determining the identity, or the differences in paper by showing arrangements
of the fibers and the markings of the wire gauze and dandy roll
c. Showing the continuity of strokes and

50
 d. Determining retouching or patching of a writing by showing clearly the presence
of added ink film and the uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.

XIII. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATION:

A. ERASURES – One of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not
an erasures was actually made on a document. In cases like this, the following
examinations are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with light striking the surface at
a sharp angle, and observation under the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in most instances not the
slightest semblance of a stain remains.
B. INTENDED WRITING – Intended writing is a term usually applied to the partially
visible depressions appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the
visible writing appears. These depressions or indentation are due to the application of
pressure on the writing instrument and would appear as a carbon copy of a sheet of
carbon paper had been properly inserted. Indentation may also appear on a blank sheet
of paper if such is used as a backing sheet while typing out a message on a typewriter.
Methods of examination are:
1. Physical methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost
horizontally over the surface of the paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the document.
C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER – A piece of paper maybe subjected to the action
of a limited amount of heat, causing it to become scorched and retaining a certain
amount of its identity or it maybe subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and
losing its identity. However, if the combustion is incomplete, a certain amount of
success maybe realized provided the pieces are large enough to forma coherent
message.
Of primary importance is the proper packing and shipping of this type of
evidence. The pieces should be placed between layers of cotton and ship in a strong,
rigid box, exercising every precaution to avoid damage in transit. It is believed best not
to spray or moisten the evidence with water or any other liquid for shipping purposes.
The following methods maybe applied to decipher the original message contained
thereon:
1. Photographic methods, using various types of filters and different angles of
illumination may determine the writing contained thereon without changing the
appearance of the charred fragments.
2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing charred pieces with
solutions of different chemical reagents.
3. Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred paper to remain in
contact with the emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two weeks.
D. ADDING MACHINES – The construction of an adding machine differs greatly from
the typewriter but the methods and principles of identification are related.
Manufacturers used different types of numerals and from time to time change their
design. The spacing between columns is also not standardized for all machines. Those
factors form the basis of determining the make of the machine and for estimating the
period in which it was built. Another kind of approach is the ribbon impression, for the
ribbon is made and operates very similarly to the typewriter.

Adding machines are not all alike and technical case study
leads to the discovery of identifying factors.

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XIV. HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY
EVIDENCE:
1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed and deposited in
court or with the attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it should be
kept, UNFOLDED AND IN A SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR
FOLDER. This is true not only for the disputed documents, but for many other
important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right after the document becomes disputed, or questioned, it
is important to make not only the usual photo static copy (Xerox), but also a proper
photograph or photo enlargement, done if possible by the document expert or under
the supervision of the document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often necessary for the lawyer or court
to handle repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of
handling and working with the original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document, can
change the physical condition of the case. For example, touching with wet hands or
fingers can create smearing in the ink, pointing with a pencil can leave marks that
create a suspicion of previous pencil marks, or experiments as proof of attempted
forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, can cause slight
damage which although it can not be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks
under the microscope or on the enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the old-
fashioned ink test, which was used to determine the age of the ink writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of a
chemist, or in court, or in front of both parties involved the case.
B. DO’s and DON’T in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF
DOCUMENTS
1. “DO’S”
a. Take disputed papers to Document Examiners Laboratory at the First Opportunity.
b. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelope or
evidence preserver.
2. ”DON’T’S”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps,
sticker, write on, or otherwise alter any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case on
grounds of interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long time.
e. Do not marked disputed documents (either by consciously writing instruments or
dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or
punching for filing purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests; do
not treat or dust for latent finger prints before consulting a document examiner.
C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS:
1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and transporting them to the
laboratory requires extra-ordinary care. With forethought and caution they can be
brought from the distant fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found whenever possible.
When the fragments are not packed tightly, they should be padded with lightweight
absorbent cotton. If jarring the box must be kept to a minimum.

52
 3. Thus every precaution must be take in handling and transporting the charred residue in
order to prevent the large pieces from becoming unnecessarily and badly broken. The
fragment must be held firmly without crushing and prevent movement or shifting when
finally packed in a sturdy container.
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION:

HANDWRITING – It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as

whole, combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by
long, continued painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
I. KINDS OF WRITING:
A. CURSIVE – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.
B. Script – separated or printed writing.
C. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:
A. In Wignore’s Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of
bodily movements which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits,
reacting from fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the
formation of these muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost
automatic succession of acts stimulated by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the
other person cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular
combination from the habit of the first writer.

Is handwriting/signature identification an “extra science”? – In the

hand of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions,
identification by means of handwriting/signature is certain. Proper
conditions include.

1. sufficient questioned writing

2. sufficient known writing
3. sufficient time
4. use of scientific instruments

III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING:

The impulse to form a letter begins in the brain’s writing center in the cortex.
This center is skin to brain areas control visions, hearing, talking and walking, guides the
muscle as they weave the complex movements that make the words. Since writing in the
mind, emotion and attitudes both path of the mind influence how we write just as they
influence how we walk and talk.
In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the
paper, the directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the
nature of tie writer’s nervous organization occur during the act or writing.
This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finger movement
involved in handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased as
in a graphic, one loses the ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball
pen or pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols
and words can be said to emanate from its cortical center.

Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:

1. Extensor muscles – push up the pen to form the upward strokes.
2. Flexor muscles which push the pen to from the downward strokes.

53
 Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing – those which
operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which
the various muscles used in writing work together to produce written form is known as
motor coordination.
IV. VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING
A more or less definite patter for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the hand
does not always produce a stereotyped duplicate of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is
not an instrument of precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual
operation to be absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of permanship, the
less the variations there will be in the form of individualize letters as well as in the
writing as a whole.
A. CAUSES OF VARIATION:
1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation’s, emotion and
deception.
3. Position of letter – all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact
of a different position especially in combination with another and particular letter, may
modify any of them in some way or another.
B. IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly
important element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its
nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact
quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly
duplicated in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible
and this multitude of possible variations when combined is what constitutes
individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size,
lateral spacing and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation is genuine
writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care giver to
the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.

“The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to

the fact that the evidence of actual forgery is executed on the ground
that there is variation in genuine writing.”

V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
B. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
C. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
D. In the course of trial and error, modification are made, simplification and elaborations,
addition and omissions occur.
1. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviation from
the standard letter forms or school model, and becomes his personal habits.
2. Although thousands learn the same system and that the natural result is identity, but facts
show that it is not because those who were taught the same system or school copy a
class of writers, but such impairs does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity.
3. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues until each writer in the way that
seems best and easiest him.
VI. SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) – refers to the standard of handwriting
instruction taught in particular school. Classes of copybook depend on the standard
school copy adopted by a writer.

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 A. SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting:
1. Old English round hand – in fact an Italian hand popular in 1840.
2. Modified round hand – early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and
Scriners copybook – 1840-1860.
3. Spencerian – there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And
a general tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were
very ornate – 1860-1890.
4. Modern Vertical writing 1890-1900.
5. The arm movement writing – the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone
is especially emphasized.

Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems
developed. This is characterized by free movement. And the forms adopted are best suited
to easy rapid writing. These are the Zaner and Blozer system of arm movement writing and
the Palmer system of American arm movement. The last great revolution in American
handwriting was the adoption of vertical writing which was in fact a reversion to the old
system of slow but legible writing. The connecting stroke is based on the small circle and is
the most distinctive “round hand” ever devised. It was very slow compared with writing
based on the narrow ellipse like the Spencerian in which all connections were almost
points instead of broad curves. Most commercial handwritings ten toward straight
connecting strokes and narrow connections.

B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

1. Palmer Copybook - commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.
2. D’Nealian Copybook - commonly used in the United States since to 1980.
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook

C. SISGIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis

in the Identification of Handwriting:
1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual
form or what are termed deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to
occur in different writings but such similarities exist only in letters which are
normal in form, the fact bears no significance.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class or genus or the
different does not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of writing have an
important bearing on the question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases,
the presence of European characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling
fact.

D. IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System of Writing) –

May point:
3. to the nationality of the writer.
4. to the system learned.
5. to the date when the writing was acquired and
6. to some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.

VII. TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND

EXAMINATIONS
A. ALIGNMENT – Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of individual
letters in words to the baseline. It is the alignment of words. The relative alignment of
letters.

55
B. ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and
changing direction before continuing.
C. ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the
bottom.
D. CHARACTERISTICS - any property or mark which distinguishes and in document
examination commonly called to as the identifying details.
E. COLLATION – side by side comparison; collation as used in this text means the critical
comparison onside by side examination.
F. COMPARISON – The act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the
element of one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
G. DISGUISED WRITING – A writer may deliverately try to alter his usual writing habits
in hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed
disguised writing.
H. DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.
I. FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is
copybook, elaborated, simplified or printed.
J. GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on
the bottom.
K. GESTALT – The German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good gestalt needs
nothing added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting
analysis that looks at handwriting as a whole picture.
L. GRAPHOANALYSIS – the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental strokes,
the curved and the straight strokes.
M. GRAPHOMETRY – analysis by comparison and measurement.
N. GRAPHOLOGY – the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a
person from the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of
handwriting, especially with reference to forgeries and questioned documents.
O. HANDLETTERING. Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately; also called handprinting.
P. LEFT-HANDED WRITING. See “wrong hand writing.”
Q. LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.
R. LINE DIRECTION – Movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight across
the page.
S. LINE QUALITY – the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending
strokes. There are two classes: Good Line quality and Poor Line quality. The visible
records in the written stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding the writing
instrument is characterized by the term “line quality”. It is derived from a combination of
actors including writing skill, speed rhythm, freedom of movements, shading and pen
position.
T. LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.
U. MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This
type of writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in
learning to write.
V. MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
W. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – Any study or examination which is made with the
microscope in other to discover minute details.
X. MOVEMENT – It is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors
which are related to the motion of the writing instrument skill, speed freedom, hesitation,
rhythm emphasis, tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is
move that is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.
Y. NATURAL WRITING – Any specimen of writing executed normally without any
attempt to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or execution.
Z. NATURAL VARIATION – These are normal or usual deviations found between
repeated specimens of any individual handwriting.
AA. PEN EMPHASIS – The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surfaces. When the pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with

56
 more rigid writing points heavy point emphasis can occur in writing w/out any evidence
of shading; the act intermittently forcing the pen against the paper with increase pressure.
BB. PEN HOLD – the place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at
which he holds it.
CC. PEN POSITION – relationship between the pen point and the paper.
DD. PEN PRESSURE – the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen
pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of average force involved in the
writing rather than the period increases.
EE. PRINTSCRIPTS – the creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
FF.PROPORTION or RATIO – the relation between the tall and the short letter is referred
to as to the ratio of writing.
GG. QUALITY – a distinct or peculiar character. Also “quality” is used in describing
handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement
itself.
HH. RHYTHM – the element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or
recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the
flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity,
alteration of movement.
II. SHADING – is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible
pen point or to the used of a stub pen.
JJ. SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABIT – any characteristic of handwriting that is
sufficiently uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the
identification.
KK. SIMPLIFICATION- eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook
model.
LL. SIZE – may refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.
MM. SKILL – in any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen or a
handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer’s proficiency; degree, ability, or skill
of a write proficiency.
NN. SLPOE/SLANT – the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the
baseline. There are three classes:
1. Slant to the left;
2. Slant to the right; and
3. Vertical slant.
OO.SPEED WRITING – the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper.
PP. SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING – Not everyone writes at the same rate so that
consideration of the speed of writing may be a significant identifying element. Writing
speed cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted
in broad terms of slow, moderate, or rapid.
QQ.SYSTEM (OF WRITING) – The combination of the basic design of letters and the
writing movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through use
diverges form the system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training. See
also copy book.
RR. TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of
relaxation.
SS. THREADY FORM – an indefinite form that looks flat and wavy.
TT. VARIABILITY – the degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.
UU. VARIATION – The act or process of changing.
VV. WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.
WW. WRITING CONDITION – Both the circumstances under which the writing was
prepared and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution.
It includes the writer’s position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and
backing, and the writing instrument; writing ability maybe modified by the condition of
the writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
XX. WRONG-HANDED WRITING. Any writing executed with the opposite hand that
normally used; a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand“. it is one means of disguise. This, the

57
 writing of a right-handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for
the common terminology for this class of disguise as “left-handed writing”.
YY. WRITING IMPULSE – The result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving
across the page, until it is raised from the paper.

VIII. MOVEMENT IN HAND WRITING

A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement – the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers
are in actual motion. Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement – produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with
the wrist as the center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the
support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement – action of the entire arm without resting, i.e.,
blackboard writing.
B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid
C. SPEED – slow and drawn; Deliberate; average; and rapid
D. DIFFERENT MOVEMENTS EMPLOYED AFFECT WRITING IN – Smoothness;
Directness; Uniformity; Continuity of strokes; and Connecting or curves between
letters.

IX. MOTOR COORDINATION – the special way in which the various muscles used in
writing work together to produced written forms.
A. CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR COORDINATION:
1. Free, smelt rounded curves
2. Gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in the state of change, moving from light to heavy or from
heavy to light.
4. Speed
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas
in writing in produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the
shading often has a “bunchy” appearance, in which the maximum width of the
shaded line is attained abruptly.
B. FAULTY COORDINATION IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE FOLLOWING:
1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady
progress. There is no freedom of movement along the strokes of the letterforms.
The writing is obviously very slow and is typical of the writing of a young child
or for anyone who painstakingly draws a picture of an unfamiliar form.
2. Angular Line – a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small
are not smoothly rounded and there is no gradual change of direction. On the
contrary, and angle marks almost every change are direction in the line.
Investigating has disclosed that angles are accompanied by a lessening of
writing speed.

X. Rhythm in Handwriting – rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in

full coordination. This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes which increase and
decrease in which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state of change moving from
light to heavy or heavy to light.

58
 A. LACK OF RHYTHM – characterized by a succession of awkward, independent,
poorly, directed and disconnected motions.
B. IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM - By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes,
one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with hesitation as if
he is attempting to for another signature.
C. LETTER OF CONNECTIONS – determine the essential expression of the writing
pattern. It is a mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by
connection letters to one another. Even letters are formed by joining of the upward and
downward strokes. These types of connections are:
1. Arcade – a rounded stroke shaped like arch. It is a slow mode of connection
resulting from controlled movements.
2. Garland – links the downward strokes to the upstrokes with a flowing curve
swinging from left to right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written
with speed.
3. Angular Connective form – when the downward strokes and upward strokes
meet directly, angular connection is formed. This type of connection imposes a
check in the continuity of movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop
and start in each turning point.
4. The threadlike connective form – joining the downward and upward strokes is
slurred to a threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and
bottom produced a double curve. These forms appear both in the shaping of
letters within the word.

XI. THE WRITTEN STROKE:

A. STROKE DEFINED. STROKE – series of lines and curves written in a single letter;
one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines of curves within a single letter; the path
traced by the pen on the paper.
B. TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERICTICS
1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small
letters “h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. ARCH – any arcade form in the body of the letter found in
small letters which contains arches.
3. ASCENDER – is a top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. BASELINE – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be
imaginary alignment of writing; is a ruled or imaginary line
upon which the writing rests.
5. BEADED – preliminary embellished initial stroke which
usually occurs in capital letters
6. BEARD – is a rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter
7. BLUNT – the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without
hesitation).
8. BODY – the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of
strokes, terminal strokes and the diacritic, of any. Ex. The oval
of the letter “O” is the body, minus the downward stroke and the
loop.
9. BOWL – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter
complete into “O”.
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT – a loop made as flourished which
is added to the letters, as in small letter “k & b”, or in capital
letters “A”, ”K”, ”P”; the horizontal end loop stroke that are
often used to complete a letter.
11. CACOGRAPHY – a bad writing

12. CALLIGRAPHY – the art of beautiful writing,

13. DESCENDER – opposite of ascender, the low portion of a

59
 letter

14. DIACRITIC – “t” crossing the dots of the letter “i”, ”j”. the
matters of the Indian script are also known as diacritic signs; an
element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a
dot.
15. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE – the end stroke
of a letter.

16. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP – a small loop or curved formed

inside the letters. This may occur inside the oval of the letters “a,
d, o”; the small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent
direction as in small letters.
17. FOOT – lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter
“m” has three feet, and the small letter “n” has two feet.
18. HABITS – repeated elements or details, which may serve to
individualize writing.
19. HESITATION – the term applied to the irregular thickening of
ink which is found when writing slows down or stop while the
pen take a stock of the position.
20. HIATUS/PEN JUMP – a gap occurring between a continuous
stroke without lifting the pen. Such as occurrence usually occurs
due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift
distinguish in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear
in the writing.
21. HOOK – it is a minute curve or a ankle which often occurs at
the end of the terminal strokes. It also sometimes occurs at the
beginning of the initial stroke. The terminal curves of the letters
“a”, “d”, “n”, “m”, “p”, “u”, is the hook. In small letter “w” the
initial curve is the hook; the minute involuntary talon like
formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke or
the end terminal stroke.
22. HUMP – upper portion of its letter “m”, ”n”, ”h”, ”k” – the
rounded outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in small
letter.
23. KNOB – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal
stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from the paper
(usually applicable to fountain pen).
24. LIGATURE/CONNECTION - the strokes which connects
two strokes of letter; characterized by connected stroke between
letters.
25. LONG LETTER – those letters with both upper and lower
loops.

26. LOOP – a oblong curve such as found on the small letter “f”,
“g”, “l”, and letters strike “f” has two. A loop may be blind or
open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled
with the open space.
27. MAJUSCULE – a capital letter.

28. MINUSCULE – a small letter.

29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES – this refer to the continuity of

stroke, forged writing is usually produced by disconnected and
broken movements and more motion and movement impulses
than in genuine writing.

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 30. PATCHING – retouching or going back over a detective
portion of a written stroke. Careful patching is common detect in
forgeries.
31. PEN LIFT – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the
writing instrument from the paper.
32. RETRACE/RETRACING – any part of a stroke which is
super imposed upon the original stroke. Ex. Vertical stroke of
the letters “d”, “t”, while coming downward from the top to
bottom will have a retracing strokes; any stroke which goes back
over another writing stroke. In natural handwriting there maybe
instances in which the pen doubled back over the course.
33. SHOULDER – outside portion of the too curve, small letter
“m” has three shoulders and the small letter “n” has two, the
small letter “h” has one shoulder.
34. SPUR – a short initial or terminal stroke

35. STAFF – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is a

long downward stroke of the letter “b”, “g”.
36. STEM OR SHANK – the upright long downward stroke that is
the trunk or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
37. TICK/HITCH – any short stroke, which usually occurs at the
top of the letters.
38. TREMOR – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky
strokes is describes as writing tremor.
39. WHIRL – the upstroke of a looping ascender.

C. OTHER TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKES:

1. AIRSTROKE – the movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and
continues in the same direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE – a stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a
concealing action.
3. FINAL – the ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF A STROKES – the order in which writing strokes are placed
on the paper is referred to as their sequence.
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – upstrokes partially covering the previous down
strokes. Originally taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school of handwriting analysis that assigns personality
trait manners to individual writing strokes.

D. QUALITIES OF STROKES:
1. Expansion – whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with
respect to both vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination – whether the flow of movements is controlled or uncertain,
smooth or jerky, continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed – whether the movement is been rapid or slow and whether the pace has
been steady or variable.
4. Pressure – whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and
downward reach.
5. Direction – left ward and right ward trend of they movement and its upward and
downward reach.
6. Rhythm – in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain
similar phases recur at more or less regular intervals.

XII. HANDWRITING PROBLEMS:

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 A. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which is reality is genuine and
corresponds perfectly to the ordinary, and habitual signatures of that person.
B. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which is reality was written by him but
in a way which was different from the ordinary manner and which is more or less
different from the common genuine signatures of that person.
C. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by a third
person and which is a forgery written in an attempted imitation of a model.

VII. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS. Intoxication affects the physiological being
of an individual hence, the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING
1. Bizarre letter forms.
2. Greatly enlarge writing.
3. Illegible forms and writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline.
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing.
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.

VIII. ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS

A. THE FOLLOWING ARE STANDARD WRITINGS WHICH ARE ADMISSIBLE
FOR COMPARISON PURPOSES:
1. Standards writings witnessed
2. Standards writings admitted
3. Record Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard Writings
4. Government Document as standard Writings
5. Ancient writings
6. Other Writings Standards – Among writings admissible as standard are signature
on spelling motion or other instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may
without further proof of genuineness be used as a standard.
7. Familiarity Sometimes establishes standard writings.

Opinion Evidence – The court seem to be in general agreement that proof of the
genuineness of a standard cannot be established by the opinion of experts testifying
from a comparison of the writing sought to be used as standard with another writing.

Genuineness of standard decided by court – The sufficiency of the proof of the

genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as
a sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a
document to attest that he is its author or that he ratifies its contents.
Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. Letters
become simplified or condensed, complex movement appears. This is now a signature
It is mark but this mark is now personal. It is a personal combination of strokes
in which it is possible to recognize the writer
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about signature:

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 1. Signed name
2. Signing of name
3. Distinctive characteristic
[Mid-16th century. Directly or via French from medieval
Latin signature, from Latin signare (see sign).]

I. OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. ASSISTED SIGNATURE – See Guided Signature
B. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark
or crude X. This authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly
witnessed, it can legally stand for a signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as
cross marks because of the common practice of marking with an X.
C. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE – Is not simply a signature – it is a signature, signed
at a particular time and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at
particular age, in a particular physical and mental condition, using particular
implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
D. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a
name as a signature by someone other than the person himself, without his
permission, often with some degree of imitation.
E. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by
simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
F. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or
arm is steadied in any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature
authenticates a legal document provided it is shown that the writer requested the
assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or
on a deathbed.
G. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
H. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an
imitated or traced forgery.
I. THEORY OF COMPARISON – The act of setting two or more signature in an
inverted position to weigh their identifying significance, the reason being that those
we fail to see under normal comparison may readily be seen under this theory.

II.THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS ONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED

BRANCH OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING
REASONS:
A. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently
written.
B. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
C. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
D. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically.
E. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.
III. TYPES OF SIGNATURES
A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) – complete
correct signature for an important document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) – usually for routine documents and personal
correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized
C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE – for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph
collector.

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IV. FORGERY – Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only a non-
genuine document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with
fraudulent signature or spurious document.
V. CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF
SIGNATURES)
A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY – executed purely by
simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as
freehand imitation or simulated forgery. Or it refers to the freehand drawing in
imitation of mode signature.
1. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER
a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT – forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil
strokes with ink.
2. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) – used by forgers who
have a certain skill in writing? After some practice, the forger tries to write a copy of
the model quickly.
B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)
1. DIRECT TRACING – tracing is made by transmitted light.
2. INDIRECT TRACING – forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which
he will trace the forged signature under the document bearing the model signature
with a carbon paper between the two.

TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE:

1. CARBON PROCESS
2. INDENTATION PROCESS
3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS
C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) – Forger does not try to copy a
model but writes something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For his ,
he uses a false (spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing
by adopting a camouflage called disguise.
D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR
MODEL
E. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING

VI. SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATIONOF SIGNATURE:

A. STEP 1 – Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or
slide-by-side for simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
B. STEP 2 – The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the
manner of execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc.) The fundamental difference existing
between a genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of
execution.
C. STEP 3 – Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or
tremors, smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when
simultaneous viewing is made.
D. STEP 4 – Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine
whether the appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
E. STEP 5 – Design and structure of the letters – Determine as to roundness, smoothness,
angularity and direction. Each individual as a different concept of letter design.
F. STEP 6 – Look for the presence of retouching of patching.
G. STEP 7 – Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
H. STEP 8 – Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for
theses are the often changed according to the whim of the writer.
VII. CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

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 A. Pen pressure
B. Movement
C. Proportion
D. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
E. Inconspicuous characteristics
F. Repeated characteristics
G. Characteristics written with speed
VIII. INDICATIOIN OF GENUINENESS
A.
Carelessness
B.
Spontaneity
C.
Alternation of thick and thin strokes
D.
Speed
E.
Simplification
F.
Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
G.
The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
H.
Rhythm
I.
Good line quality
J.
Variation
IX. INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED
FORGERIES
A. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at which the
writer has temporarily struck.
B. No rhythm –
C. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
D. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
E. Slow writing – angular writing
F. Blunt beginning and endings
G. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
H. Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
I. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom or “inhibited” movements THAT gives the
impression that every stroke is made with difficulty. This writing is small.
J. No variation
X. INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY – Writing habits of the writer
(forger) is evident in the forged signature.
XI. INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A
GENUINE SIGNATURE
A. Flat strokes
B. No contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
C. Deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
D. No variation – All signature will superimpose over each other.
XII. PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMNS
A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine.
Generally presence of tremors, remnants of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates
forgery, Produce, the probability of genuineness
B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this kind of signature is
confidently discover that the modification is only on the prominent features of the letter
designs that are pointed out by the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There
are unnatural tremors and retouching. The minute details in genuine signatures are
present.
CHAPTER SIX – FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION
I. DEFINITION OF TERMS

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 A. COUNTERFEITING – It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins
and banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious
semblance of, as money or stamps, with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting
is something made to imitate the real thing used for gain.
B. FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the
intended content.
C. FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud,
any writing which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal
liability.

In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of
another person, or of fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so,
or falsely makes, alters, forges or counterfeits any – checks, drag-due bill for the
payment of money or property – or counterfeits or forges the seal forged, or
counterfeited, with intent the same to be fake, altered forged, or counterfeited,
II.MAKING OFwith
PAPER
intent MONEY
to prejudice, damage or defraud any person…. Is guilty of forgery.
A. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of
metal by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal
and the extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink
in the holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised
above the surface. The engraving process is used for the production of all genuine bank
notes.
B. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of printing books,
magazine, letterheads and the usual printing in common uses, In the process, the letters
are made on raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the
paper in the same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note
are usually added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by an
engraving.
C. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method of photograph is taken of the desire material and
a print is made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with
water. When ink is applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is
desired. The aluminum plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the
ink to the papers. The offset process is quite used in small printing plants. Because it
was photographic process, it is the most common modern used by counterfeiter to make
false paper money.
III. BANK NOTE PAPER
Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they would
soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso bill usually
wears out and has to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government buy the very best grade
of paper they can get, in order that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also
makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually the use of wrong paper that
causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by ultraviolet light.

NOTE: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added to make

look whiter. These chemicals cause brilliant fluorescent under ultraviolet
light. Bank notes paper does not have this filler and does not show.

VIII. COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT

Passport are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and
manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make change
in it. Many safety features are incorporated in passport and are easily detected by close
inspection Ultraviolet light is very useful in this type of examination.
The investigator should look particularly at the photograph in any passport as
identification card. This is always necessary because sometimes forgers remove and change or

66
substitute the picture. Hence, the position of perforation caused by staples and another pasting
device should be studied carefully.
IX. LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION
–
(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes Against Public
Interests)
A. FOREGERIES – What are the crimes called forgeries?
1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive (Art.
161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164).
4. Forging treasury or bank notes of other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166).
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172).
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171).
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
9. Falsification of Wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art. 173).
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit of service (Art. 174).

B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161:

1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines.
2. Forging the signature of the President.
3. Forging the stamp of the President.

C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:

1. Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art. 163);
2. Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164); and
3. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165).

D. WHEN IS A COIN FALSE OR COUNTERFEITED valu? A coin is false or

counterfeited, if it is forged or if it is not authorized by the Government as legal tender,
regardless of its intrinsic value.
Counterfeiting means the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It may contain more
silver that the ordinary coin. There is counterfeiting when a spurious coin is made. There must
be an imitation of the peculiar design of a genuine coin. (U.S vs. Basco, 6 Phil. 110)
E. DEFINITION
1. “Import,” means to bring them into port. The importation is complete before entry at
the Customs House. (U.S s. Lyman, 26 Fed. Cas. 1024)
2. “Utter,” means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or the act of
giving them away. A counterfeited coin is uttered when it is paid, when the offender is
caught counting the counterfeited coins preparatory to the act of delivering them, even
though the utterer may not obtain the gain.

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER

NOTE/BILL
GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
A. MAIN PRINT

Distinctive feel & embossed effect Generally smooth

67
 1. The fingers will readily feel the main print 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main
on the front & back on fairly new notes. prints of the front & back even on new
notes.
2. This is due to the measurable thickness of
the ink deposited on the paper which gives 2. This is brought by offset print the most
the prints an embossed effect. common process employed by
counterfeiters

3. The prints are mere stains on the

coating of the sensitized paper which is
glossy.

B. PORTRAIT

1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead

2. The eyes sparkle. 2. The eyes do not sparkle.
3. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette) 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and
forming the details of the face, hair, etc. poorly printed.
are clear, sharp and well defined. 4. Hair is lifeless.
4. Each portrait stands out distinctly from 5. The face and/or forehead are often
background. This is noticeable along the naturally white or pale due to absence of
shoulders. most of the details
5. The background is composed of multi- 6. The concentric lines depicting the eyes
colored fine pattern of lines in varying often merged into solid printed areas.
tones and shades interlacing with each 7. The background often blends with the
other. These shadings or toning are portrait and is usually “scratchy.”
intricately printed in such a way that the 8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
contrast or shifting of colors creates the 9. The multicolored prints on genuine notes
impression of life & vividness to the are extremely difficult to duplicate and as a
notes. result, counterfeit notes are usually off-
color & not of the right shade or tone.

C. WATERMARK

1. The watermark underneath the security 1. This is imitated by printing white ink or
lacework on the right hand of the note is dry block on the finished paper.
the same on the colored portrait. 2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is
2. The design is placed by means of stamped to give transparency to the portion
dandy roll during the manufacture of the where the designing appears.
paper. 3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheet
3. Sharp details of the outline or the light where merely a paper cutout is placed
& shadow effect are discernible when inside. As a result course or harsh and
viewed with the aid of transmitted light. occasional irregular lines & sometimes
4. The relif of the features can be felt by opaque areas are very obvious.
running the finger on the design.

D. METTALIC THREAD

1. This is a special thread placed 1. Counterfeit by means of printing on the

vertically on the paper during back of the note, on the inner side of the
manufacture. paper, insertion of twin thread or simply
2. On the surface of the paper where this folding the note vertically where the thread
thread is located are patterns of short appears on the genuine bill.
68
 vertical lines.

E. COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS

1. These fibers are scattered on the On counterfeit, this is simulated by printed

surface of the paper (front & back) at lines, can not be picked off, but can be easily
random & can be readily picked off by erased with ordinary rubber or by agitating
means of any pointed instrument. with wet fingers.
2. The colors of these fibers are red &
blue

F. LACEWORK DESIGN

The geometric pattern which looks On counterfeit, these geometric patterns

like a delicate lacework along the border are often blurred, round on the edges &
on both surfaces, embellishing the blotch on the joints. Its continuity could not
portraits, value panel & vignettes are be traced. The color appears faded.
multicolored & composed of harp lines
which are continuous & traceable even at
the joints.

G. COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for
each denomination. You should know whose portrait is/are printed I each bill.
Php 1000.00 - Blue -Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
500.00 - Yellow-Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another side)
100.00 - Mauve -Manuel A. Roxas
50.00 - Red -Sergio Osmena
20.00 - Orange-Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 - Brown -Apolinario Mabini and Andres Bonifacio
5.00 - Green -Emilio Aguinaldo
H. SERIAL NUMBERS

1. The prefix letter/s numbers (Six of 1. On counterfeit, the letter & numbers are
them except on replacement note) are poorly printed. They are usually of
clearly printed different style.
2. They have peculiar style & are uniform 2. Most often, they are evenly spaced &
in size and thickness. poorly aligned.
3. Spacing of the numbers is uniform & 3. The numbers are too big or too small, too
alignment is even. thick or too thin & in certain cases
shaded on the curves.

I. VIGNETTE

1. The lines and dots composing the 1. On counterfeit, usually dull and poorly
vignettes are fine, distinct, and sharp printed.

69
 2. The varying color tone gives a bold 2. It appears dirty.
look to the picture that makes it stands 3. The lines are comparatively thicker with
out of the paper. rough edges.
4. There is no variation in color tone so that
the pictures appear flat.

J. CLEARNESS OF PRINT

The registry of the different printed In general, a spurious not exhibits a

feature is perfect. The lines are very clear Second hand look. It is dirty due to the
and sharp. There are no Burrs clinging to sputtering of ink on the interior area. Over-
the sides. inked areas are visible instantly. The
shading and ornamentations of the letters &
figure are thick & usually merged.

V. EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE.

1. As well as inspection under the ultraviolet light, the investigator should look at the
banknote with a hand lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in the bank note. This
is the one extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color of a genuine banknote. It is
very difficult for counterfeiter to match exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine
manufacturer.

VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY

A. TYPES:
1. Federal Reverse Note – with GREEN treasury seal and serial number.
2. United States Note - with RED treasury seal and serial number.
3. Silver Certificate - with BLUE treasury seal and serial number.
B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTE – each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional
seal at the left of the portrait on the face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and
bears the name of the Federal Reserve Bank of issue. Numbers and Letters
representing the Federal Reserve District in which that Bank is located, are:

1 – Boston -“A”
2 – New York - “B”
3 – Philadelphia - “C”
4 – Cleveland - “D”
5 – Richmond - “E”
6 – Atlanta - “F”
7 – Chicago - “G”
8 – St. Louis - “H”
9 – Minneapolis - “I”
10 – Kansas - “J”
11 – Dallas - “K”
12 – San Francisco - “L”

C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: Portrait every denomination

has the following:

$1 -Washington $50 - Grant

70
 $2 - Jefferson $100 - Franklin
$5 - Lincoln $500 - McKinley
$10 - Hamilton $1000 - Cleveland
$20 - Jackson $5000 - Madison

VII. COINS
A. DEFINITION – These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use
as money collectively referring to metal currency.
B. MAKING OF COINS
CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds
bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy made
with lead or tin. Some molds are used for high temperature metal such as copper or
silver alloy.
STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or
metal blank b pressure.

C. CHARACTERISTICS
1. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile, the
seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings & numerals are of high relief, so that
it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on theses features. The beadings
are regular & the readings are deep & even.
2. Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny round
dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular & elongated depressions & are low
& worm out due to the lack of sharpness of details. The readings are uneven & show
signs of filing.
D. COUNTERFEIT MTAL MONEY OR COIN
Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. Government
kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and then issue papers for the
value of gold.
Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face value.
In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden except for coin
collectors.
E. EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – should be examined by:
1. a magnifying lens
2. comparing it with a known coin
F. DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY:
1. formation of air bubbles, or
2. removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin.

The best place to examine a counterfeit coins is on the edge since there are usually
special milling marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by machinery.

MAKE IT A HABIT to feel and look at all currency being received so that the fingers and eyes will
become familiar with all the features of genuine Central Bank Notes and Coins. Compare with a
known genuine currency of the same denomination when a note or coin is suspicious.

REMEMBER, not all strangers are counterfeiters, but all counterfeiters are likely to e strangers.
He intended. (Decision of the Supreme court or Spain of Jan. 11, 1913; Jan. 04 1893; Nov. 12,
1888; and Dec. 24 1885) Hence, damage to another is not necessary.

71
 3. “Mutilation” means to take off part of the metal either by filing it or substituting it
for another metal of inferior quality.
N.B. – The coin mutilated must be genuine and has not been withdrawn from
circulation. The coin must be of the legal currency or current coins of the Philippines.
Therefore, if the coin mutilated is legal tender of a foreign country, it is not a crime of
mutilation under the Revised Penal code.
F. ACTS PENALIZED UNDER ART. 166:
1. Forging or falsification of treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to
bearer.
2. Importation of such false or forged obligations or notes.
3. Uttering of such false or forged obligations or notes in connivance with the forgers or
importers.
G. How “forging” and “falsification” are committed (Art. 169)? Forging is committed
by giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to bearer or to order the
appearance of a true and genuine document; and falsification is committed by erasing,
substituting, counterfeiting, or altering by any means the figures, letters, words, or signs
contained therein.
H. Forgery includes falsification and counterfeiting. With the definition given in this
article, the crime of counterfeiting or forging treasury or bank notes or other documents
payable to bearer or to order includes
(1.) acts of counterfeiting or forging or to order includes
(2.) acts of falsification
I. Meaning of “obligation” or “security” of the Philippines. The words “obligation or
security x x x of the Philippine islands “ shall be held to mean all-
1. Bonds,
2. Certificates of indebtedness,
3. National bank notes,
4. Coupons,
5. Treasury notes,
6. Fractional notes,
7. Certificate of deposits,
8. Bills,
9. Checks,
10. Drafts for money, and
11. Other representatives of value issued under any Act of Congress.
J. Reason for punishing forgery – Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the
integrity of the currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent the
imposition on the public and the government of worthless notes or obligations.
K. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)
1.Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;
2.Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they
did not in fact so participate;
3.Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other
than those in fact made by them;
4.Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts;
5.Altering true dates;
6.Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its
meaning;

72
 7.Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original
document when no such original exists, or including in such copy a statement
contrary to, or different from, that of the genuine original; or
8.Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol,
registry, or official book.
L. Must there be a genuine document in falsification? In falsification by –
1.Making alteration or intercalation or
2.Including in a copy different statement, there must be a genuine document that is
falsified.

M. Thus,may
Documents in paragraph 6, 7, inor
be simulated itsfabricated.
second part, and 8 of Art. 171, the law requires
that there be in genuine document where the intercalation or alteration is made
1.changing
In falsification of a In
its meaning. public document,
the other the falsification
paragraphs need not be
of Art. 171, falsification made
may be on an
official form. It is sufficient that the document is given the appearance of, or made to appear
committed by simulating or fabricating a document.
similar to, the official form. (People vs. Tupasi, C.A., G.R. No. 290-292, March 22, 1937)
2. The simulation of public, official or mercantile document is also contemplated in
falsification of those documents (People vs. David, C.A., G.R. No. 44368, Nov. 27, 1936)
N. Requisites of counterfeiting of signature (Art. 171) – Imitation of another’s
signature need not be perfect. It is necessary only
(1.) that there be an intent to imitate, or an attempt to imitate, and
(2.) that the two signatures or handwritings, the genuine and the forged, bear some
resemblance to each other. (U.S. vs. Rampas, 26 Phil. 189)
O. THERE MUST BE AN INTENT OR ATTEMPT TO IMITATE – The attempt or
intent to imitate may be shown by a comparison of the handwriting or signature on the
document alleged to have been counterfeited. If there is sufficient resemblance between the
genuine and the forged signatures, it can be concluded that the accused had the intention and
attempted to imitate the signature of the offended party (U.S. vs. Rampas, supra).
P. THE FORGED AND THE GENUINE SIGNATURES OR HANDWRITINGS
MUST BEAR SOME RESEMBLANCE TO EACH OTHER.
1. The resemblance must be such that it is likely to deceive an ordinary person
receiving or dealing with the document (U.S. vs. Rampas, supra)
2. Thus, it has been held that the fact of imitating a person’s signature on a check
in such a way that the same, when presented for collection “might have passed in the
rush of business, “although the handwriting is a little bit different, constitutes
falsification (U.S. vs. Litonjua, 4Phil. 485).
Q. WHEN ANY OF THE REQUISITES OF COUNTERFEITING IS NOT
PRESENT. If there is no attempt whatsoever by the accused to imitate the signatures
of other persons so that they are entirely unlike the genuine signatures of those persons,
the accused may be found guilty under paragraph 2, Art. 171, in causing it to appear
that those persons have participated in the act when they did not in fact so participate
(U.S. vs. Friemuth, 3 Phil. 318; U.S vs. Cinco, et al., 42 Phil. 839; people vs. Liave,
C.A. 40 O.G. 1908)
R. IMITATING – (feigning) – The Spanish text of Art. 171 uses “fingiendo” (for
imitation). In feigning, there is no original signature, handwriting or rubric that does
not exist. To feign means to represent by a false appearance; to give a mental existence
to; to imagine.

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I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means
that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact
date it was supposed to have been written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fibers from plants,
but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the
fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.
C. WATERMARK – Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks
impressed in them during the curse of their manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing or recording
such as papers, cardboard, board papers, Morocco paper, etc.

II. WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS – The common

(probable) questioned on paper is its age, whether the actual age of the paper
corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the questioned document.
III. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT – The evolution of writing materials culminated in
the development of paper. The oldest written records still surviving are the Sumerian
clay tablets dating back from the 4th millennium B.C.
A. PAPYRUS – This came into use about 3,500 B.C. – people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and
Southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like
herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B. PARCHMENT – writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep,
calves or goats – was probably developed in the Middle East more or less
contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in
the city of PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.
C. VELLUM – writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term
(name) was often used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most
important writing material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special
manuscripts.
Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was
also used as a writing material during the early period.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING
1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese
court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed
in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish
nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in
the 7th century A.D
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked y marauding Chinese and
some Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by
the city Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became
the papermaking center of the Arab world.

Digested Review in QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

Document
Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, either visible, partially visible or
invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone.

74
 It is any written statement by which a right is established or an obligation extinguished.
(People vs. Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G. 119)

Two Categories of Document

1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue has been raised or which is under
scrutiny. The focal point of the examination and to which the document examiner relies as
to the extent of the problem. (also referred to as disputed document).
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin is known can be proven and can
legally be used as sample to compare with other things is questioned.

      Types of Standards
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen executed in the regular course of man’s
activity or that which are executed on the day to day writing activity.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a Standard document which are executed
upon request, they are prepare at one time.

Contemporary document = documents which are not more than five (5) years before or
after.

Legal Classification of Documents:

1. Public Document = a document created, executed or issued by a public official in
response to the exigencies of the public service, or in the execution of which a
public official intervened.
= is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a competent public
official, with the solemnities required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens,
5 Phil. 724).
2. Official Document = a document which is issued by a public official in the exercise
of the functions of his office. Am official document is also a public document as a
larger classification.
3. Private Document = A deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or other person legally authorized, by which
documents, some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
4. Commercial Document = any document defined and regulated by the Code of
Commerce ( People Vs. Co Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any other commercial law.

Classes of Questioned Documents:

1. Document with questioned Signature (most common).
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (Any form of changes either an addition or
deletion to the contents of a document).
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely written and signed by one person
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their production.
5. Documents questioned as to their age or date.
6. Documents involving typewriting
7. Document which may identify a person through handwriting
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed.
9. Documents containing printing or type prints.

Writings and Signature:

System of Writing – is the combination of the basic shape and designs of letter and the writing
movement which was taught in school.
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs of letters that is fundamental to the
writing system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as, pressure,
rhythm, pen lifting, etc.
Writing – is the visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a
combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits
acquired by long continued painstaking effort.

75
Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious
expressions of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impression of certain ideas
associated with script form.
Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which serves as an
identifying characteristics.
Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s writing that are sufficiently unique and well
fixed to serve as a strong basis of individuality.
Slant = refers to the relative degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline.
Baseline = an imaginary or straight line in which the writing rest.

Types of Handwritings
1. Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
2. Handlettering – refers to writing characterized by a disconnected style.
3. Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is executed normally and without any attempt
of altering its usual writing habits.
4. Disguised – a specimen of writing executed deliberately with an attempt of changing its
usual writing habits in the hope of hiding one’s identity.
5. Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing executed while the writer’s hand is at steadied.
Usually employed by beginners in writing.

Signature – a name of person signed by himself on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

Model signature – genuine signature which has been used in preparing a simulated or traced
forgery.
Evidential Signature – specimen signature which was executed in particular date, particular
time and place, under a particular writer’s condition and for a particular purpose.

Classes of Signature
1. Formal or complete – used in signing very important document
2. Informal or cursory – used for routine document
3. Careless scribble – used for not so important document such as delivery of mail or
receipt of purchase equipment etc.

Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting any treasure or bank notes, paper bills or any
documents which are payable to the bearer.
- is an act of simulating or tracing somebody’s signature without the latter’s consent
for profit.

Major types of Forgery

1. Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt has been made to make a copy or
facsimile of the genuine writing of a person purported to sign the document. Also known
as spurious signature
2. Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged signature which resembles the genuine signature
written in free-hand. Considered as the most skillful type of forgery.
3. Traced Forgery – forged signature which closely resembles the genuine made by some
tracing process or outline form.
Methods of tracing
a. Carbon outline process – used of carbon paper.
b. Indention process- used of considerable pressure, Canal-like process.
c. Projection or transmitted light process- used of light from the back or bottom.
d. Laser method – used of hologram.

CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING:

Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or elements which distinguishes. Also referred
to as identifying details.

Types of characteristics:

76
1. Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties which are common or which can be
found in the specimen writing of other person. Gross characteristics.
2. Individual Characteristics – characteristics which are highly personal or peculiar. That
which is unlikely to occur in other’s handwriting.
Elements of Forms in Writing:
1. Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or crook,
2. Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes found in some capital letters. Also called
as double hitch.
3. Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by a abrupt beginning or end at which the pen
does not creates a diminishing strokes.
4. Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes used to complete letters A, H, F and D.
5. Central Part – is the body of the letter. Characterized by a small rounded or circular
strokes.
6. Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the connection between letters, either joined or
disconnected.
7. Eyelet/ eyeloop – refers to small oblong strokes.
8. Hitch – an introductory backward strokes found in most capital letters and in some small
letters.
9. Hiatus = an obvious gap between letters.
10. Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve bend or crook, (see arc)
11. Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning or ending strokes.
12. Loop – is an oblong strokes
13. Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the backbone of the letter characterized by a long
downward strokes
14. Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or terminal strokes.
15. Through – refers to any garland form of a letter strokes
16. Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually found opposite the stem

Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an ornamental or flourish to the design of the
letters. They considered unnecessary to the legibility of the writing.
Diacritics = strokes added to complete certain letters. They are necessary to the legibility of the
letters.
Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative to the motion of the pen.
Line Quality – is the visible records in the written strokes of the basic movements and manner
of holding instrument. It is derived from a combination of factors, including writing skill,
speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, shading and pen emphasis.

Types of movement:
1. Finger (used by beginners)
2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal & of limited freedom)
3. Forearm (most skillful type of movement)
4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings)

Elements of Writing Movement

1. Pen pressure – is the average or usual pressure applied in the writing.
2. Pen Emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface
with an increase in speed.
3. Rhythm – is the harmonious or balance recurrence of strokes or impulses.
4. Skills – refers to the degree of writer’s proficiency in writing
5. Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but it can be
interpreted in broad term as to either fast, slow or moderate.
6. Pen-lift – an interruption is strokes caused by sudden removal of the writing
instrument from the paper surface.
7. Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter strokes.
8. Pen Position – is the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper surface.
9. Pen scope – represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.

77
 10. Retracing or retraced – is the strokes which goes back over another writing strokes
that is slightly to occur in other’s writing.
11. Retouching or patching – is a stroke, which goes back over a defective portion of a
writing to repair or correct an error.

Factors that affects writing characteristics:

1. Natural Variations – is the usual or normal deviation found in a repeated specimen of an
individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
2. Transitory Change – are meant to those changes which only continue to exist while the
basic cause of the deterioration is still affecting the writer, once the such cause has been
removed from the writer, the writing will reverts in its normal form.
3. Tremor – is the weakening of the strokes characterized by a wavering or shaky strokes.
a. Genuine Tremor
a.1. Weakness of sickness
a.2 Old age
a.3. Illiteracy (lack of skills)
b. Tremor of Fraud
4. Writing Conditions – refers to all factors affecting the over-all quality of writing such as
the writer’s condition under which the writing was prepared.

5. Writing instrument
a. Ball point pen (John Loud) consisting of a ball bearing at the point of the pen.
b. Fountain pen (Lewis Watterman) consisting of pen nib point.
c. Fiber pen (originally designed by Hongkong)

Miscellaneous Document Problem

1. Detection of Alteration
Alteration - refers to any form of changes either an addition or a deletion to the
original content of the document which is not a part of its original preparation.
2. Decipherment of Erased Writings
Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any part of a document either by
mechanical or chemical process.
Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive method through rubbing or
scrapping.
Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of bleaching agent called
ink eradicator.
Usually examined with the aid or fuming, transmitted light, oblique light and
ultra-violet light examination.
3. Decipherment of Obliterated writing
Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it
undecipherable or illegible. Done with the used of superimposing inks.
Usually  examined with the used of Infra-red light.
4. Examination of Charred Document and water soaked document
Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle document. Decipherment is
usually accomplished with the used of infra-red light examination.
5. Development of Invisible writing
Invisible writing – writing that has no readily visible ink strokes. Made by
Sympathetic inks such as acids, juice and others. They are possible of development
depending on the ink used. Methods of development can be by heat. Water, chemical
fuming or by ultra-violet light process.
6. Decipherment of Contract writing
Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden contact
between a sheet of paper with another paper containing fresh ink. Can be enhanced
through fuming or ultra-violet light process.

EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING

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Definition of Terms:
1. Typeface – is the printing surface of the type block in a conventional typewriter. In electric
typewriter it is the printing surface of the rotating head sphere.
2. Typeface defect – any form of peculiarity of the type printing caused by actual damage to
the typeface metal or which maybe an abnormality in its printing condition.
3. Characters – in connection to typewriting, it is used to include letters, symbols, numerals
or points of punctuation.
4. Pica typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters to the
horizontal inch.
5. Elite typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced twelve (12) characters to the
horizontal inch.
6. Proportional spacing machine – a typewriter with a type letter spacing similar to the type
spacing of conventional printed in which all letters are allotted horizontal in conformity
with their relative widths.
7. Transitory Defects – is an identifying typewriter characteristics which can be eliminated
by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
8. Permanent Defects – any identifying typewriting characteristics of the type face which
cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
9. Mal alignment or alignment defects – refers to defect in the printing condition of the type
character in which the letters are printed either at the top or bottom, left or right of inclined
from its proper position.

Principal technique utilized in typewriting identification

1. Measure the type face pitch
2. Verify the type size and design (W-G-T)
3. Look for individual type face defects

Typeface Defects
1. Vertical mal alignment – a character printing above or below of its proper position.
2. Horizontal mal alignment – an alignment defect in which the characters are printed to the
left or right of its proper position.
3. Twisted letters – letters and characters are designed to be printed at a certain angle to the
baseline. Once letters leans to the left or right of its proper position such is called twisted
letters.
4. Off-its-feet – is a condition of the type face printing at which then character outline is not
equally printed, that is the printing is heavier in one side than the remainder of the outline
of the character.
5. Rebound – typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter
one slightly off-set to the right or left.
6. Actual breakage – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type face
metal.
7. Clogged type face (dirty) – is a typeface defects characterized by dirty prints due to
constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of new carbon. These are
common in closed letter outline such as o, a, p, g etc.

79
 FORENSIC
BALLISTICS

80
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Prepared by: Mr. Jesster P. Eduardo

I. INTRODUCTION

Ballistic Defined

 Is the science dealing with the motion of projectiles and the conditions governing that
motion or the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles.
 The study of natural laws relating to the performance of gunpowder and projectiles in
firearms and the means of predicting such performance.
 Ballistics (greek. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the motion, behavior,
and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the
science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired
performance.

Branches of Ballistics:

1. Internal/Interior Ballistics – is the science dealing with the motion of the projectile while
still inside the barrel of the firearm.

2. External/Exterior Ballistics – is the science dealing with the motion of the projectiles after
leaving the muzzle of the gun.

3. Terminal Ballistics – is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the
target.

4. Forensic Ballistics – the science of analyzing firearm usage in crimes or the study of
Firearms Identification by means of ammunitions fired through them.

5. Shot Ballistics – is the study of shotgun ammunitions including its characteristics spread and
trailing.

6. Wound Ballistics – is the study of the effects of a projectile on the target and the conditions
that affects them.

II. FIREARMS

Firearm

Is a device that can be used as a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles
propelled at high velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a
propellant. This process of rapid burning is technically known as deflagration. In older
firearms, this propellant was typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless
powder, cordite, or other propellants. Most modern firearms (with the notable exception of
smoothbore shotguns) have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight
stability.The term 'gun' is often used as a synonym for firearm.

A handgun is a firearm designed to be held in the hand when used. This characteristic
differentiates handguns as a general class of firearms from their larger cousins: long guns such
as rifles and shotguns, mounted weapons such as machine guns and autocannons, and larger
weapons such as artillery.

The word "pistol" is often synonymous with the word "handgun". Some handgun experts
make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns. In American usage, the

81
term "pistol" refers to a handgun whose chamber is integral with the barrel, making pistols
distinct from the other main type of handgun, the revolver, which has a revolving cylinder
containing multiple chambers.

Etymology of "pistol"
Hand Cannon from the Chinese Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).

The word "pistol" is derived from the French pistole (or pistolet), which has these possible
origins:

 From the Czech pistole and this one from the Czech píšťala (flute or pipe, referring to
the shape of a Hussite firearm), via Middle High German pischulle and Middle French
pistole.
 From the city of Pistoia, Italy, where hand-held guns (designed to be fired from
horseback) were first produced in the 1540s.
 That early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung from the pommel (or pistallo
in medieval French) of a horse's saddle.

Advantages of handguns versus shoulder firearms

Handguns are smaller, lighter, and easier to carry. Since firearms don't rely on
the user's strength, they put weaker individuals on an equal defensive footing. Handgun only
requires one hand, whereas long guns often require both, that leaves a handgun user with a free
hand.

Disadvantages of handguns versus shoulder firearms

Handguns are often considered self-defense weapons for use fewer than 50 yards (46 m). While
a handgun in the hands of an experienced shooter may be effective at distances greater than
50 yards (46 m), a handgun cartridge is much more limited in its energy capacity than many
long gun cartridges.

Many rifles are able to achieve bullet velocities of over 3,000 feet (910 m) per second, but
rounds for handguns are rarely capable of achieving velocities over 1,500 feet (460 m) per
second. Thus, long guns are generally more powerful at any range, and especially more
effective at longer ranges than handguns.

Types of Revolver According to Loading Mechanism

1. Break Top Type

2. Bolt Action Type

3. Swing-out Type

Types of Pistol According to Firing Mechanism

1. Semi-automatic

2. Automatic

Legal Definition (Sec. 877 of the revised Administrative Code)

Firearms or arms includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers
and all other deadly weapon from which a bullet, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged
by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles except those that
are small in caliber and usually used as toys.

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Technical Definitions

A firearm is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of the
expansive force of gases of burning powder.

Types of Firearm:

A. According to use:

1. Small Arms –Those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired in one hand
either left or right hand.

2. Artillery – Those type of firearms that propel projectiles more than one inch in diameter.

3. Shoulder Arms – Those types of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired through
the shoulder such as rifle.

B. According to the action of mechanism:

1. Single Action Type – type of firearm wherein there is a need to cock the hammer repeatedly
after firing.

2. Double Action Type – type of firearm wherein the hammer is only cocked once in order to
fire the firearm up to such time all its ammunitions are consumed.

C. According to barrel construction

1. Rifled firearm- those barrel that has rifling

2. Smoothbore firearms –barrel that contains no rifling or without helical grooves inside the
gun barrel.

III. CARTRIDGE/AMMUNITION

A cartridge is a single unit of ammunition consisting of the cartridge case, primer, and
propellant with or without one or more projectiles.

The earliest efficient modern cartridge case was the pin-fire, patented, according to
some authorities, by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith, in 1847; and, according to others, by
Lefaucheux, also a Paris gunsmith, in or about 1850. This cartridge was introduced in England
by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about 1855.

The invention by Samuel Colt of revolver handguns that used metal cartridges
established cartridge firearms as the standard thereafter.

Parts of Cartridge

1. Bullet

2. Cartridge Shell

a. Crimp

b. Body/ Bearing Surface

c. Extractor Groove

d. Base

83
3. Gunpowder

4. Primer

Ammunitions Defined:

Legal Definitions (Sec. 290 of the NIRC hand Sec. 877 of RAC)

The word ammunitions means “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell, or other missiles may be fired by
means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes ammunitions for air rifles as
mentioned elsewhere in the Code.

Technical Definitions

The term ammunitions refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit or single

cartridge-meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and
primer. The term may also refer to a “Single round”.

Types of Ammunitions:

a. According to the location of the Priming mixtures:

1. Pin Fire Cartridges – A type of cartridge wherein a pin is protruding at or near the base of
the cartridge case.

2. Rim Fire Cartridge – A type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is located at the rim
of the base of the cartridges case.

3. Center Fire Cartridge –a centerfire cartridge is a cartridge in which the primer is located in
the center of the cartridge case head.

4. Ring Fire Cartridge – A type of cartridge used only on the Saboted cased Flechette
cartridge of the Steyr Advance Combat Rifle and Steyr Anti-Material Squad Machinegun. This
is a special type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hallow ring
about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge.

Cartridge/Ammunition According to Length

1. Long/Magnum-Long or magnum cartridges may also have a heavier bullet when compared
to the standard or short versions. 

2. Short

Cartridges can also carry a +P designation that stands for plus power. Cartridges with the +P
designation usually have no external differences from the lower powered varieties but contain
different types of gunpowder to achieve higher velocities.

IV. BULLET

A bullet is a solid projectile propelled by a firearm or air gun and is normally made from
metal (usually lead). A bullet does not contain explosives, but damages the intended target by
tissue disruption and impact. The word "bullet" is sometimes erroneously used to refer to a

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cartridge, which is the combination of bullet, casing (case or shell), gunpowder and primer.
Bullet is a metallic or non-metallic, cylindrical projectiles, toppled from a firearm by means of
the expansive force of gases from burning powder.

History

The history of bullets parallels the history of firearms. Originally, bullets were metallic
or stone balls placed in front of an explosive charge of gun powder at the end of a closed tube.
As firearms became more technologically advanced, from 1500 to 1800, bullets changed very
little. They remained simple round lead balls, called rounds, differing only in their diameter.

Bullet is derived from the French word "boulette" which roughly means "little ball".
The original musket bullet was a spherical lead ball two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in
a loosely-fitted paper patch which served to hold the bullet in the barrel firmly upon the
powder.

Parts of Bullet

a. Tip

b. Ogive/Nose

c. Body/ Bearing Surface

d. Cannelure

e. Base

Shapes of Bullet

1. Round

2. Pointed

3. Semi-flat/ Semi-wad

4. Flat/Wad

Classification of Bullets

A. Bullets According to mechanical construction:

1. Non-jacketed Bullets- The most common material used in the manufacture of non-jacketed
bullets is lead.  Lead bullets are usually an alloy of lead and antimony which is added to give
the bullet some additional hardness. 

Lead Bullets– those which are made or alloys of this metal-lead, tin and antimony which is
slightly harder than pure lead. Alloying the lead with a small percentage of tin and/or antimony
serves to reduce this effect, but grows less effective as velocities are increased. A cup made of
harder metal, such as copper, placed at the base of the bullet and called a gas check, is often
used to decrease lead deposits by protecting the rear of the bullet against melting when fired at
higher pressures, but this too does not solve the problem at higher velocities.

2. Jacketed Bullet- these are layered bullets. Bullets with a core of lead covered with a jacket
of harder material such as gilding metal, a copper alloy of approximately 90% copper and

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10% zinc. Full Metal Jacket bullets or Ball bullet have the front and sides of the bullet
completely encased in the harder metal jacket. Some bullet jackets do not extend to the front of
the bullet to aid in expansion and increase lethality. These are called soft points or hollow
point bullets. Hollow Point Bullets are bullets designed to expand usually have a hollow cavity
formed into the nose of the bullet.  This expansion is typically called "mushrooming" as the
bullet takes on a shape similar to a mushroom.  See the example below.

3. Synthetic Bullets – those made of plastics/plasticine and it other composition or those made
of sand polymer mixed. Such bullets were designed for special purposes. Ex.: Rubber
bullets.

B. Bullets According to use:

1. Ball Bullets – those that have soft cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.

2. Armor Piercing Bullets – those that have steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other
armored targets and general. Jacketed designs where the core material is a very hard, high-
density metal such as tungsten, tungsten carbide, depleted uranium, or steel.

3. Tracer Bullets – those that contain a compound at its base which is set of fire when the
bullet is projected. This type of bullet is primarily used for target acquisition. These have a
hollow back, filled with a flare material. Usually this is a mixture of magnesium perchlorate,
and strontium salts to yield a bright red color.

4. Incendiary Bullet – those that contains a mixture, such as phosphorus or other material that
can be set on fire by impact. They are used against targets that will readily burn such as
aircrafts or gasoline depots. These bullets are made with an explosive or flammable mixture in
the tip that is designed to ignite on contact with a target.

5. Explosive (fragmentary) Bullets – those types of bullets that contain a high charge
explosive. Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in
small arms ammunitions.

6. Rubber bullets, plastic bullets, and beanbags- less lethal, or less than lethal are designed
to be non-lethal, for example for use in riot control. They are generally low velocity and
are fired from shotguns, grenade launchers, paint ball guns, or specially-designed firearms and
air gun devices.

7. Blanks (Dummy) Bullet- wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are used to simulate live
gunfire and are intended only to hold the powder in a blank cartridge and to produce noise.
Some blank cartridges are crimped or closed at the end and do not contain any bullet.

Treaties
The Hague Convention prohibits any uniformed military personnel against the use of
projectiles which explode within an individual, poisoned and expanding bullets. Nothing in
these treaties prohibits incendiary bullets (tracers) or the use of prohibited bullets on military
equipment.

V. PROPELLANT

It is the low explosive which makes up the charge to fire the projectiles from a weapon.

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 Most sources credit the discovery of gunpowder to Chinese alchemists in the 9th
century searching for an elixir of immortality. The discovery of gunpowder was probably the
product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. Saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the
mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various
largely medicinal combinations. A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpeter gave
off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of
distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare
purification techniques. By most accounts, the earliest Arabic and Latin descriptions of the
purification of saltpeter do not appear until the 1200s.

In China, the 13th century saw the beginnings of rocketry and the manufacture of the
oldest gun still in existence, a descendant of the earlier fire-lance, a gunpowder-fueled
flamethrower that could shoot shrapnel along with fire. The Huolongjing text of the 14th
century also describes hollow, gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs.

In the 13th century contemporary documentation shows gunpowder beginning to spread

from China to the rest of the world, starting with Europe and the Islamic world. Arabic
chemists and engineers acquired knowledge of saltpeter—which they called "Chinese snow"
—and, soon afterward, of gunpowder; they also learned of fireworks ("Chinese flowers") and
rockets ("Chinese arrows").

The composition of explosive gunpowder used in modern times (75% saltpetre

(KNO3), 10% sulfur, 15% carbon).

Europe

The earliest extant written references to gunpowder in Europe are from the works of
Roger Bacon. In Bacon's Epistola, "De Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae et de Nullitate
Magiae," dated variously between 1248 and 1257.

Types of Propellants

A. Black Powder – is a pyrotechnic composition, an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal and

potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre or saltpeter).

The term "black powder" was coined in the late 19th century to distinguish prior gunpowder
formulations from the new smokeless powder and semi-smokeless powder. Most of the bulk
semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920's.)

Black powder is a granular mixture of:

1. Nitrate-typically potassium nitrate (KNO3)—which supplies oxygen for the reaction;

2. Charcoal-which provides fuel for the reaction in the form of carbon (C);

3. Sulfur (S) - which, while also a fuel, lowers the temperature of ignition and increases the
speed of combustion.

B. Smokeless Powder – this is the type of powder commonly used now in modern small arms
ammunition. It is the most powerful of the propellants. These are commonly nitrocellulose
based. The development of smokeless powders, such as Cordite, in the late 19th century
created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur
content of traditional gun powders caused corrosion problems with Cordite, this led to the
introduction of a range of sulfur-free gun powders, of varying grain sizes. They typically
contain 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of charcoal

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Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery
which produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the older black powder.

Powder B- it was the first smokeless gunpowder invented by Paul Vieille (1884). It is made
from gelatinized guncotton mixed with ether and alcohol. It is three times more powerful
than black powder.

Ballistite- is a smokeless propellant made from two high explosives, nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine (UK spelling), nitroglycerin (US spelling). It was developed and patented by
Alfred Nobel (1887).

Cordite- A modified form of ballistite devised by Sir Frederick Abel and James Dewar

Main Classes of Smokeless Gunpowder

1. Single Based Propellant- consists of nitrocellulose (Guncotton) (single-base powders).

Ex.: Powder B

2. Double Based Propellant- combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (double-base

powders). Ex.: Ballistite and Cordite. Double-base propellants are common in handgun and
rifle ammunition. Triple-base propellants are more common in artillery guns.

3. Triple Based Propellant- combination of nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and nitro guanidine

(triple-base).

4. High Ignition Temperature Propellant – a type of propellant in which the main constituent
is from the Hexogen RDX group of High Explosives. This is the first and only propellant used
for the first case less cartridge. Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and
higher pressures; however they also increase the wear of the gun barrels.

Shapes of Smokeless Gunpowder

1. Granules

2. Flakes

3. Cylinders

Larger granules burn more slowly. Cannon powder has the largest granules, up to thumb-
sized cylinders with seven perforations (one central and the other six in a circle halfway to the
outside of the cylinder's end faces). The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static
electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions.

VI. PRIMER POWDER

Discovery of Percussion Firearms Ignition System

The next important advance in the method of ignition was the introduction of the copper
percussion cap. This was only generally applied to the British military musket (the Brown
Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an
elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention which made the percussion cap
possible was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of priming with a
fulminating powder made of potassium chlorate, sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by
concussion.

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 The percussion cap is a small cylinder of copper or brass with one closed end. Inside
the closed end is a small amount of a shock-sensitive explosive material such as fulminate of
mercury. The percussion cap is placed over a hollow metal "nipple" at the rear end of the gun
barrel.

Two Types of Primer

1. Boxer Primer- In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley-Boxer metallic central-fire
cartridge case in the Enfield rifles, which were converted to breech-loaders on the snider
principle. A primer that has a single vent/flash hole.

2. Berdan Primer- Hiram Berdan- Invented a primer that has two (2) vents or flash holes.

Parts of Primer/Percussion

a. Primer/Percussion Cap

b. Primer Pocket

c. Anvil

d. Priming Mixture

e. Vent/ Flash Hole

1. Large (top row) and

2. Small (bottom row) pistol cartridge Boxer primers

VII. RIFLING

Rifling imparts a spin to the projectile, which stabilizes it and prevents it from tumbling. This
does two things; first, it increases the accuracy of the projectile by eliminating the random
drift due to the Magnus effect, and second, it allows longer, heavier bullets to be used from
the same diameter barrel, increasing range and power . In the 18th century, the standard
infantry arm was the smoothbore musket; by the 19th century, rifled barrels became the norm,
increasing the power and range of the infantry weapon significantly.

Most modern pistols, revolvers, rifles, and some shotgun barrels have what are called
rifling in their barrels.

Rifling consists of grooves cut or formed in a spiral nature, lengthwise down the barrel of a
firearm.  

Rifling is placed in the barrels of firearms to impart a spin on the bullets that pass through it. 
Because bullets are oblong objects, they must spin in their flight, like a thrown football, to be
accurate.

In firearm examiner lingo we refer to the rifling as lands & grooves. The lands are the
raised areas between two grooves.

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Steps in Rifling Making

1. Drilling

2. Rifling

2.1. Broach Rifling

2.2. Button Rifling

Probably the most common method used today to rifle barrels is button rifling.
Button rifling uses a different approach to forming the grooves in the barrel.  A button as seen
below is a very hard steel plug that is forced down an unrifled barrel. The grooves are then
formed in the barrel under very high pressure.  The pressure created to form the rifling in the
barrel hardens and polishes the inside of the barrel.

3. Hammer Forged Rifling

The newest mechanical method of rifling barrels is accomplished
through a process called hammer forging.  Hammer forging produces a type of rifling called
polygonal rifling.  A hardened steel mandrel is produced with the shape of the rifling formed
on its outer surface. The most common polygonal patterns are 6/right and 8/right. Polygonal
rifling takes on a shape that is sometimes referred to as "hills and valleys."

4. Electrochemical Rifling
In a process that eliminates the conventional machining of metal, rifling
is formed by wet-etching the interior of a barrel under an electric current.  The metal inside the
barrel is actually eaten away or dissolved to create grooves in the barrel.  An electrode
(cathode) that has metal strips in the shape of the rifling is placed in the barrel (anode) and the
assembly is submerged in a salt solution.  An electric current is applied and the electrode is
moved down the length of the barrel and twisted to create the spiral shaped grooves.  As the
current travels from the barrel to the electrode metal is removed by electrolysis thus forming
the grooves in the barrel.  This process creates the rifling in the barrel very quickly and does
not require consumable tooling. Electrochemical rifling is more similar in shape to the button
and broach rifled barrels but has slightly less distinct transitions between the lands and grooves.

VIII. FIREARMS, BULLET, and CARTRIDGE IDENTIFICATION

Basis for Firearms Identification

1. Firearms identification is actually refined tool marks identification.

2. The natural wear and tear of the tools involved.
3. When a softer surface comes in contact with a harder surface, it is the softer
surface that will acquire or be engraved or marked with impressions or scratches
from any irregularities on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.

Principles in Bullet Identification

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical (Principle of Individuality).

2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this
engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the
engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet
fired from another barrel. And conversely, the engravings on bullets fired from the same barrel
will be the same.

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3. Every barrel leaves its thumb marks on every bullet which is fired through it; just as every
breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge case.

Principles in Cartridge Case Identification

1. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leaves microscopic individualities of their
own.

2. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb marks” on every cartridge case which it
fires.

3. The whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since the breech face of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases which is fired with this individualities.
The imprint on all cartridge fired from the same weapon are always the same, those on
cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be different.

Marking Evidence Bullet- it should be marked on the base or on the ogive if possible but
NEVER on the bullet’s body/bearing surface.

Marking Evidence Cartridge Shell- it should be marked on the cartridge’s inner mouth/tip of
the but NEVER on the base or body/bearing surface.

Two General Types of Characteristic Markings:

1. Class Characteristics – are those characteristics that are determinable even prior to the
manufacture of the firearms. These characteristics are factory specifications and are within the
control of man and they serve as basis to identity a certain group or class of firearms. Examples
of “Class Characteristics” are:

 Bore Diameter (Caliber)

 Number of Lands and Grooves
 Width of Lands
 Width of Grooves
 Direction of twist
 Pitch of Rifling
 Depth of Grooves

Marks Fired Bullets:

1. Land Marks – caused by the lands

2. Groove Marks – caused by the grooves

3. Stripping Marks – due to bullet “jumping” the rifling

Marks on Fired Cartridge (Shells):

1. Firing pin mark

2. Breech face marks

3. Extractor mark

4. Ejector mark

5. Shearing marks

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6. Chamber marks

7. Pivotal marks

8. Magazine lip markings

Forensic Science, Firearms Identification.  Sometimes incorrectly referred to as ballistics,

firearms identification can be defined as the identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or
other ammunition components as having been fired from a specific firearm.

Firearms identification is actually a form of Tool mark Identification where the

firearm, because it is made of a material harder than the ammunition components, acts as a tool
to leave impressed or striated marks on the various ammunition components that come into
contact with the firearm.

Firearms evidence submitted to a lab's Firearms Section will typically includes:

1. Firearms

2. Fired bullets

3. Spent cartridge cases

4. Spent shot shells

5. Shots

6. Shot shell wadding

7. Live ammunitions, and

8. Clothings

In addition to comparing ammunition components to firearms, firearm examiners conduct other

examinations that usually include the following:

 Testing firearms to determine if they function properly.

 Examine clothing and other items for gunshot residues and/or shot patterns in an
attempt to determine a muzzle-to-garment distance.

 Determine caliber and manufacturer of ammunition components.  Including the

examination of various shot shell components.

 Determine the manufacturer or manufacturers of firearms that may have fired a

particular bullet or cartridge case.

Firearm examiners will perform specific scientific examinations upon the evidence
submitted.  Once the examinations are completed reports detailing their findings are forwarded
to the investigating officer and eventually to all parties involved in any subsequent criminal
proceedings.

Firearm examiners finish their involvement of a case by presenting their findings in a court
of law. 

Studies have shown that no two firearms, even those of the same make and model, will
produce the same unique marks on fired bullets and cartridge cases.  Manufacturing processes,

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use, and abuse leave surface characteristics within the firearm that cannot be exactly
reproduced in other firearms.

It should be noted that not all firearms leave consistent reproducible marks.  But overall it
has been experience that around eighty percent of the firearms that are examined produce what
is sometimes called a "mechanical fingerprint" on the bullets and cartridge cases that pass
through them.

All cases that involve firearms identification start with preliminary examinations of the
evidence for similar class characteristics.  Class characteristics can be defined as: Intentional
or design characteristics that would be common to a particular group or family of items.

The class characteristics of firearms that relate to the bullets fired from them includes the
caliber of the firearm and the rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm.

Cartridges and Cartridge cases on the other hand are examined for class similarities in
what are called breech marks, firing pin impressions, extractor marks, ejector marks and
others.

If dissimilarities in class characteristics are found or if a general lack of good class

characteristics are present no further comparisons may be necessary.

2. Individual Characteristics

If similar class characteristics are identified the examinations will progress to a final stage
where an attempt is made to find a "match" in what are called individual characteristics. 

Individual characteristics- are marks produced by the random imperfections or

irregularities of tool surfaces. These random imperfections or irregularities are produced
incidental to manufacture and/or caused by use, corrosion, or damage. They are unique to that
tool and distinguish it from all other tools.

Bullets collected for comparison to a specific firearm are examined first to see if they are of
a caliber that could have been fired from the submitted firearm.  They are then examined to
determine if the pattern of rifling impressions found on the bullet match the pattern of rifling
contained in the barrel of the questioned firearm.  If these class characteristics agree the next
step is to try to make a positive match between the individual characteristics that may have
transferred to the bullet from the barrel. Imperfections in the
surface of the interior of the barrel leave striations on the projectiles.  Striations have the
potential to be consistently reproduced in a unique pattern on every bullet that passes down the
barrel of a firearm.  The key word in the previous sentence is unique.
Firearm examiners will attempt to find this unique pattern by following
the procedures outlined below. A submitted firearm will be fired several times using a water
tank like the one on the left to obtain standards from the firearm. 
Most positive
identifications are made on striations that occur in land impressions and the best marks are
usually near the base of the bullets like those seen below.

Results

When comparisons are made between firearms and fired ammunition the results can read as
follows:

Exhibit 1 (bullet) was identified as having been fired from Exhibit 2 (revolver).

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This conclusion is reached after all class characteristics agree and a sufficient correlation
between individual characteristics is found.

Exhibit 1 (bullet) could neither be identified nor eliminated as having been fired from
Exhibit 2 (revolver). All comparisons were inconclusive.

This conclusion is reached if class characteristics agree but there is an insufficient correlation
between individual characteristics.

Exhibit 1 (bullet) was not fired from Exhibit 2 (revolver).

This conclusion is reached if class characteristics disagree.

In some cases, a firearm may not be recovered for comparison.  When this happens firearm
examiners can examine bullets for general rifling characteristics (GRC)  in an attempt to
determine what brands of firearms from which the bullet may have been fired. 

Caliber

When a bullet is submitted for comparison to a firearm, one of the first examinations conducted
will be to determine the bullet's caliber.

Caliber is a term used to indicate the diameter of a bullet in hundredths of an inch.  A bullet
that is 30 hundredths of an inch (.30) in diameter is called a 30 caliber bullet. The term caliber
is of English origin and is used by ammunition and firearm manufacturers in the United States.
Firearms and ammunition of European origin use the metric system and would refer to a 30
caliber bullet as a 7.62mm bullet. 

Rifling Impressions
A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in which it is
designed to be fired.  The bore diameter is the distance from one land to the opposite land in a
barrel.  As a result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of itself on the sides of the
bullet.   The rifling pattern in the barrel that fired a particular
bullet can be determined by counting the number of groove or land impressions around the
circumference of the bullet.  Then, by holding the nose of the bullet pointing away from you,
the direction the impressions run away from you (either to your left or right) determines the
direction of twist.  If the rifling impression pattern on the bullet matches the rifling pattern in
the barrel of the questioned firearm, the next step is to measure the rifling impressions on the
bullet. The lands and grooves on a bullet are measured in thousandths of an
inch or in millimeters.   One way to measure individual rifling impressions is to use a
micrometer. Another class characteristic of rifling that
is seldom comes into play is the rate of twist or pitch of the rifling in the barrel.  The rate of
twist is the distance the rifling needs to spiral down the barrel for it to complete a single
revolution.  An example would 1 turn in 12 inches. 

How to determine the number of Land and Grooves of a Fragmented Bullet? Time for
math!

You measure the land impression width to be .055 inches and the groove impression width to
be .130 inches.  Divide the diameter of the bullets suspected or measured caliber, in this case .
357, by the sum of the width of the one land and groove impression (.185), and then multiply
that number by pi (3.14).  .357 / .185 * 3.14 = 6.05

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This will give you the approximate number of lands or grooves that would have been in the
barrel that fired the bullet.  In this example, the approximate number of lands and grooves
would be six.

Cartridge Case Identification

Like bullets, cartridge cases can be identified as having been fired by a
specific firearm.  As soon as cartridges are loaded into a firearm the potential for the transfer of
unique tool marks exists.  However, the cartridge does not have to be fired for these marks to
be transferred.  Simply loading a cartridge into a firearm can cause unique identifiable marks
that can be later identified.

Tool marks produced on the cartridge cases will be in two basic forms.  As the microscopic
striations found on bullets, cartridge cases can pick up striated action marks. These
"scratches" are produced when the cartridge case moves laterally against the tool (inner
surface of the firearm) producing a scrape or striated mark.  The other form of marks that can
be left on a cartridge case are impressed action marks.  Impressed marks are created on
cartridge cases when it impacts the tool (again, the firearm) with adequate velocity or pressure
to leave an impressed or indented mark.

A. Striated Action Marks

Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed through the action of an
auto loading or repeating firearm.  Striated action marks can be produced on cartridge cases
by contact with a number of different areas within the firearm.  Some of the more common
striated action marks include chamber marks; shear marks, firing pin drag marks,
extractor marks, and ejector marks.

1. Chamber Marks- One of the most common striated action marks is called chamber marks
caused by the chamber of the firearm. 

2. Shear Marks- When a cartridge case is forced backwards from recoil the primer imbeds
itself in the firing pin hole.  As the slide of the pistol starts to recoil, the barrel will drop slightly
as the action opens.  The dropping barrel forces the cartridge case to move down slightly and
when this happens the lower edge of the imbedded primer is sheared downward and out of the
firing pin hole

3. Firing Pin Drag Marks- In a similar process, striated marks called firing pin drag marks
can be produced.  When the firing pin springs forward to strike the primer of a cartridge, it may
remain slightly forward and imbedded in the primer.  Certain barrels drop down slightly as
recoil is forcing the action open.  The cartridge case drops with the barrel causing the nose of
the protruding firing pin to drag across the primer as it leaves the firing pin impression.  The
below comparison image shows firing pin drag marks.

4. Extractor Marks- marks caused by the extractor found at the extractor groove of the
cartridge shell.

Impressed Action Marks

Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a cartridge case is fired in a
firearm.  The two most common impressed action marks are firing pin impressions and
breech marks.  As mentioned at the end of the Striated Action Marks page, ejector marks can
also be in the form of an impressed action mark.

1. Firing Pin Impressions- marks produced by the firing pin.

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2. Breech Face Marks- the most common impressed action marks on cartridge cases are
breech marks.  When a firearm is discharged, the shooter will feel the firearm jump rearward. 
This rearward movement of the firearm is called recoil.  Recoil is for the most part caused by
the cartridge case moving rearward as an opposite reaction to the pressures generated to force
the bullet down the barrel. When the head or base of the cartridge case moves rearward, it
strikes what is called the breech face of the firearm.

Types of Breech Face Marks

1. Parallel Lines Breech Face

2. Circular Breech Marks

3. Breech marks with no obvious pattern

3. Ejector Marks- marks produced by the ejector which is common to semi-automatic and
automatic firearms.

IX. External Ballistic

External ballistics is the part of the science of ballistics that deals with
the behavior of a non-powered projectile in flight. External ballistics is frequently associated
with firearms, and deals with the behavior of the bullet after it exits the barrel and before it
hits the target.

Bullet’s Motion after leaving the gun barrel:

1. Yaw

2. Precession

3. Nutation

Forces acting on the projectile

When in flight, the main forces acting on the projectile are gravity and
air resistance. Gravity imparts a downward acceleration on the projectile, causing it to drop
from the line of sight. Drag or the air resistance decelerates the projectile with a force
proportional to the square of the velocity. During flight, gravity and drag have a major impact
on the path of the projectile, and must be accounted for when predicting how the projectile will
travel.

General trends in ballistic coefficient

In general, a pointed bullet will have a better ballistic coefficient (BC) than a round
nosed bullet, and a round nosed bullet will have a better BC than a flat point bullet. Large
radius curves, resulting in a shallower point angle, will produce lower drags, particularly at
supersonic velocities. Hollow point bullets behave much like a flat point of the same point
diameter. Bullets designed for supersonic use often have a slight taper at the rear, called a boat
tail, which further reduces drag. Cannelures, which are recessed rings around the bullet used to
crimp the bullet securely into the case, will cause an increase in drag.

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External factors

Ambient air density

Air temperature, pressure, altitude and humidity variations make up the ambient air density.
Decreased air density will result in a decrease in drag, and increased air density will result in a
rise in drag.

Wind

From a scientific perspective, the "wind pushing on the side of the bullet" is not what causes
wind drift. What causes wind drift is drag. Drag makes the bullet turn into the wind, keeping
the centre of air pressure on its nose.

Vertical angles

The vertical angle (or elevation) of a shot will also affect the trajectory of the shot. Ballistic
tables for small calibre projectiles (fired from pistols or rifles) assume that gravity is acting
nearly perpendicular to the bullet path. If the angle is up or down, then the perpendicular
acceleration will actually be less. The effect of the path wise acceleration component will be
negligible, so shooting up or downhill will both result in a similar decrease in bullet drop.

Trajectory is the path a moving object follows through space. The object might be a projectile
or a satellite, for example. It thus includes the meaning of orbit - the path of a planet, an
asteroid or a comet as it travels around a central mass. A trajectory can be described
mathematically either by the geometry of the path, or as the position of the object over time.

X. Terminal ballistics
Bullets produce tissue damage in three ways:

1. Laceration and crushing - Tissue damage through laceration and crushing occurs
along the path or "track" through the body that a projectile, or its fragments, may
produce.

2. Cavitation - A "permanent" cavity is caused by the path (track) of the bullet itself,
whereas a "temporary" cavity is formed by continued forward acceleration of the
medium (air or tissue) in the wake of the bullet, causing the wound cavity to be
stretched outward.

3. Shock waves - Shock waves compress the medium and travel ahead of the bullet, as
well as to the sides, but these waves last only a few microseconds and do not cause
profound destruction at low velocity.

Ricochet

A ricochet is a rebound, bounce or skip off a surface, particularly in the case of a

projectile. The possibility of ricochet is one of the reasons for the common firearms safety rule

"Be sure of your target—and of what is beyond it.

Billiard Ball Effect

Tissue Quake

XI. Shot Ballistics

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A shotgun (also known as a fowling piece or scattergun) is a firearm that is usually designed
to be fired from the shoulder, which uses the energy of a fixed shell to fire a number of small
spherical pellets called shot or a solid projectile. Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes,
ranging from 5.5 mm (.22 inch) bore up to 5 cm (2 inch) bore, and in a range of firearm
operating mechanisms, including breech loading, double barreled shotguns, pump-action, bolt-
action, lever-action, and semi-automatic models. The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon
leaving the barrel, the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets, which means
that the energy of any one ball of shot is fairly low.

Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as shotgun shells, or just shells (when it is
not likely to be confused with artillery shells). The term cartridge is standard usage in the
United Kingdom. Single projectile loads are generally called shotgun slugs or just slugs.

A rifled slug, with finned rifling designed to spin the bullet and stabilize it in order to improve
its accuracy, is an example of a single projectile. Some shotguns have rifled barrels and are
designed to be used with a "saboted" bullet, one which is typically encased in a two-piece
plastic ring (sabot) designed to peel away after it exits the barrel, leaving the bullet, now
spinning after passing through the rifled barrel, to continue toward the target.

The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon leaving the barrel which makes it easier to hit
small targets at suitable ranges than with a rifle. The shot is usually fired from a smoothbore
barrel; another configuration is the rifled slug barrel, which is used to fire a single projectile
(though some slugs can also be fired from smoothbore weapons).

Design features for various uses

Compared to handguns, shotguns are heavier, larger, and not as maneuverable in close quarters
(which also presents a greater retention problem), but do have these advantages:

 They are generally much more powerful.

 They are easier for most shooters to hit with.
 They are generally perceived as more intimidating.
 On average, a quality pump-action shotgun is generally less expensive than a quality
handgun (self-loading shotguns are generally more expensive than their pump-action
counterparts).
 Shotguns are, in general, not as heavily regulated by legislation as handguns are (and
are thus easier to obtain).
 When loaded with smaller shot, a shotgun will not penetrate walls as readily as rifle and
pistol rounds, making it safer for non-combatants when fired in or around populated
structures.
 For some purposes, a shotgun can be made with a pistol grip and no stock: see image.

A sawed-off shotgun refers to a shotgun whose barrel has been shortened, leaving it more
maneuverable, easier to use at short range and more readily concealed. It is sometimes known
as a "Lupara" (in Italian a generic reference to the word "Lupo" ("Wolf")) in Southern Italy
and Sicily.

Design factors

Action

Action is the term for the operating mechanism of a gun. There are many types of shotguns,
typically categorized by the number of barrels or the way the gun is reloaded

1. Break-action

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2. Pump-action- pump-action shotgun is also known as Riot Guns.

3. Lever-action

4. Semi-automatic

5. Bolt-action

In 1925, Rodolfo Cosmi produced the first working prototype of his semi-automatic shotgun,
which had an 8 round magazine located in the stock. While it reloaded automatically after each
shot like a semi-automatic, it had a break-action to load the first shell.

Gauge (Bore Diameter)

The caliber of shotguns is measured in terms of gauge (U.S.) or bore (U.K.). The gauge
number is determined by the number of solid spheres of a diameter equal to the inside diameter
of the barrel that could be made from a pound of lead. So a 10 gauge shotgun nominally should
have an inside diameter equal to that of a sphere made from one-tenth of a pound of lead.

Shot

Most shotguns are used to fire "a number of ball shot", in addition to slugs and sabots. The
ball shot or pellets is for the most part made of lead but this has been partially replaced by
bismuth, steel, tungsten-iron, tungsten-nickel-iron and even tungsten polymer loads.

Choke

It is the constriction in the end of the shotgun barrel that is used to tailor the pattern for
different purposes. Chokes may either be formed as part of the barrel at the time of
manufacture, by squeezing the end of the bore down over a mandrel, or by threading the barrel
and screwing in an interchangeable choke tube. The choke typically consists of a conical
section that smoothly tapers from the bore diameter down to the choke diameter, followed by a
cylindrical section of the choke diameter.

Barrel length

According to Remington, modern powder in a shotgun burns completely in 25 to 36 cm

barrels.

Shotguns made for close ranges, where the angular speed of the targets is great (such as skeet
or upland bird hunting) tend to have shorter barrels, around 24 to 28 inches (610 to 710 mm).
Shotguns for longer range shooting, where angular speeds are less (trap shooting; quail,
pheasant, and waterfowl hunting) tend to have longer barrels, 28 to 34 inches. The longer
barrels have more inertia, and will therefore swing more slowly but more steadily.

Shotguns intended for all-round hunting are a compromise, of course, but a 72 to 74 cm (28-29
inch) barrel pump-action 12-gauge shotgun with a modified choke can serve admirably for use
as one-gun intended for general all-round hunting of small-game such as quails, rabbits,
pheasants, doves, and squirrels.

Ammunition for Shotgun

Standard types include:

1. Shot (also known as birdshot in the smaller shot sizes) is the most commonly used round,
filled with lead or lead substitute pellets. Shot shells are described by the size of the pellets

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within, and numbered in reverse order (ie; the bigger the shot, the smaller the number). Size
nine (#9) shot is the smallest size.

2. Buckshot, is larger than birdshot, and was originally designed for hunting larger game, such
as deer.

3. Slug rounds are rounds that fire a single solid slug.

Types of Shotgun According to Number of Barrel

1. Combination gun- is a shoulder-held sporting firearm that comprises at least two barrels.

2. Cape guns- a rifle barrel and a shotgun barrel.

3. Drilling- (from the German drei for three) refers to a combination gun that has three barrels,
which may be any mixture of rifle and shotgun barrels.

4. Vierling (from the German vier for four) has four barrels.

5. Fünfling (from the German fünf for five) has five barrels.

Carbine

It is a firearm similar to a rifle or musket, but generally shorter and of lesser power.

XII. Wound ballistics

The field of wound ballistics largely comprises the study of the physiology and medical effects
of projectile weapons (chiefly, but not exclusively, bullets) on humans or animals. It can be
considered the intersection of medicine and terminal ballistics.

The term ballistic trauma (generally referred to by the type of weapon; gunshot wound, etc.)
refers to a form of physical trauma sustained from the discharge of arms or munitions during
conflict or otherwise.

Destructive effects

1. Fatal Wounds leads to death.

2. Non-fatal gunshot wounds can result in serious disability.

Close Contact Gunshot Wound - illustrating a patterned abrasion around the wound in the
shape of the gun muzzle.

Contact Gunshot Wound - the barrel has contacted the skin, and the gases released have
passed into the subcutaneous tissues, causing the stellate shaped laceration. There is also some
grey/black discoloration and a faint abrasion ring.

Intermediate Gunshot Wound - powder tattooing

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Entrance wounds

Contact wounds characteristically have soot on the outside of the skin, and muzzle
imprint, or laceration of the skin from effects of gases.

Examination for GSR may aid in distinguishing entrance from exit wounds, for the
entrance wound will have more than the exit, or the exit will have none.

Exit wounds

Most bullets are designed to hit the target without exiting, for this imparts all the bullet's
KE to the target and does the most damage. However, in many situations an exit wound will be
present. This may be due to the use of a projectile more powerful than necessary, or the
projectile may strike an area (such as an extremity) with minimal tissue.

Exit wounds are generally larger than entrance wounds, due to the fact that the bullet has
expanded or tumbled on its axis. Exit wounds either do not exhibit gunshot residues or far less
residues than associated entrance wounds.

Scanning Electron Microscopy of exit wounds shows irregular lacerations and gunpowder on
the entrance wound.

XIII. Examination of Gunshot Residue

Composition of gunshot residue

Firing a weapon produces combustion of the primer and powder of the cartridge. The
residue of the combustion products, or unburned primer or powder components, can be used to
detect a fired cartridge. Residue may be found on the skin or clothing of the person who fired
the gun, on an entrance wound of a victim, or on other target materials at the scene. The
discharge of a firearm, particularly a revolver, can deposit residues even to persons at close
proximity, so interpretations as to who fired the weapon should be made with caution.

The major primer elements are lead (Pb), barium (Ba), or antimony (Sb). Usually, all
three are present. Less common elements include aluminum (Al), sulfur (S), tin (Sn), calcium
(Ca), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl), or silicon (Si).

Detection of Gunshot Residue

The major methods for detection of primer residues are Neutron Activation Analysis
(NAA), Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS), and Scanning Electron Microscopy
with Energy Dispersive Analysis (SEM-EDA). For these methods, samples must be obtained
from the skin surfaces of a victim at the scene. Delay in obtaining residues, movement, or
washing of the body prior to autopsy will diminish or destroy gunshot residues.

Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis (SEM-EDA) has become
an excellent method for detection of gunshot residue NOT Paraffin Test.

XIV. Equipments used in Firearms Identification

Bullet Comparison Microscope

This valuable instrument is especially designed to permit the firearms examiner to

determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two fire bullets or two fired shells, by
simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field

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 Through this type of equipment, the two fired bullets or fired shells are seen in
“JUXTAPOSITION” –that is the two objects –evidence bullet and bullet are examined and
compared:

a. At the same time

b. At the same plane or level
c. At the same direction
d. At the same magnification
e. At the same image

Bullet Recovery Box

This is used to recover test bullets or test shell for comparison with the question bullets or
question shells.

Bullet Recovery Tank- it is approximately 3 feet wide, 10 feet long and 3 feet high.

Vernier Caliper

This instrument is used to measure the Diameter of the Bullets or Shells up to a

thousandth of an inch.

Micrometer

It is used also for measuring purposes same as the Vernier Caliper.

Torsion Balance

This is used more or less for determining weights of bullets and shotgun pellets – for
possible determination of type, caliber and make of firearms from which fired.

Helixometer

It is used in measuring the pitch of riffling of firearms.

Taper Gage

Used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms.

Electric Gun Maker

Used in laboratory for making fired bullets, fired shells, and firearms submitted for
examination.

Ballistic Digested Reviewer

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects
their motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a product
of series of experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is not an exact science rather it
is applied physics or applied science, which is subject to changes and improvement depending
upon the demands of the modern civilization. Motion refers to the mobility or movement of
the projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach
its target or fall in the ground. A projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball which is

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propelled from a firearm. Its motion can be categories into three general types: Direct motion,
Rotatory motion and Translation motion. \

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell
by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore
barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.

3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently

ricocheted.
Origin of the Word Ballistics
The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and the
word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.

The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called
“Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at a distance like
stone, dead animal or even dead person.

The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal
Ballistics, Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the gun was
fired until it reach the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics is branches into
four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in connection with the
administration of justice particularly cases involving firearms and ammunition which is termed
as Forensic Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics

1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside
the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to the muzzle. The conditions
attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

a. Firing pin hitting the primer

b. Ignition of the priming mixture

The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either
at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin
will ignite and such action is known as “Percussion action”.

c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.

d. Expansion of heated gas.

e. Pressure developed

f. Energy generated

g. Recoil of the gun

Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of
the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of the gun in relation to
the forward movement of the bullet.

Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward and
upward movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.

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 h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel

It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel expressed in feet per second.

i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel

j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after
leaving the gun muzzle.

a. Muzzle Blast

Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.

b. Muzzle energy

Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.

c. Trajectory

Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the
muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken by a
bullet during its.

d. Range

It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.

d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or gunner has
control of his shots.

d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet was fired it is
still capable of inflicting fatal injury.

d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity

Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time usually
express is feet per second (ft/sec.)

f. Pull of Gravity

It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to
its weight.
g. Air Resistance

Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.

3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of
the projectile on the target.

a. Terminal Accuracy

It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

b. Terminal Energy
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 Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as striking
energy.

c. Terminal Velocity

Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

d. Terminal Penetration

Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics

This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law. The
idea comes with the used of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin
word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered for public disputation or
public discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it
suggests a relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as applied to
law or simply the science of firearm identification by means of the ammunition fired through
them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation

2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits

3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS

1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading
single shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace Maker,
a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1
garand.
7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease gun)
developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union)
adopted by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in making
breech loading rifles.
10. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company
from July 1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
12. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and
model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
13. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
14. David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.

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 15. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.
IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the
Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which noted Black powder formula.

1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech loaders were
attempted although never succeeded yet even multi shots arms due to lack of
good ignition system.

1500’s The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same principle as the
modern day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce” was developed.

1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped in
chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-measured
charges or pre loaded rounds.

1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of

FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle, which is a
flint lock repeating rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the HALL Rifle
patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall and was the 1st breechloader adopted by the
U.S. Army.

1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a compound that
would ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder charge. In 1840, it replaces
the flintlock ignition and was adopted in 1838 by the British and in 1842 by the
American.

1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the BB and
was considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.

1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech loading
revolver.

1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire
cartridge was also developed in the same year by Houiller.

1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which was
considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In the same year, New
Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the effort of
Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.

1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the year 1864
by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year 1884 by M.
Vieille of France.

1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver in history
and legend was manufactured.

1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic
gun.

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Firearms

Legal Definition of Firearm

Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol,
revolvers, and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missiles
maybe discharge by means of gun powder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifle,
except such of being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm
shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877 Revised
Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue Code).

Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the
expansive force gases coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms
Identification).

Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their
gun barrel.

Examples: Shotguns and Musket

2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.

Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)

1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch
diameter.

Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:

2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter and it
can be handled, moved and operated by one man.

Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.

2.1 Machine guns

Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use.
Even in investigation of shooting cases done in the city, it is not usual or common to
encounter this type of firearm having been used. It can be grouped in three general
types:

Sub Machine Gun

Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size

ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and designed to be
fired with both hands.

Shoulder Arms

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 Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from the
shoulder.

Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long
rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.

Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires
a single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press
of the trigger.

Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to
fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of musketeers can be found
on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.

Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of
lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore

construction.

A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the barrel
B. choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter type
towards the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the
shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can be
observed to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using
one hand.

Ex. Pistols and Revolvers

a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There were
three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi automatic and the
revolving pistols now known as the revolver.

b. Revolver

Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for

firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two types of
revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T

Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer
before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of revolver that does
not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked and released the
hammer causing a much faster firing.

C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)

1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every loading.

Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.

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 2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one
loading.

Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.

3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of
the trigger and while the trigger is press.

Examples: Machine guns and rifles

4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and forth
manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.

Examples: Shotgun and pistols

5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the
both back and forth.

Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.

6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.

Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for other
purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish gun.

1. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
2. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy
identification.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.

4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.

5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed
to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from the
muzzle point.

8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally used for
construction of furniture.

1. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
2. Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

Ammunition

Legal Definition

Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun, revolvers and
pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or
other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the
code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as Sec 877 RAC)

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Technical Definition

Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a

complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and
gunpowder (propellant).

Origin

The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a “paper”
and also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning – a rolled paper. This only indicates
that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about the turn of the 16th
century that the term “cartridge” comes to use.

A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6)

a. Dummy ( used as a model)

b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)

c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)

d. Live Ammunition

B. Classification of Cartridge

I. According to the Location of the Primer

a. Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is concealed

inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
b. b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at the
hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the
rim of the case (cavity rim).
c. Center fire = t refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is
centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is
exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.
II. According to Rim Diameter

a. Rimmed Case type.

b. Semi-Rimmed type

d. Rimless type
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a rim
diameter smaller than the body of the case

e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in front
of the extraction groove.

III. According Caliber

Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm and

use:

Inches MM.

Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles

Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.

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 Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles

Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)

Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers

Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols

Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers

Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols

Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge

It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case,
wads and gunpowder .

Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms
of its diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used
in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure
lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present
the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest
one. Listed below are the equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.

Gauge Inch

10 .775 inch

12 .729 inch

16 .670 inch

20 .615 inch

28 .550 inch

.410 .410 inch

Types of Shots

1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of
arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as it falls down the
shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their velocity quicker, low
penetrating power and string out more.

2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony mixed
with lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less string and more
uniform velocity and penetration.

3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated with
thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity, great resistance
to deformation and leading and better pattern.

Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

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 Bullets
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a small
ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to projectile fired from any small arms,
which has a variety of form, especially during the earlier history. In a more technical sense,
bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is
sometimes called as shots or slugs.

Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and purpose. In general
bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead metal.
Its used was due to its density; having a good weight is a small size and easy for
casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core,
coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel and is
generally used in pistols and other high power guns.
According to their Maximum Effect to their targets
1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and general use.

2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel armor.
Its mechanical construction makes it capable of penetrating through some light vehicles.

3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will

detonate on impact.

4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target, generally
designed to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to ignite.

5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or traces
while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the shot or make
adjustments in the event of a miss

Cartridge Case

Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass (70%
copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit. It is
also known as shell or casing.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.

2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.

3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant gas upon
firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.

5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a
rapid firing of firearms.

Parts of the Cartridge Case

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 1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp
marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer and in some cases
including the date, trade name, and batch number.

2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the
cartridge to chamber.

3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for
automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.

4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be
put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the primer in place; (b) to
provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid support for primer anvil.

5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.

6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the cartridge
which is evident in a bottleneck type.

7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case
designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from being push down
to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being utilized for identification.

8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is
obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.

9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two
purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out from the shell and
Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the gun
powder.

10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the passage
way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

Primer

Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire
type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into
flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as
the percussion cup.

The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel
Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department.

The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal
Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866.

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the
disc and the anvil.

2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the
mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.

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 3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the
blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.

4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to
protect it from moisture attack.

Gun Powder

Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of chemicals of

various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas
when burned.

Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to gunpowder
discovery were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short description of how their
names are always mentioned in the history.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili Potestate
Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an anagram.

Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk
of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while
experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the
lid, and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot
(Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter (75%),
charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%).

These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the introduction of
the smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army,
made the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the year 1864. (Although
historically nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in 1846). The basic ingredient used
for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first produced by adding a nitric acid to
cellulose fiber.

Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the year
1884 and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred Nobel
invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and nitrocellulose (60%) as the main
composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they utilized picrid acid in addition to
cellulose powder which they called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the
one used, more powerful than picric acid but much difficult to detonate. Also In the year 1889,
Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed “Cordite” a smokeless powder with same
composition as Nobel in the form of cords or sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless powder had
replaced black powder and became uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics

Stages in the manufacture of barrel

A. Drilling

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B. Reaming

C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and such
can be performed in any of the following methods:

1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)

2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)

3. Broaching system – (broach)

4. Button – system (button)

D. Lapped

The Breech face

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same important.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms which can be
determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are
considered to be a manufacture’s designs or specifications and security.

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was reamed.
The distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore in a
hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in either caliber in inch
or in millimeters.
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside the barrel
of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most
in the modern firearm are five and six.

Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves,
width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference after subtracting
all the grooves width.

4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the two
dies or edge of a grooves.

5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the
left or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to
ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It
refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete
turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the bore.
Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the height of the
lands.

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 B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are being
determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured. They are the product of
machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the firearms.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist
and the width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)

2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the
grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).

3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist , the
width of the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)

4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the
grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)

5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)

6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width
of the groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)

7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing
which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality
of its property based on the left marks on every bullet and shell fired from it. Such
marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to
discover individuality.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the
barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.

3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is
more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward
movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.Groove
Mark barrel
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit”
wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.

Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction
brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)

5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver cause
by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.

6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily or
oversize barrel.
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 Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case
more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim
cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most important marks for
identification of firearms using fired shell.

2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.

3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.

4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic
firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from the
firearm to the area of shooting.

5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the
primer near the firing pin mark.

6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the
magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case
cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks
can be used as basis for identification, in the absence or none use of these two, both the
ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary choice.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from which it was
fired.

2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which it
was fired.

3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired
bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.

4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired
bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.

5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from
one and the same firearm.

6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they were
fired from one and the same firearm.

Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

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1. Analytical or Torsion Balance
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10. Onoscope
11. Shadowgraph
12. Stereoscopic Microscope
13. Taper Gauge
14. Torsion Balance

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 FORENSIC
MEDICINE

NOTES OF FORENSIC MEDICINE

Law- defined as a rule of conduct, just and obligatory, land down by legitimate authority for
the common observance and benefit.

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Medicine- A science and art of dealing with prevention, cure and alleviation of disease. It is
that part of science and art of restoring and preserving health.

Legal- Refers to anything conformable to the letters or rules of law as it is administered by the
court.

Jurisprudence- A science of giving wise interpretation of the Laws.

Legal Medicine = is that branch of medicine which deals with the application of medical
knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of justice.

Forensic Medicine = use of medical science to elucidate legal problems in general without
specific reference or application to a particular case.

= it encompasses a variety of fields in forensic science such as pathology, anthropology,

odontology, toxicology, entomology, and others.

Medical Jurisprudence = a branch of law which concerns with the aspects of law and legal
concepts to medical practice. It includes rights, duties, and liabilities of physician, patient and
health institution.

Brief History of Legal Medicine

 Imhotep: earliest recorded medico-legal expert

 Hippocrates: discussed the lethality of wounds

 Antistius: the “first police surgeon” or forensic pathologist

 Paulus Zacchias: a papal physician, regarded as the “father of forensic medicine”

 Orfila: introduced chemical methods in toxicology

On December 23, 1975, Presidential Decree 856 was promulgated and Sec 95 provides:

 Persons authorized to perform autopsies:

 health officers

 medical officers of law enforcement agencies

 members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals

 Autopsies shall be performed in the following cases:

 whenever required by special laws

 upon order of a competent court, a mayor and a provincial or city fiscal

 upon written request of police authorities

 whenever the Solicitor General, provincial, or city fiscal deem it necessary to

disinter and take possession of the remains for examination to determine the
cause of death

 whenever the nearest kin shall request in writing the authorities concerned to
ascertain the cause of death

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Medico-Legal Cases

1. Injuries or deaths involving persons who have no means of being identified.

2. Persons pronounced as “dead on arrival”
3. Death under the following circumstances:
a. Death occurring within twenty-four (24 hrs) of admission when the clinical
cause of death is unknown or indeterminate:
b. Unexpected sudden death especially when the deceased was in apparent good
health;
c. Death due to natural diseases but associated with physical evidence suspicious
of foul play;
d. Death as a result of violence, accident, suicide or poisoning; and
e. Death due to improper or negligent act of another persons.
4. Physical injuries caused by:
a. gunshot wound, stab wound etc.,
b. Vehicular accident;
c. Asphyxia
d. Electrocution, Chemical or thermal insult;
e. Accident, Attempted homicide or suicide; and
f. Poisoning
5. Cases of child abuse, domestic violence, rape alcoholism and drug addiction.
6. Cases involving the mental in competency of the patient.
Difference between a medical jurist and an ordinary physician
1. An ordinary physician ignores trivial injuries not needing treatment which a medical
jurist records all injuries to qualify the crime or justify the act.
2. An ordinary physician sees injury or disease to be able to treat while a medical jurist
sees injury or disease in order to find out the cause.
3. The purpose of an ordinary physician is to arrive at a definite diagnosis and institute
proper treatment while a medical jurist testifies on bodily lesion seen for justice.

Difference Between Legal Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence

1. Legal medicine is a branch of 1. Medical jurisprudence is a branch of law

medical science
2. It is a medicine applied to law 2. It is a law applied to the practice of medicine
and administration of justice
3. It originates from the 3. It emanates from the act of congress, executive
development of medical science orders, administrative circulars customs and usages
and decisions of tribunals which have relation to the
practice of medicine

4.It is based on the principle of 4. it is based on the principle of subordination; that is

coordination; that legal medicine the duty of the physician to obey the laws in as much
coordinate medicine to law and as our government is established on the principle of
justice government of laws and not of men and that no one is
considered above the law.

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 The Medico-legal System

1. Medico-Legal Office System

The system used in the Philippines, which is handled by a medical jurist who is a
registered physician duly qualified to practice medicine in the Phils. The National Bureau
of Investigation and the Phil. National Police have their own medical jurist who handles
medicol-lagal cases. His duty is to examine the victim or assailant, to make report, and to
appear in court as an expert witness when summoned by the proper authorities.

2. Medical Examiner System

This is a system under the control of the Chief medical Examiner that is a doctor
of medicine and appointed by the mayor from the classified lists compiled by the civil
service by the basis of competitive examination. The office of the chief medical examiner
is on 24 hours work with clerical staff always present. His duty is to investigate the cause of
death especially violent death of the victim.

3. Coroner System
The coroner system is headed by a country coroner or borough coroner who may be
a barrister, solicitor or a legally qualified practitioner of not less than five (5) years standing
in his profession and is elected by the county council or borough council.

The coroner is an inquest officer whose duty is to inquire into the circumstances
of certain medico-legal deaths within his jurisdiction. Unlike the medico-legal officer or the
medical examiner whose qualifications, duties, and powers are practically the same, the
coroner has investigative and judicial functions.

Medical Evidence

Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the Rules of the Court, of ascertaining in

a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact

Types of Medical Evidence:

I. Autoptic or Real Evidence:

This is an evidence made known or addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which is known through the sense of vision but is extended to
what the sense of hearing, taste, smell, and touch is perceived.

Limitations to the presentation of Autoptic:

a. Indencency and Impropriety – Presentation of an evidence may be necessary to

serve the best interest of justice but notion of deceny and delicacy may cause
inhibition of its presentation.
b. Repulsive Objects to those Offensive to Sensibilities- Foul Smelling objects,
persons suffering from highly infectious and communicable disease, or objects
which when touch may mean potential danger to the life and health of the judge
may not be presented.
II. Testimonial Evidence:

A physician may be commanded to appear before a court to give his testimony. While in
the witness stand, he is obligated to answer the question propounded by the counsel and
presiding officer of the court. His testimony must be given orally and under oath or affirmation.
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 a. Ordinary Witness:

A physician: who testifies in court on matters be perceived from his patient in

the course of physician-patient relationship is considered as an ordinary witness.

b. Expert Witness:

A physician on account of his training and experience can give his opinion on a
set of medical facts. He can deduce of infer something, determine the cause of
death or render opinion pertinent to the issue and medical in nature.

III. Experimental Evidence:

A medical witness may be allowed by the court to confirm his allegation or as a
corroborated proof to an opinion he previously stated.

IV. Documentary Evidence:

A document is an instrument on which is recorded by means of letters, figures or

marks intended to be used for purpose of recording that matter which may be
evidentially used. The term applies to writings, to words printed, lithographed or
photographed; to seals, plates or stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved; to
photographs and pictures; to maps or plans.

V. Physical Evidence:

These are articles and materials which are found in connection with the
investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator or the
circumstances under which the crime was committed, or in general assist in the
prosecution of a criminal.

Types of Physical Evidences:

a. Corpus Delicti Evidence- Objects or substance which may be a part of the body
of the crime.
b. Associative Evidence- These are physical evidences which link a suspect to the
crime.
c. Tracing Evidence- These are physical evidences which may assist the
investigator in locating the suspect.
d.
MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

= Law of Municipality of Evidence (is true in the case of identification.)

The greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities, the greater is the

probability for the conclusion to be correct.

= The value of the different points of identification varies in the formulation of

conclusion.

= The longer the interval between the death and the examination of the remains for
purposes of identification, the greater is the need for experts in establishing identity.

= It is necessary for the team to act in the shortest possible time specially in cases of
mass disaster.

= There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure of identification of persons.

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 Importance of Identification of Persons:

1. In Criminal case, the identity of the offender and that of the victim must be
established, otherwise it will be a ground for the dismissal of the charge or
acquittal of the accused.
2. Identification of missing person or presumed dead will facilitate settlement
of the estate, retirement, insurance and other social benefits. It vests on the
heirs the right over the properties of the identified person.
3. Identification resolves the anxiety of the next-of-kin, other relatives and
friends as to the whereabouts of a missing person or victim of calamity or
crime.
4. Identification may be needed in some transaction, like cashing of check,
entering a premise, delivery of parcels or registered mail in post office, sale
of property, release of dead bodies to relatives, parties to a contract, etc.

Methods of Identification:

1. By comparison – with the used of standard specimen, evidence under

question can be compared in order to effect identification.
2. By exclusion = is two or more persons have to be identified and all but one
is not yet identified, then the one whose identity has not been established
may be known by the process of elimination.

Ordinary methods of Identification

I. Points of Identification applicable to the living only:

a. Characteristic that may easily be changed:

- Growth of chair, beard or mustache
- Clothing
- Frequent place of Visit
- Grade of profession
- Body ornamentation
b) Characteristic that may not easily be changed:
- Mental memory
- Speech
- Gait a manner of walking or moving on food (Webster dic.)
1. Ataxic Gait- a gait which the foot is raised high, thrown
forward and brought down suddenly.
2. Cerebellar gait- a gait associated with staggering movement.
3. Cow’s Gait- a swaying movement due to knock-knee.
4. Paretic gait- a gait in which the steps are short, the feet
dragged, the legs held more or less widely apart.
5. Spastic gait- a gait in which the legs are held together and
moves in stiff manner, and the toes to drag and catch.
6. Waddling gait- a gait resembling duck
7. Frog gait- a hoping gait in infantile paralysis.
Gait line = the straight line connecting the center of the succeeding steps. It is more or less in
zigzag fashion especially when the legs are far apart while walking

Foot line = the longitudinal line drawn on each foot mark.

- Mannerisms- These are the characteristic movement of the

body peculiar to a person.

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 1. Way of sitting
2. Movement of the hands
3. Movement of the body
4. Movement of the facial muscles
5. Expression of the mouth while articulating
6. Manner of learning
- Hands and feet

- Facies
- Left or right handedness
- Degree of nutrition (thin, medium built or stout)
- Changes in the eye
-
II. Points of identification applicable to both living and dead before onset of
decomposition:

1. Occupational Marks
2. Race- In the living, race may be presumed on:
a.Color of the skin
Caucasians- fair

Malayans- brown

Negroes- Black

b. feature of face:

Caucasian- prominent sharp nose

Malayan- flat nose with round face

Mongolian- almond eyes such and

 prominent cheek bones.

Negroes- thick spreading lips

c. Shape of Skull

Red Indians- Flat head

Malayan- Round head

3. Stature (height)
               Methods of approximating the height of a person

a.)   measure the distance between the height of a person    fingers of

both hands with the arms extended laterally    and it will be equal to
the height of the person.

    b.)Two time the length of one arm plus 12 inches for the          clavicle
and 1.5inches for the sternum is the          approximate height.

b. Two times the length from the vertex of the skull to the public
symphyses.
a. The distance from the sternal netch and the
public symphyses is about one-hand of the height.
e.)   The distance from the base of the skull to the coccyx is about
44% of the height.

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4- Teeth

The following points must be considered in the study of the teeth for
identification process:

b. Determine whether it is temporary or

permanent set;
c. Number of teeth present;
d. Number of teeth lost, including evidence of
length of time lost;
e. Nature of the teeth present, whether reverse,
crooked, mal-aligned or straight;
f. Condition of those present, whether carious,
colored, presence of cavities, erosion, filling
and cleanliness;
g. Presence of supernumenary teeth;
h. Odontoid gum; and
i. Extraction, dental fitting, permanenet bridge
work, fitting of crown and filling cavities.
= the most convenient way of identifying a person by means of the
teeth is the use of dental diagram or chart.

5- Tattoo mark

Importance of Tattoo marks

2. It may help in the identification of the person

      b. It may indicate memorable events in his life

c. It may indicate the coial stratum to which the person belongs

d. It implies previous commitment in prison or membership in a gang

Methods of Tattoo Removal

A. Excision = involves an
injection of a local anesthetic to numb the area after which the tattoo
is removed surgically. The edges are then brought together and
sutured.
B. Dermabrasion = a small portion of the tattoo is sprayed with a
solution that freezes the area. The tattoo is then “sanded” with rotary
abrasive instrument causing the skin to peel. Because some bleeding
is likely to occur, a dressing is immediately applied to the area.
C. Laser = Laser surgery is considered to be one of the best methods of
tattoo removal. The Q-switched Nd: Yag, Q-switched Alexandrite and
the Q-switched Ruby are among the most frequenctly used lasers. If
necessary, a cream to numb the skin can be a[[lied pior to the
treatment. Pulse of light from the laser are directed unto the tattoo
breaking up the tattoo pigment. Over the next several weeks the
body’s scavenger cells remove the treated pigmented areas. More than
one treatment is usually necessary to remove all of the tattoo.
D. Salabrasion = a centuries old procedure using local anesthetic
applied around the tattoo area after which a solution of ordinary tap
water dipped in table salt is applied and an abrading apparatus such as
the one used in dermabrasion or even a simplier device is used such as
a wooden block wrapped in gauze.
6- Deformities

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 7- Birth marks

8- Injuries leaving permanent result

9- Moles

10-Scars = They are composed of fibrous tissues which take the place of the
original tissues which have been injured or destroyed. They are devoid
of specialized tissue so they do not contain pigment layers, sweat or
sebaceous glands.

a. Recent scars of two to three weeks old are vascular with red or pink color.
b. Contracted bloodless scars with white and glistering surfaces are usually
more than six months old;
c. Scars resulting from superficial wounds and from wounds healing by first
intention develop earlier.

SOME SCARS MAY SHOW CHARACTERISTICS APPEARANCE SUCH AS:

A. Surgical Operation = regular form and location with stitch

marks.
B. Burns and sealds = scars are large, irregular in shape and may be
keloid.
C. Gunshot wounds = disc like with depressed center. They may be
adherent to the underlying tissues.
D. Tuberculous sinus = irregular in shape, furrowed, with edges
hardened and uneven.
E. Gumma = depressed scar following loss of tissue
F. Venesection = located at bend of elbow, dorsum of feet, or at the
temporal region.
G. Lupus = bluish –white scar
H. Wetcupping = short parallel scars on the lower part of the back
and loin.
11- Tribal marks

                A common practice of some tribes in Africa is to place some marks

on the exposed parts of the body.

12- Sexual organs

Circumcision may help in identification. The uterous and

breast may indicate previous pregnancy. The best evidence of sexuality
is the presence of Testes in Male and Ovaries in the Female.

13- Blood examination ( ABO grouping and MN typing)

Extrinsic Factors in Identification:

2. Identification of ornamental wearing apparel

3. Personal Belongings
4. Clothing’s
5. Dust
6. Identification by close friend
7. Criminal Records

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 8. Photograph
Methods of Identification

1. Portrait Parle (Personal description) “speaking likeness”

Is a verbal, accurate and picturesque description of the person identified.

2. Photography
3. Anthropometry (Bertillion System)
A system of identification based on the measurements of the various bony
structure of the human body came to be known when it was introduced in the police
department in Paris, France in 1882 by Alphonse Bertillon.

Bases of the Bertillions method of identification

a. Human skeleton does not change after 20 years.

b. It is impossible for two human beings to have bones alike.
c. Measurement easily taken with the aid of simple instrument.

West case:

In 1903, Will West arrived at the US Petretentiary at the Leavenworth, kaneas. While
West was being processed in through identification, a staff member said that there was
already a photograph and Bertillon measurement for him on the file. But a comparison
on fingerprints showed that despite identical appearances and nearly identical Bertillon
measurements, the identification card on file belonged to a Willian West, who had
been in Leavenworth since 1901.
4. Fingerprint Identification
5. Handwriting Identification
6. Blood Grouping and Blood Typing
7. DNA Testing (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (A-adenine, C- cytosine, T- thymine, and G-
guamine Sequence)

LIGHT AS A FACTOR IN IDENTIFICATION

1. Clearest moonlight or starlight

= experiments have shown that the best known person cannot be recognized
under the clearest moonlight at a distance greater than 16 to 17 yards and by
Starlight any further than 10 to 13 yards.

2. Broad Daylight
= a person can hardly recognized another person at a distance further
than 100 yards if the person has never been seen before; but person who are almost
stranger may be recognized at a distance of 25 yards.

3. Flash of Firearm
= Although by experiment by experiment letters of two inches high can be read
with the aid of the flash of a caliber.22 firearm at a distance of two (2) feet it is hardly
possible for a witness to see the assailant in case of a holdup or a murder because:

a. Usually the assailant is hidden

b. The assault is unexpected and the intention of the person or witness is at its
minimum.
4. The flash of Lighting

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 = produces sufficient light from the identification of individual provided
that the person’s eye is focused towards the individual he wishes to identify during the
flash.

5.  In case of artificial light. The identification is relative to the kind and intensity of
the light.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKELETON

Following points can be determined

i. Whether the remains are of human origin or not.

- oval or round shape of the skull
- less prominent lower jaw and nasal bone
i. Whether the remains come from a single individual or not
- complete layout of the bones on a table in their exact locations in the
human body is necessary.
- Any pluarality denotes that the remains belong to more than one (1)
person.
i. Height
ii. Determination of the Sex of the skeleton
- the following bones must be studied
a. pelvis
b. skull
c. sternum
d. femur
e. humerous
f.
DETERMINATION OF AGE

Legal Importance of Age Determination

1. For Identification
2. To Determine Criminal Liability
3. For Right of Suffarage or in the exercise of other political rights
4. For the exercise of civil rights
5. Determination of the capacity to contract marriage
6. Age is a factor by which the crime of rape is committed
7. The crime of infanticide can only be committed when the child killed is less than
three days old.
8. Seduction is committed on a woman over twelve and under eighteen years of
age

Determination of Age of the Fetus:

1. For fetus less than 25 cm. Long

Find the square root of the length in centimeters and the result is the age of the
fetus in month.
2. For fetus 25 cm. Long or more
Divide the length of the fetus in centimeters by 5, and the result will be the age
in months.
(Age as referred in this rule is lunar month, not calendar month. One
lunar month is equivalent to 28 days)

Nature of the Intra-uterine product of conception corresponding to the age in months:

1 month - The Ovum is about 1.0 cm with limb buds only present.

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 2 months - The ovum has a length of 2.5cm with an embryo about 1.0cm long with
head, ears and hands well formed.
3 months - The length is 9.0 cm. With nails beginning to appear and the plancenta
can be differentiated.
4 months - The length is 16.0 cm. And the sex can be differentiated, with the fingers
beginning to open and hair beginning to appear on the head.
5 months - Fetus processes hair on the head and Lanugo over body surfaces. Nails
are distinct. Skin shows sebaceous secretion. Dental gum appears at
the mandible.
6 months - Fetus weighs 2.5 kg. Lanugo and vernix present in the skin are dark and
wrinkled. Meconium is present in the small intestine and at the
beginning of the large intestine. Brain shows convolutions. The testis
is found in the abdominal cavity. Hair of eyebrow and eye-lashes
begin to appear.
7 months - The body is dark red and plump, with hair on the scalp. The testis begins
to descend towards the scrotum.
8 months - Fetus has rosy skin, and nails reach the end of the finger-tips.
Convolutions of the brain are more distinct. Second piece of sternum
ossified Papillary membrane disappears.
9 months - Brain convolutions reach the gray matter. The scrotum is occupied by
the testis. The body surface is now pale. Sebaceous secretion is
formed at the flexures of joints. Nails fully formed and developed.

Medico-Legal Aspects of Death

Life – is the sum total of all vital processes by which the physical integrity of the body is
maintained.
Death- is the state of complete persistent cessation of the vital function of the body such as
the function of the heart, the lings and the brain.

A. Importance of Death Determination

1. The civil personality of a natural person is extinguished by death;

The civil personality is extinguished by death. The effect of death upon the
rights and obligations of the deceased is determined by law, by contract and by will.

2. The property of a person is transmitted to his heirs at the time of death.

3. The death of a partner is one of the causes of dissolution of partnership agreement.
4. The death of either the principal or agent is a mode of extinguishments of agency
5. The criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death.
6. The civil case for claims which does not survive is dismissed upon death of the
defendant.

B. Kinds of Death

1. Clinical Death or Somatic Death

Is a type of death usually declare by members of the immediate family of the
diseased or by the physician. Immediate signs of the in a person are; Sudden cessation of
the upward and downward movement of the chest in the process of respiration (10-15
minutes), sudden pale color of the faces and lips, pulse and heart beat stops, the jaw or
head drops down and flaccidity of muscles occur; presence of dilated pupil as well as
loss of corneal and light reflexes. Clinical types of death can either be: Sociologic,
Psychic, Biologic or Physiologic.

2. Molecular or Cellular Death

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 Is the type of death characterized by death of individual cells ( one at a time )
after the somatic death. The nerve cells and brain cells die earlier at about 5 minutes due
to loss of food and oxygen while the muscles live longer until the onset of the rigor mortis
which about two to three hours after death.

3. Apparent Death/ State of Suspended Animation

A transient loss of consciousness of temporary cessation of the vital function of
the body on account of disease, external stimulus other forms of influence.

C. Signs of Death

A. Cessation of Respiration
Cessation of respiration in order to be considered as a sign of death must be
continuous and persistent. A person can hold his breath for a period of not longer than 3
– ½ minutes. In case of electrical shock, respiration may cease for sometime but maybe
restored by continuous artificial respiration.

Irregular Types of Respiration

A.Cheyne-Strokes respiration – interval is about fifteen to thirty seconds

c. In drowning and electric shock

d. In new born infants
e. In the voluntary act of respiratory suspension.
Methods of Detecting Cessation of Respiration:

Expose the chest and abdomen and observe the movement during inspiration and expiration.

a. Examine the person with the aid of stethoscope which is placed at  the base of
the anterior aspects of the neck and hear sound of the current of air passing
through the trachea during each phase of respiration.
b. Examination with a Mirror
c. Examination with a Feather or Cotton Fibers
d. Examination with a glass of water
e. Winslow’s test
B. Cessation of Heart and Circulation

There must be an entire and continuous cessation of the heart action and flow of
blood in the whole vascular system,. A temporary suspension of the heart action is still
compatible with life. The length of time the heart may cease to function and life is still
maintained depends upon the length of time it is readily reestablished and upon the oxygenation
of blood at the time of the suspension. As a general rule, if there is no heart action for a period
of five minutes death is regarded as certain.

Methods of Detecting the Cessation of heart Action and circulation:

A. Examination of the heart:

-Palpation of the pulse and heart beat.

- Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the region of
the heart.

- Observation of the point of maximum impulse.

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 - Electrocardiography or ECG.

- Flouroscopic Examination

B. Examination of the Peripheral Circulation:

- Magnus’ Test
- Opening of Small Artery
- Icard’s test
- Pressure on the fingernails
- Diaphanous Test
- Application of heat on the Skin
- Palpation of the radial pulse
- Dropping of Melted Wax

C. Cooling of the body (ALGOR MORTIS)

After death the metabolic process inside the body ceases. No more heat is
produced but the body loses slowly its temperature by evaporation or by conduction
to the surrounding atmosphere. The progressive fall of the body temperature is one
of the most prominent signs of death.
Gradual decreasing of the body temperature until such time it assumes the
temperature of the environment which is faster during the first two (2) hours after
death and slower during the next 6 to 9 hours and equal to the environmental
temperature beyond 12 hours.
The fall of temperature of 15 to 20 degrees Farenheit is considered s a certain
sign of death.
Post Mortem Caloricity is the rise of temperature of the body after death due to
rapid and early putrefactive changes or some internal changes. It is usually
observed in the first two hours of death. Occur in the following condition:
a. Cholera b.Tetanus c. Small pox d. Peritonitis
D. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move.
No kind of stimulus is capable to letting the body have voluntary movement.

E. Changes in the Eyes

a.  Loss of Corneal and light reflexes

b.  Haziness of the cornea

c. Flaccidity of the eyeball

d. Finding inside the eye.
(Opthalmoscopic finding)

F. Changes in skin

A. Change of color
B. Loss of the elasticity of the skin
C. Opacity of the skin
D. Absence of reaction to injury

CHANGES OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH

1. Primary Flaccidity ( period of the muscle irritability )

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 -muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting when stimulated

- pupil are dilated, incontinence of urination and defection.

- Lasts 3- 6 hours after death.
2. Stage of Post Mortem Rigidity (Rigor Mortis)
- 3-6 hours after death and may last 24 to 36 hours
- body becomes rigid due to contraction of the muscles
Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis

1. Heat Stiffening
- body is exposed to temperature above 77 degree Celsius
- Pugilistic attitude
- More or less permanent
   2. Cold Stiffening

-
due to solidification of fat when the body is exposed to
freezing temperature.
3. Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous rigor.
- ridigity of the muscles which occurs at the moment of death
due to nervous tension, exhaustion and injury to the nervous
system.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN RIGOR MORTIS AND CADAVERIC SPASM

Rigor Mortis Cadaveric spasm

Time of Appearance 3- 6 hours after Immediately after
death death
Occurance Natural May or may not
appear
Medico-legal Time of death Cause of death
significance
Muscle Involved All the muscles Certain muscle,
asymmetric
4. Stages of Secondary Flaccidity or secondary relaxation
- due to the dissolution of the muscles protein
- onset of putrefaction
- the body become limp again and the muscles are no longer
capable of responding to mechanical or electrical stimulus.
- Noted about 48 hours after death

CHANGES IN THE BLOOD

a. Coagulation of the blood

The stasis of the blood due to the cessation of circulation enhances the
coagulation of blood inside the blood vessel. Blood clothing is accelerated in cases of
death by infectious fevers and delayed in cases of asphyxia, poisoning by opium,
hydraocyanic acid or carbon monoxide poisoning.

Blood may remain fluid inside the blood vessel after death for 6 to 8 hours.

Distinction Between Ante-Mortem from Post-Mortem Clot:

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 Ante-Mortem Clot Post-mortem Clot
1. F 1. Soft in consistency.
i 2. Surface of the blood vessels
r smooth and healty after the clots
m are removed.
3. Clots can be stripped off in layers.
i 4. Clot with distinct layer.
n

c
o
n
s
i
s
t
e
n
c
y
2. Surface of the blood vessel raw
after the clots are removed.
3. Clots homogenous in construction
so it cannot be stripped into layers.
4. C
lot with uniform color.

b. MOST MORTEM LIVIDITY

It is the discoloration of the body after death when the blood tens to pool in the
blood vessels for the most dependent portion to the pool in the blood vessels for the
most dependent portion of the body. The blood remains fluid in the body after for 6-8
hours and gradually clot until it is fully developed at about 12 hrs, The appearance of
Post Mortem lividity usually stars about 20-30 minutes after death, thus, it can also be
a means in approximating the time of death of the person. But is more useful in
determining the position of the body after death. The discoloration of the bloody may
varies in color. Usually it is dull-red or Reddish-purple with some bluish-black
petichiae due to rupture of small engored capillaries. In carbon monoxide and cyanide
poisoning as well as exposure to cold temperature, the color is pink while lead color
asphyxia. Although the color will become darker and permanent as it completes.

Stages of Lividity or Livor Mortis

1. Hypostactic Lividity

It is the lividity when the discoloration is due to the blood pooled in the most
dependent areas of the body.

2. Diffusion Lividity

It is a fixed or permanent discoloration when the blood clotted, inside the

blood vessels or has diffused to different parts of the body.

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 Importance of Cadaveric Lividity

 It is one of the signs of death

 It may determine the position of the body after death or whether it was
changes after its appearance in the body.
 The color of the lividity may indicate the cause of death
e.g. Asphyxia – dark

CO poisoning – bright pink

2. It gives us an idea as to the time of death.

Points to be considered which may infer the position of the body at the time of
death:

1. Posture of the body when found

The body may become rigid in the position in which he died. Post-mortem
lividity may develop in the assumed position.

2. Post-mortem hypostasis
Hypostatic lividity will be found in areas of the body in contact with the surface
where the body lies.

3. Cadaveric Spasm
In violent death, the attitude of the body may infer position on account of the
spasm of the muscles. e.g. In drowning the victim may be holding the seaweeds.

POST- MORTEM DECOMPOSITION

1.) Autolysis or autodigestive changes after death

= after death, proteolytic glycolytic and lipolytic ferments of glandular tissues

continue to act which lead to the autodigestion of organs. This is facilitated by weak acid and
higher temperature.

= This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus inside the uterus. The
stomach may be perforated, glandular tissues become soft after death due to auto digestion and
the action of autolytic enzymes.

=decomposition by enzymes

2.) Putrefaction

- It is the breaking down of the complex protein into simpler components

associated with the evolution of foul smelling gases and accompanied by the change of
color of the body.

-decomposition by bacteria

- noted after 48 hours after death

- first appeas as a greenish discoloration
- generalized swelling and reddish discoloration along the
lines of the superficial veins occur: called Marbling.

Principal changes undergone by the soft tissues of the body during putrefaction:

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 a. Changes in the Color of the Tissue

A few hours after death, there is hemolysis of the blood within the blood
vessel and as a result of which hemoglobin is liberated. The hemoglobin diffuses
through the walls of the blood vessels and stains the surrounding tissues thereby
imparting a reddish-brown color.

Tissue color gradually changed to greenish-yellow, greenish brown or

greenish black color due to chemical changes in hemoglobin.

b. Evolution of gases in the Tissues

Carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen, sulphurated hydrogen,

phosphoretted hydrogen, and methane gases are formed. The offensive odor is due to
these gases and also due to a small quantity of mercaptans.

The formation of gases causes the distention of the abdomen and

bloating of the whole body. Gases formed in the subcutaneous tissues and in the face
and neck cause swelling of the whole body. Small gas bubbles are found in solid
visceral organs and give rise to the “foamy” appearance of the organs.

Effects of the pressure of gases of Putrefaction:

1. Displacement of the Blood

2. Bloating of the Body

3. Fluid Coming Out of Both Nostrils and Mouth

4. Extrusion of the Fetus in a Gravid Uterus

5. Floating of the Body

c. Liquefication of the Soft Tissues

As decomposition progresses, the soft tissues of the body undergo

softening and liquefication. The eyeballs, brain, stomach, intestine, liver and spleen
putrefy rapidly while highly muscular organs and tissues relatively putrefy late.

Factors Affecting rate of Purification

I. Internal Factors

- Age
- Cause of Death
- Condition of the body
II. External Factors

- Air and Moisture

- Conition and type of Soil
- Preence of Water
- Effect of Clothing
- Effect of Coffin
Depth of Burial

- Mass Grave

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 Special forms of Putrefaction

1. Mummification- a condition at which the body fluids is removed before

decomposition sets in resulting to shrunkening and preservation of the dead body.
Mummification can be either natural of artificial (embalming). Natural for the
forces of nature such as sunlight, warm climate and hot dry soil influence the dead
body. Artificial when the preservation is done with the introduction of some
chemical like formalin, alcohol, phenol, mercury, arsenic and glycerine and
covering the skin with the Vaseling or plaster of paris before decomposition sets
in.
a. Kinds of Cremation
I. Alkaline hydrolysis
II. Fire Cremation 1,200 degree Fahrenheit
III. Ground Bone fragments
IV. Plastination (plastic preservation)

2. Saponification (Adipocere formation)- is the formation of a soft, friable and

brownish- white greasy substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body after death.
This substance is called adipocere that is formed by hydrogenation of the body
fats. It can be possibly be seen in the buttocks, trunk, limbs, breast and cheeks. It
prevents or delays the putrefaction of the body.
3.
4. Maceration- It is a condition of the dead body, usually the foetus, characterized
by the softening and discoloration of the tissues as well as formation of blisters in
the skin due to the action of autolytic or proteolytic enzymes in the absence of
utero is important in the consideration of legal live-birth which shows evidence of
maceration by the following manifestations: 1) Reddish green to reddish-brown
discoloration of skin; 2) Softness and limpness of the body; and 3) Blebs
formation and separation of the epidermis from the underlying tissues.

Classification of Death
I. Medico-legal classification of Death:

1. Natural Death- Due to disease or ailment.

2. Violent Death- Due to injuries of some outside force.

a) Accident Death- Art 12, Par 4, RPC

b) Neligent Death
c) Infanticidal Death
d) Parricidal Death- Art 247, RPC
e) Homicidal Death- Art. 249, RPC’
f) Murder- Art 248, RPC
g) Euthanasia ( mercy Killing )
h) Suicidal Death- Art. 253, RPC

II. Pathological Classification

1. Death of Syncope (loos of consciousness, fall of blood pressure, Cardiac

Standstill, cerebral metabolism, hyperventilation, cardiac disease, Tussive
Syncope Hysterical syncope
2. Death of Asphyxia (Respiratory Obstruction and Circulatory Arrest,
Inhalation of obnoxious gases fumes, drowning and electric shock,

137
 Compression of the neck and strangulation, Compression of the chest and
asphyxia in brain injury)
3. Death of Coma (Is a profound stupor in sickness or after severe injury)

DEATH BY ASPHYXIA

- a condition resulting from a lack of oxygen in the air or from an obstructing mechanism
to respiration.

- the general term applied to all forms of violent death which results primary from the
interference with the process of respiration or the condition in which the supply of
oxygen to the blood or to the tissues or both has been reduced below normal level.

TYPES OF ASPHYXIA

1) ANOXIC DEATH associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become normally
saturated with oxygen.

2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH due to a deceased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen

3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH brought about by the failure of circulation.

4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH due to the failure of the cellular oxidative process,
although the oxygen is delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized properly.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA

1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING) may be with the use of hands or a ligature (such as

rope)

2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION occurs when entrance of air through the nose and
mouth is blocked or severely restricted.

3) HANGING the neck is tied while the body is suspended common from suicide

4) CHOKING there is blocking of the internal airway by a foreign object inside or outside of
the victim’s body.

5.) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA brought about by the mechanical compression of

the chest by some heavy object

6) DROWNING

Death as Punishment

1. Death by Lethal Injection

2. Death by Electrocution (used of about 2,00 to 5,000 voltages)
3. Death by Gas chamber
4. Death by hanging
5. Death by Musketry

AUTOPSY

- a comprehensive study of a dead body performed by trained physician using recognized

dissection procedures and techniques, primary to determine the true cause of death

138
- indicates that, in addition to an external examination, the body is opened and internal
examination is conducted.

POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

refers to an external examination of a dead body without incision being made, although blood
and other fluids may be collected for examination.

KINDS OF AUTOPSIES

1) HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL done on a human body with the consent of the

deceased person’s relatives for the purpose of:

a) determining the cause of death

b) providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and clinical symptoms
c) determining the effectiveness of therapy
d) studying the natural course of disease process
e) educating students and physicians.
2) MEDICO LEGAL OR OFFICIAL an examination performed on a dead body
purpose of:

a) determining the cause, manner or mode and time of death

b) recovering, identifying and preserving evidentiary material
c) providing correlation of facts and circumstances related to death
d) providing a factual, objective medical report for law enforcement, prosecution
and defense agencies
e) separating death due to disease from death due to external cause for protection
of the innocent.
NEGATIVE AUTOPSY

- an autopsy which failed to establish cause of death after all efforts have been exhausted
- an autopsy which after a meticulous examination with the aid of other examination does not
yield any definite cause of death.

NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY
an autopsy wherein no cause of death is found on account of imprudence, negligence, lack of
skill and lack of foresight of the examiner.

Method of Disposal of the Dead Body

1. Embalming- Artificial Mummification
2. Burial- Inhumation or Interment
Is a method of placing the dead body in the grave.

Funeral- it is the procession of the dead body followed by grieving

relatives, friends and other persons to the place of burial in accordance
with the religion, custom and traditions.

Persons in-charge; The Spouse(if married), The descendant of the

nearest degree and brother and sisters.

3. Cremation- Is the burning of the dead body into ashes or pulverization of the
body into ashes by the application of heat or flames. Requirement: permit for
cremation, Exact identification of the deceased and exact cause of death has
been ascertained.

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 4. Disposal of the dead body to the Sea.
5. Use of the Dead body for Scientific Purpose.
Exhumation- It is the raising or disinterring of the Dead body or
remains from the grave.

EXHUMANTION (DESINTERRING)

- refers to the taking out of a body from its tomb or gravesite

- can be done only upon a lawful order, with permission from the Department of Health.
- remains of persons who died of non- dangerous, non-communicate diseases may be
disinterred after three (3) years.

- remains of persons who died of dangerous communicable diseases may be disinterred after
five (5) years.

Physical Injury

Injury- Is the scientific impairment of the body structure or function caused by

outside force or agent.

Physical Injury- is an injury of the body caused by physical agents which is the
application of stimulus to the body producing damage or injury to the tissue.

Wound- is a break or solution in the continuity of the skin or tissues of the body.

Inflammation- Is a specific tissue response to injury by the living or inanimate

agents, or to electrical, chemical etc., characterized by vascular dilatation, fluid
exudation and accumulation of leukocytes in the tissues.

Classification of Wound or Physical injury

A. As to Severity

1. Mortal Wound
2. Non-Mortal Wound
B. As to Kind Instrument used
1. Blunt instrument – lacerated
2. Sharp-edge instrument – incised
3. Sharp-pointed instrument – punctured
4. Sharp-Edge and Sharp-Pointed – stab
5. Rough object – abrasion
C. As to Manner of Infliction

D. As to the depth of the Wound

E. As to the relation of the site of application of force and injury

a) Coup Injury- Injury at the side of application.

b) Contre coup- injury found opposite the side of application.
c) Coup Contre Coup- injury both at the side and opposite side of
application.
d) Locus Minoris Resistencia- Injury is found on some area offering the
least resistance to the force applied.
e) Extensive Injury- involves a greater area of damage.

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 F. Medico-legal Classification

A. Mutilation
B. Slight Physical Injury (1-9 days)
C. Less Serious Physical Injury (10-30days)
D. Serious Physical Injury (more than 30 days)
E. Administration of injurious substance or beverages.

G. As to the type of the Wound

1. Closed Wound: superficial Closed wound and deep

closed wound, petechiae, contusion or bruise,
hematoma or blood cyst, sprain, fracture, discoloration,
Concussion, and Internal Hemorrage
2. Open Wound: Incised, Lacerated, Punctured, Stab
Wound, Avulsion, and Gunshot and shotgun Wound.

Petechiae- Are minute, pin point, circumscribed extravasation of blood in the subcutaneous
tissues or underneath the mucous membrane.

Contusion (Bruise)- Wound in the substance of the true skin and in the subcutaneous cellular
tissues characterized by swelling and discoloration of tissue due to extravasation of blood.

Hematoma- large extravation of blood in a newly formed cavity secondary to trauma

characterized by swelling, discoloration and effusion of blood underneath the tissues.

Sprain- The straining or tearing of the articular tendons, ligaments and muscles characterized
by swelling, discoloration of tissues involve and extreme pain.

Fracture- It is a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissues resulting from violence.
(it can be either simple, compund or comminuted).

Dislocation- Is the displacement of the articular surfaces of the bones forming the joints
usually secondary to trauma. (simple or compound)

Cerebral Concussion- Condition of the brain resulting from a sudden jarring or stunning of the
brain which follows a blow on the head characterized by headache or dazziness,
unconciousness or semi-unconciousness, relaxed and flaccid muscles, slow and shallow
respiration and rapid but weak pulse

Internal Hemorrhage- It is the bleeding usually in the cavity or organs inside the body. (intra-
cranial, Rupture of organ and Laceration of Organ).

SEXUAL OFFENSES AND DEVIATION

Virginity = a condition of a female who has not experienced sexual intercourse and whose
genital organs have not been altered by carnal correction.

Kinds of Virginity

1. MORAL VIRGINITY = state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not having
experienced sexual relation.

2. PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a condition whereby a woman is conscious of the nature of the

sexual life but not experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to women who have reached sexual
maturity but not experienced sexual intercourse.

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 TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

= a condition wherein the hymen is intact, with the edges distinct and regular,
and the opening is small to barely admit the tip of the smallest finger of the examiner
even if the thighs are separated.

FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

= A condition wherein the hymen is unruptured but the orifice is wide and elastic to

admit two or more fingers of the examiner with a lesser degree of resistance.

3. DEMI-VIRGINITY

= a condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as long as they
abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.

4. VIRGO INTACTA

= applied to women who have had previous sexual act but not yet given birth.

DEFLORATION = the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual intercourse.

SEXUAL DEVIATIONS

HOMOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards the same sex.

INFANTOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards an immature person. Also known as

PEDOPHILIA.

BESTOSEXUAL = sexual desire towards animals; also known as bestiality.

AUTOSEXUALITY = self –gratification ; also known as masturbation.

GERONTOPHILIA= sexual desire towards an older person.

NECROPHILIA = a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual

intercourse with a corpse.

INCEST = sexual relations between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally
marry.

SATYRIASIS = excessive sexual urge of men.

NYMPHOMANIA = excessive sexual urge of women.

FELATTIO = the female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and by friction with
the lips and tongue coupled with the act of sucking initiates orgasm.

CUNNILINGUS = sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the external female

genitalia.

ANILINGUS = a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives sexual excitement by

licking the anus of another person of either sex.

SADISM =(Active Algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of pain
on another is necessary for sexual enjoyment

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MASOCHISM (passive algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of
pain by another is necessary for sexual enjoyment.

FETISHISM = a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasied presence of an object
or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and gratification.

PYGMALIONISM = a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statutes.

FROTTAGE = a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire of a

person to rub his sex organ against some part of the body of another.

VOYEURISM = a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to see

persons undress or perform other personal activities.

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 POLICE
PHOTOGRAPHY

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

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 Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light”
and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John F. W.
Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox
Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical
process required in order to produced a photograph.
Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where
people gathered for public discussion.
= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the
administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal.
Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to the
police work and in the administration of justice.
Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and
photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of
formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of
photography.

B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is
police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police
work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.

2. For Communication
= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of
communication considering that no other language can be known universally than
photograph.

3. For Record Purposes

= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.

Different Views in photographing

General View
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction
and location of the crime scene.

Medium View
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into
section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.

Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the
crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.

Extreme Close-up View

= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some
magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.

4. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation
purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through
photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.

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 5. For Discovering and Proving
= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:

a. The use of Magnification

Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object
through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a
minute details of the physical evidence.

Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small

object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a
scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.

Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.

Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with

the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.

b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show
something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.

6. For Court Exhibits

= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they
satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A
question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its
relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving
reference as to where it came from.

Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit
1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.

7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them
from initially occurring.

8. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.

9. Reproducing and Copying

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be
made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts
or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.

C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the

speed of 186, 000 miles per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected
light coming from the object to form the image.

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 4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which
is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with
some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form
so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called
Photograph.

D. THEORIES OF LIGHT

1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

= It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we
observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally
will make the log move up and down.

2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)

= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of
very small particles such as electrons.

3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)

= Based on electromagnetics.

All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement
need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that
light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in form.

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per
second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity,
wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.

Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through
of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the
units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the
Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part
of a millimeter.

Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected,
Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.
Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass
through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through.

Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a
mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism
(Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a
wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.

1. Types of Light

Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

a. Visible Light

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 = Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human
eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human
eye.

b. Invisible Light

= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the
retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.

2. Photographic Rays

a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by
passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally
discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of
shadow photography.

b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph
fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.

c. Visible Light
= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed
for ordinary photographing purposes.

d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to
1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated
writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to as
heat rays).

3. Light Source

Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of
man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object
appears glossy.

2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to
thin clouds that cover the sun.

3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.

Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade
bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being
photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the
reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered.

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 B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,
incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common
wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.

Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in
photographing.

Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly
uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.

Infra-red Lamp

Ultra-violet Lamp

2. Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination
of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when
fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical
contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent
and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving
flash of tense light.

Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges

between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the
discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second
and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or
stopped in the photographs.

4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver
grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can
be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents
halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion
I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a
suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white
photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-
plus.
2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and
the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having
names ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film,
Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film.

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 B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the
different wavelength of the light course.
1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green.
( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to
all colors of the visible light)
3.1. Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures
under average lighting condition and has the advantage of
the grain structure.
3.2. Grain Panchromatic film
3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for
photographing object under adverse lighting condition.
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value
system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used
in the same principle as the ASA.

Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA

and DIN rating.

II. Photographic Paper

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final
development and become the photograph.

Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive
print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low
and give blue-black tones when properly developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This
is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a
black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing.
Slow emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a
special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses
upon exposure to different colors of light.
B. According to Physical Characteristics
b.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not
of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be
mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in
ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under
rough treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture

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 a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brilliant image
formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than
detail is necessary.
b.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when
warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints
C. According to Contrast (grade)
1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely
exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin
or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.

5. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.

Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box,
lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.

Essential Parts of a Camera

Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on
the film.
Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold
firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image
View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the given lens

OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

Viewing System
Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the
photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material.
Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed film
to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the
film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is
usually expressed in a fraction of a second.

1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.

The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering
than that of the right number

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 Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person
provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal
exposure.
Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the
focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise
known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.

f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the
greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.

If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in
which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of
sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating
the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or
clear image.

Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a
single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the
focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single
object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the
object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object
is already focused

2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in
focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.

3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his
estimation do this.

TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to
its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and
the other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for
movie making

5. LENS
= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the
quality of the image to be formed.

= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form
an image.

= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change
the direction of light.

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 Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

3. According to the type of image to be produced

a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light
together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is
thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the
same side of the lens.
4. According to Degree of Corrections
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration

INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

3. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens
producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
4. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that
travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens
oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.
5. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with
respect to one another.
6. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion
(curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
7. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The
lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength
and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
8. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not
equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
9. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
10. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to
focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal
half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider
area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not
longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half
of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area
coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object
in apparent sharp focus when the lens

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 b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of
field.
3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one
that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.

6. CHEMICAL PROCESS

The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.

a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the
image.

Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents

b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid
that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the
acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves
unexposed silver halides.

Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative

Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener

Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during

enlarging.

Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and
printing.

Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful
adjustment on the dodging board.

Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.

Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for
purposes of making a balance exposure.

Dektol- 1 to 1 ½ minutes 60 to 90 seconds

D-76= 5 to 6 minutes

Universal- 1 to 2 minutes

Fixing- 20 to 30 minutes

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 REVIEW NOTES IN POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Introduction to PHOTOGRAPHY

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PHOTOGRAPHY

 In 1818, France, Niepce obtained camera images on paper sensitized with silver-
chloride solution; however, the fixation is only partial. Niepce regarded the results as
“Imperfect failures” because they are reversed in tonality (negatives).
 In the early part of 1820’s, produced “heliographic drawings” contact-print image of
engravings or other line copy on class, paper or metal coated with a bitumen varnish
that hardens when exposed.
 Come 1826 in France, Niepce achieved the first permanent photograph in a camera on a
plate coated with light gray bitumen. After an 8-hours exposure, a direct-positive image
results when oil of lavender dissolves away unexposed, unhardened bitumen to let the
dark metal plate represent shadow. Various amounts of hardened bitumen remain to
from highlights middle tones.
 In 1829, He used silver plate and devised a way to remove bitumen from highlights
after darkening shadow area which Daguerre forms a partnership with Niepce to perfect
this invention. In 1833, Niepce died, Daguerre took over the actual experimentation.
 In 1835, England. W.H.F. Talbot obtains negative images on silver-chloride paper by
long “printing out” exposures in a camera obscura; they are imperfectly fixed.
 Still in 1835, France, Daguerre discovers that mercury fumes will develop an invisible
(latent) image on a silver plate that is sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.
 In 1839, England, William H. Fox Talbot points out the basis of modern photography:
Positive copies as desire by contract printing.
 In August 19, 1839 “Daguerre type,” the first practical photographic process, is given to
the world.
 In 1840, Talbot discovers methods of developing paper-negative images that greatly
reduces the exposure required in the camera.
 In 1840, U.S. J.W. Draper is one of the first to produce photographs portraits using a
lens with a diameter of five inches and a focus of seven inches,
 In 1840, Australia – Hungary, J.M. Petzvel designs the first lens specifically for
photographic use. The lens is produced the following year by Vioglander for use in the
first all-metal, utilized camera.
 1841, Talbot patents the calotype process, later called the talotype. Negative on paper
sensitized with silver nitrate, and gallic acid are developed in gallic acid.
 In 1842, England, Herschel invent the ferroprusiate (blueprints, cyanotype) process.
 In 1848, Abel Niepce De Sanit-Voctor perfected the use of albumen to hold light-
sensitive compounds on a glass plate to make negatives on an absolutely smooth and
transparent material.
 In 1850, France, L.D. Blanquart-Evrard invents albumen high resolution obtainable
with glass-plate negtives.
 In 1851, England, F.S. Archer publishes a method of using collodion in place of
albumen for negative on glass.

 In 1852, U.S. Collodion direct positive-like ambrotypes, but produced on dark metal-are
introduced as ferrotype.
 In 1853 England, J.B. dancer makes the first model of a twin-lens camera for stereo
photography, designs suggested in 1849 by Sir David Brewster in 1856.
 In 1858 France, Nadar takes the first aerial photographs over Paris from a free balloon.
 In 1861 Scotland, James Clerk Maxwell published research in color perception and the
three color separation of light.
 In 1862 U.S. reversal process to obtain positive images is first demonstrated by
bleaching out the negative.
 In 1865, U.S. building on a demonstration of photograph.

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 In 1868, France, Ducos da Hauron publishes methods for both additive and substractive
color synthesis of images by photography and suggest the use of a three color
monopack plate.
 In 1871, England, Richard Leach Maddox invents the first truly practical dry plate
negative process, using gelatin in place of collodion to bind silver halides to glass plate.
 In 1872, U.S. Edward James Muybridge makes the first attempts to photographically
analyze a horse’s gallop, for Leland Stanford.
 In 1873, Germany, Professor H.W. Vogel discovers the use of dye substances to extend
the sensitivity of photographic emulsion from the blue into the green region of the
spectrum making possible orthochromatic plates (meaning “correct color,” although
they are still red-blind).
 In 1875, England, Leon Warnerke invents a roll holder for use with studio and field
(view) cameras.
 In 1879, U.S., E.J. Muybridge invents the Zoopraxiscope to project continuous
movement from photographic images.
 In 1880, England, Sir William Abbey discovers the use of hydroquinone as a
developing agent.
 1n 1882, France, Etinne marey begins chrono-photography to records stages in the flow
of movement by recording successive images on a single plate at constant rate of 12 per
second and faster.
 In 1882, England, Sir William Abney produces silverchloride gelatin emulsion for
printing-out paper.
 1884, U.S. Eastman negative paper is introduced; it consists of light-sensitive emulsion
or paper which, after development is made transparent enough for printing by treating it
with hot castor oil.
 1888, U.S. John Carbutt Manufacture the celluloids-base sheet film.
 The Eastman Dry plate and film company introduces the number one Kodak camera.
 1889, U.S. The first commercial transparent roll film, perfected by Eastman and his
research chemist, is put on the market.
 1890, England, Hunter and Driffield publish the results of 20 years of research into the
response of photographic materials.
 In 1891, U.S. Metol and glycin are first used as developing agents. Thomas Edison
produces motion pictures on a continuous length of Eastman celluloid film in his
kinescope camera and projector.

 In 1892, U.S. Frederick e. Ives invents a camera to take three color separation
negatives. The process was patented in 1894 and later manufactured as “Kromscop”
 In 1893, Ireland, John Joly invented the additive color process using regular line screen
checkered with red, green and blue squares.
 In 1895, U.S. Reverend Hannibal Goodwin is granted a patent covering roll film
composed of a silver-bromide gelatin emulsion on a celluloid base.
 In 1990, France, Auguste and Louis Lumiere invent the photodrama, which takes and
projects 360 degree panoramic photographs.
 In 1901, France, Cellulose acetate was invented; its non flammable properties promote
its adoption as a safety base still films.
 In 1904, Germany, B. Homoka and E. Konig who had studied with H.W. Vogel, invent
dye sensitizers that extent emulsion sensitivity into the yellow and red regions of the
spectrum.
 Written and Wainwright begin commercial production of panchromatic (‘all-color”)
plates two years later in England.
 In 1907, France, M. Lumiere color process, the Autochrome plate, become the first
commercially manufactured practical color process in photography.
 In 1910, France, Dioptichrome color materials are produced based on patents of Louis
Dufay. Later products based on similar principles include Dufay color.
 1912, Germany. Friedrich Deckel invents the compound shutter, which uses gears to
control slow speeds and a clock work movements to control fast speed.

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 In 1914, U.S. Eastman Kodak company introduces a two color subtractive process
called Kodachrome it is dropped after a few years, but the name is use again, 21 years
later for a tree-color process based on different principles.
 1921, U.S. Radio transmitional photograph is demonstrated the mention is eventually
used widely as phototelegraphy (“wirephoto”) invented in 1904.
 1923, U.S. Amateur movie-making becomes possible with the introduction of 16 mm
reversal black – and – white film, by Eastman Kodak Company.
 1924, Germany, E. Leits begins production of the Leica camera designed by Oskar
Barnack. Although not the first to use 35 mm film, it succeeds in establishing a new
kind of photography.
 1927, U.S. A full length film, “The Jazz Singer” is a Vitaphone production with
synchronized sound on disc. Later the Bell Labs/Fox-movie tone process produces
integral sound on film.
 1928, Germany, modern twin-lens roll film reflex camera, the Rollieflex, was
introduced by Francke and Heidecke.
 1929, Germany, J. Ostermeler produces the first commercially acceptable self-contained
flash-bulb aluminum foil sealed in an oxygen-filled bulb.
 In 1932, U.S. The first photoelectric exposure meter is produced by Western Electric
Instrument Company.
 In 1934, Holland, The first wire-filled flashbulb is introduced by Philips.
 In 1939, U.S. a gas-discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for electronic
flash photography.
 Mannes and Grodowsky, working with the staff of the Kodak Research Laboratory,
invented kodachrome film.

 In 1936, Germany. Agfacolor reversal films is introduced; it is the first tree color
monopack film in which subtractive dye-formers are incorporated in each emulsion
layer.
 In 1939, Germany. Negative positive subtractive color cine materials are developed
using agfa tripack emulsion.
 Still in 1939, Germany. A Rott and E. Weyde independently develop diffusion transfer
processing of negative images.
 In 1940, U.S. and England, Multiple contrast black and white printing paper is
introduced in the U.S.
 In 1942, U.S, kodacolor negative film is introduced in the market.
 In 1942, England, A new developing agent, phenidone, is patented by Ilford; it is
similar to metol.
 In 1943, U.S. Reversal print material, Ansco Printer, for making color prints from
slider or transparencies, is introduced for user processing.
 In 1945, U.S. Reversal print incorporated color couples, development during world
War ii are available to the public first unscocclor film in 1945, then Ektachrome film in
1946.
 In 1946, U.S. Kodak dye transfers process is introduced it is a commercial process that
represents the culmination of various printing methods utilizing dyed or pigmented
bichromate-gelatin emulsion that hardens on exposure and development in an tanning
developer.
 In 1947, U.S. Edwin H. Land Introduces Polaroid “one step photography” with a self-
processing black – and – white film that yield a positive print by the diffusion transfer
reversal method.
 In 1950, U.S. Color couplers for self-masking color correction are introduced in kodak
color negative films.
 In 1950, U.S. The first modern wide-screen motion picture are produced using an
anamorphic system, which optional squeezes the 2.1 1mm motion picture frame, and
restores it to full width upon projection.
 In 1995, U.S. Kodak Tri-X (ASA 200) and Royal X pan (ASA 650) films, and Kodak
Ektacolor paper from color negatives, are introduced.

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  In 1960, U.S. a self-processing color print material based on the Polaroid diffusion
transfer system is demonstrated; it is marketed as Polacolor film in 1963.
 In 1963, U.S. A modern dye destruction, or silver dye bleach, reversal color-print
material Cibachrome is introduced in both professional and home processing versions.
 In 1963, U.S. The loading of iflm is still cameras is greatly simplified with the
production of a film cartridge made with a built-in prethreaded take-up spool.
 In 1972, U.S. Polaroid Corporation demonstrates a new camera and film as the SX-70
system, the camera is a unique single lens reflex design and the film is an integral
diffusion transfer materials that produces a full color print without any peel-away,
discardable component.
 In 1976, U.S. Kodak instant print film PR10 is introduced.
 In 1978, U.S. Polavision self-processing color movie film is marketed; it combines a
self-processing diffusion transfer emulsion with an integral additive color line screen.

PHOTOGRAPHY – defined as an Art or Science of reproducing image by the action of light on

sensitized material with the aid of an image forming device known as camera and the chemical process
involved therein.

Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre – He is a French national, who is considered the father of
photography. His major contribution into the field of photography is the “Daguerro Type Theory”.

Police or Forensic Photography – Is an Art or Science that deals with the study of principles of
photography, in relation to police work and preparation/presentation of photographic evidence in court.
Presentation of documents in the court as an evidence for a case.

Edward Burke – An American who is considered the advocator of Police/Forensic Photography. The
Father of Police/Forensic Photography.

II. Light and its characteristics:

a. Light – Is an electromagnetic redial energy to which excites the retina of the eye and makes things
visible.

The Electromagnetic Energy Spectrum is composed of both visible radiant energy (light) and invisible
radiant energy (ultraviolet and infrared).

Light differs:

Speed of travel = medium – space

- Air

- Glass

- Water

- Light is being measure through its wavelength 1 Millionth of a meter or 1

millionth of a millimeter. (Millimicron)
b. Characteristics of Light:

1. Speed

2. Wavelength

3. Frequency

c. The three are interrelated to each other.

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Speed – Is the rate of travel per second.

Wavelength – Is the distance in between light travels in air/wave 186,000 miles per
second.

Frequency – Is the number of wave passing to one point in one second.

Color of Light:

1. Blue

2. Green

3. Red

d. The three are considered Primary Colors.

Yellow – Is considered complimentary color of the primary color

Cyan – Secondary color

Magenta – Secondary color

Blue – Is measured from 400-500 millimicron

Green – Is Measured from 500-600 millimicron

Red – is measured from 600-700 millimicron

Colors – Are the even mixture of all wavelengths. Sufficient wavelength of all colors.

Black - Absent of light.

Gray – A little mixtures of light.

The Sources of Light:

1. Sun/Moon/Stars

2. Natural Light

3. Reflection of Water

4. Reflection of Clothes

Natural Light – None man made (we do not know).

Artificial Light – Man Made (Thomas Jefferson).

Available Light – Is the combination of natural and artificial light.

Note: We see color because of our nerve cell and Retina of our eye called “Cones”.

The RATD LAW – Reflected, Absorbed, Transmitted and Diffraction.

Refraction – It is the bending of lights when strike to an object.

III. Light and Materials:

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Focal Length – Is the distance between the center of the lens and the film plane when the lens is
focused at infinity.

Lens – Is a medium or a system which converge or diverge rays of light passing through it and it form
an image.

Types of Camera Lenses:

1. Wide Angle Lens – From 25MM to 45MM

2. Normal Lenses – 50MM

3. Telephoto Lens – 55MM to 1000MM or more

(Zoom Lens)

Zoom Lens – It is considered as a variable lenses.

a. LENS ABERRATIONS OR DEFECTS

An aberration is an optical imperfection responsible for image distortion. These

defects are not the results of the manufacturers’ carelessness. They are cause by the behavior
of light. It can be avoided by combining several lenses and by eliminating marginal rays
refracted through the outer edges of the lens.

Astigmatism

The inability of a lens to project a sharply focused image of both vertical and horizontal
lines upon the same plane, at one lens to image distance. Lenses corrected for astigmatism are
termed anastigmatic.

Coma

A pear-shaped image of a small circle or point near to the edges of the image plane. To
correct or minimize coma in a compound lens, positive and negative elements of varying radii
of curvature are combined in a lens system, and the size of the aperture is reduced.

Chromatic Aberration

The inability of a simple lens to bring the different wavelengths (colors) of white light
to a focused on the same plane. Correction is made when the compound lens is constructed by
placing a simple negative lens in optical contact with a simple positive lens.

Curvature of Field

A simple lens produces a curved, concave, or saucer – shaped image of wan object
which has a flat surface. This type of aberration is more apparent in lenses which have a wide
angle of view.

Distortion (Curvilinear Distortion)

Maybe defined as a lens inability to produced the same enlargement in the image
formed by the edges of the lens as in that part formed by the center of the lens.

Barrel Distortion

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 Lines near the margins of the image curve inward like the sides of a barrel.

Pincushion Distortion

Lines curve inward like the sides of a stuffed pincushion. Placing the aperture behind
the lens causes this affect.

Flare

Flares exhibits itself as a misty haze, or a cloudy semicircular patch of light, which may
cover part or all of the image. When it appears as a small pear-shaped bright spot it is called
coma.

Optical Flare

Is the result of double reflections from inner lens surfaces.

Mechanical Flare

Is the result of reflections from worn shiny parts of the lens such as stop, shutter, lens
mount or from inside of the camera itself.

Spherical Aberration

When parallel marginal and axial rays passing through a simple lens focused at different
planes along the optical axis, causing fuzzy images.

b. PRINTING PAPERS

Because of the fact that all negatives do not print best on one kind of paper, and in order
to permit printing for special effects, photographic paper is made in several different grades of
contrast and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak offers the most and in six degrees of
contrast and glossy (F) surface.

Velox, No. 0

Used for printing from extremely contrast negatives, the low contrast in the paper
sensitizing counteracts the high contrast in the negative, to give a new print.

Velox, No. 1

Used for high contrast negatives.

Velox No. 2

A paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives.

Velox, No. 3

For used with negatives that are a little weak in contrast.

Velox, No. 4

Provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful
in printing silhouettes and other such pictures in which high contrast is desired.

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 Velox, No. 5

For negatives so flat as to be otherwise unprintable.

I: Darkroom Photography and Sensitized Materials:

a. Darkroom – A light tight room used for developing film making contact print and
enlargement.

- A room protected from rays of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and
papers.

Two distinct sides:

1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away from water.

2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays and other materials.

Chemical Processes:

Developing process of film – the latent image becomes permanent and visible in a reverse way thus
producing a negative.

Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible image produces positive print or
photographs.

Two Factors to be considered in developing process:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed – too dark or to light.

2. Contrast – is the different of tone from another.

a.1. Factors that affect chemical development of the sensitized material:

1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used mixture procedure by

manufacturers.

2. Temperature of chemical involved in the development process

3. Time of development

4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.

a.2. Chemical Processing:

1. Development – processes of reduction, exposed silver halides are reduced into

metallic silver.

2. Stop-bath – it is an intermediate bath between development and fixer.

- To prevent contamination of the chemical.

3. Fixation – the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the

emulsion after the first stage of development of the latent image.

4. Washing – use of running water.

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5. The application “Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo – to prevent watermark and
easier to dry.

6. Drying.

a.3. Chemical component of a fixer:

1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphite

2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite

3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid

4. Hardener – Potassium alum.

Two systems of film developing:

1. Repeated use system – after each development the solution is poured in a

container for use again.

2. One shot system - after development the solution is poured into the sink.

Faults and Remedy on Negatives:

1. Intensification – under-exposed negative

2. Reduction – over exposed negative

3. Increasing or Decreasing development time.

4. Use of development that increase or subdues contrast.

Intensification – the addition of minute part of another metal usually chromium or mercury on the top
of the metallic silver formed to strengthen contrast to obtain good density. Under exposed negatives.

Reduction – the reducing of density in the negative-overexposed negatives potassium ferry cyanide
and sodium thiosulphite or Hypo or Farmer’s Reducer.

a.4. Printmaking Process:

1. Printmaking – the final stage in making photograph.

2. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making enlargement.

3. Contact Printing – photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact.

Factors to consider in selecting negative:

1. Sharpness

2. Density

3. Contrast

a.5. Enlarger Parts and Functions:

1. Enlarger Head – the main working part of enlarger contains: Light, condenser,
lens, negative holder, the lens itself.

2. Lamp – light that passes through the negative that exposed photo paper.
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3. Condenser Lens – lens that spread the light coming from the lamp of the enlarger.

4. Negative Darrier – hold the negative flat and level.

5. Lens Aperture – the opening of the lens that control rays of light passing through it.

6. Lens – it is the one responsible in forming the image coming from the negative.

7. Focusing Mechanism – it moves the lens up and down to focus the projected image.

8. Enlarger Column – it is the holder of the enlarger head and commonly serves as a
rail in controlling the height of enlarger head.

9. Elevating Control Knob – control size of image by raising or lowering the enlarger
head.

10. Base Board – the support of the entire unit of the enlarger.

a.c. Procedure in Film Processing. (Black and White)

1. Prepare of solution needed in the development process.

2. Check the temperature of the solution and make it constant by using temperature control
pan.
3. Turn off the lights and check the room weather its totally dark.
4. Open the film cassette or film holder.
5. Place film in the developer reel or film hanger.
6. Soak or immerse the developing reel or film hanger into the developer tank.
7. Tap the bottom of developing tank to dislodge air bubbles.
8. Place the light tight cover to the developer tank.
9. Set the timer on the specified time, remove and rinse the film for 10 seconds.
10. Slowly agitate the developer tank for five seconds every minutes of the development
time.
11. At end of development time, remove and rinse the film for 10 seconds.
12. Soak or immerse the developer reel or film hanger into the stop batch tank, tap the
developer reel or hanger at the bottom for 30 seconds.
13. Remove and raise the film for 10 seconds.
14. Soak and immerse developer reel and film hanger into the fixing bath tank for 30
seconds and let film stand still in the solution for required fixing time.
15. After fixing period switch on the light wash the film developer or negatives in running
water for 30 minutes.

B. Sensitized Materials:

Sensitized paper/photographic paper – a paper coated with emulsion.

Photographs – is result of both mechanical and chemical process of photography.

Emulsion – the sensitized of a film or paper usually silver halides in gelatin on acetate, polyester or
paper.

Silver Halides – the component that sensitize to light.

Film

B.1. Film Layer (Black & White)

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 1. Emulsion

2. Gray or Anti-halation backing

3. Acetate – “Plastic”

4. Base

B.2. Kinds of films in terms of speed – sensitivity to light

Fast Film – Hi-speed - sensitivity to light (ISO 25 TO 50 mu)

Mid Film – Mid-speed – sensitivity to light (ISO 50 to 400 mu)

Slow Film – Slow-speed – sensitivity to light (ISO 400 to 3200 high latitude)

Higher density – more black/higher contrast the bigger the size of the silver crystal
granules the higher sensitivity to light the finer the granules the slower sensitivity.

B.3. Component of a film from top to bottom:

1. Over Coating – hard gelatin solvent

2. Gelatin Solvent with grains of silver salt (halide) – Emulsion- sensitive to light

3. Gum Arabic (Sticky gelatin substance) – substratum layer

4. Celluloid Acetate/clear plastic – base of the film

5. Substratum layer

6. Anti-halation backing – black substance 0.004 of a millimeter

Ilford

The name of the sensitized material.

Generally, there are two types of color film, namely:

1. Positive color film

2. Negative color film

B.4. Sensitized paper/photographic paper

Photograph

Is the result of both mechanical and chemical process of photography.

Sensitized material/paper – a paper coated with emulsion.

Emulsion

The sensitivity of a film or paper usually silver halides in gelatin on acetate, polyester or
paper.

Silver Halides

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 The component that sensitized to light.

Types of Emulsion

1. Silver Chloride Emulsion

2. Silver Bromide Emulsion

3. Silver Chloride-Bromide Emulsion

Types of paper according to emulsion content:

1. Chloride paper - paper that contains silver chloride in their emulsion.

2. Bromide paper – paper that contains silver bromide in their emulsion

3. Chloro Bromide paper – paper that contains the combination or both chloro
and bromide emulsion.

4. Ecta color

Basic types of paper

1. Enlarging paper/Projection paper – Bromide paper

2. Contact printing paper – producing prints with the same size as the paper.
Chloride paper.

Chloro bromide paper

- general use – contact or enlarging paper

Three important factors to consider on photo paper:

1. Types of emulsion

2. contrast – refers to the relative densities – the range of gray tone from black
and white

3. Physical characteristic of paper

Contrast control:

1. Variable Contrast/selective contrast paper – enlargement of negative is

done with the use of filters, to correct the contrast on the print or
photograph.

2. Graded Contrast paper – the traditional method which requires different

grades of paper for every contrasts.

B.5. Physical Characteristics – construction of photographic papers

a. Conventional Paper

- Gelatin over coat

- Silver halide crystals in gelatin emulsion

- Baryta layer (pigmented)

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 - Photographic paper base

b. Resin-Coated (R.C.) Paper

- Gelatin over coat

- Silver halide crystals in gelatin emulsion

- Resin layer (pigmented)

- Photographic paper base

- Resin layer

Physical Characteristics:

a. Paper Base – Must be able to with stand immersion of paper in various processing
solution as well as prolonged washing during processing-made seven (7) different wood pulp
that have the unity and strength necessary for high grade base.

b. Base Weight – this refers to the thickness of the paper.

Types of paper according to weight:

1. Single weight

2. Double weight

Note: 1. Emulsion side of paper is the shiny part.

2. Emulsion side of film – the dull side.

c. Water Resistant Base – possible good dimensional stability less absorption

of chemicals, shorts processing time as the fiber base.

d. Paper Sizes – may supplement in standard sizes sheet or long roll of various width
for automatic processing common sizes of paper. Post card, 5 X 7, 7.5 X 5.5, 8 X 10, 11 X 14,
16 X 20 & 20 X 24.

e. Base Tinx – refers to the color of the paper.

a. White

b. Cream

f. Image Tone – refers to the color of sharp silver image colors gray from brown
through warm black and neutral black and blue black.

g. Florescent Brightness – refers to the brightness in prints.

h. Color Sensitivity – Panchromatic paper are sensitive to all color but less sensitive to
red.

Types of paper according to surface:

1. Glossy or smooth

2. Matt-rough

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 3. Semi-matt

Special purpose papers:

1. Printing out paper – produces image by the action of light alone, no development is
required, use to provide temporary portrait prints.

Example: Polaroid Photos.

2. Direct-positive paper – can be expose in a camera and reversal-processed to yield a

positive point.

II. Camera and the Eye:

Camera – is a light tight box machine use to record an image through the aid of a sensitize materials if
lights is allowed to pass into it.

Essential Part of Camera:

1. Light tight box – Is a box which devoid light.

2. Lens – is a medium used as the passage of light.

3. Film Holder – Its hold the film.

4. Shutter – Is a contraction placed on the path of the light passing through the lens.

5. Viewing system/view finder. (Note: This is accessory part)

Flash Unit:

1. Flash bulb

2. Electronic flash

3. Cube flash

Equipments to hold the Camera:

1. Bipod

2. Tripod

3. Camera Stand

Essential Functions of the Camera:

1. Surveillance

2. Police Public Relation

3. Presentation

4. Preservation

5. Entrapment

6. Re-enactment

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7. Police Communication

Microphoto-microfilming

Photo Micro – using of a microscope attached in the lens of a camera. (For

small/minute object enlargement)

Photo Macro – Using a tube lens, connected in the lens of a camera.

Eye – Is the most important part of our human body without it, we can not appreciate the beauty of the
world.

Depth of Field – In relation of the distance of the subject to the focused that is accepted to the
background of the focused.

- It is the distance measure from the nearest to the farthest object when the lens is
focused in a particular distance.

F – Numbers

F1.4/F2/F2.8/F3.5/F5.6/F8/F11/F16/F22

Shutters

B 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 125 250 500 1000

Pincushion or Barrel Distortion – The line is bend, the principle of light travels can be
distort/bend.

Rectillinear Lens – The lens that cures the pincushion or barrel distortion.

Aberration – lens defect.

CAMERA OPERATION

I. Normal Photography:

1. Load the Film – Make sure not to load the film in direct sunlight/subject:

a. Pull up the film rewind crank fully until the cover is unlocked and open;

b.Place the film cartridge in the film compartment with the emulsion side of film
facing the lens;

c. Pull the film leader and insert the film tip into the slot of the film take up
spool.

d. Turn the film advance lever and wind the film around the take-up spool and film
advance sprocket engage the perforation in the film;

e. Take two blank shots releasing the shutter after each shot. The film counter will
advance from “S” mark to “O”, with one more advanced, the camera will be ready
for the first shot.

2. Set the ASA/ISO rating of film

3. Wind the advance lever

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 4. Look through the viewfinder and focus

5. Compose the picture within the viewing frame of camera

6. Determine the exposure with the built-in meter

7. Press the shutter release button gently.

Take Note: The importance of camera manual for more modified operations.

a) Four (4) Important controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted:

1. Focusing Control – In order to form a sharp image.

Focus – Is the means by which the object distance is established or calculated

to form a sharp image.

Three types of focusing device:

a. Range finder type

b. Ground glass focusing type

c. Scale bed type

2. Shutter Speed Control

3. Diaphragm or Aperture Control

4. Shutter Speed and F- Number together

b) Shutter Speed Control

Factors to consider:

a. Light sensitivity of film

b. Motion of the subject on different angles
c. The purpose of photo
Two Types of Shutters;

1. Leaf Shutter

2. Focal Plane

c) SS and F-Number together

F-Number Shutter Speed

F22 1/2000

F16 1/100

F11 1/500

F8 1/250

F5.6 1/125

F4 1/60

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 F2

F1.4

d) Photographic Techniques:

1. Look at the Light

2. Use color for best effect

3. Make shape the subject

3.1. Near shape

3.2. Far shape

4. Bring-out subject form

5. Emphasize subject texture

6. Find and use subject pattern

7. Give your subject/picture depth

8. Turn around the camera

a. Change the viewpoint and angle

9. Shot around the subject

10. Frame your shot

11. Position your subject

12. Decide what to include

13. Pose your subject

14. Look for alternative shot

15. Create a sense of movement

16. Use on-camera flash

a. Flash fall-off c. Flash fill-in

b. Defused flash d. Action-stopping flash

II. Kinds of Photography and its Application.

a. Kinds of Photography:

1. Photomicrography – Kinds of photography that make enlargement minute

object from 1 to 50 times. (Aid of Microscope)
- It is used usually in question documents and Fire Arm Identification.

Things that are being examine:

1. Elements

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2. Features

3. Characteristics

2. Photomacrography – Type of photography that enlarge a minute object up to 10

times and commonly used in Personal Identification like Finger Print, Foot Print,
Palm Print, tube/extension bilus
3. Microphotography – The process of reducing big object or things of minute
object.
*Example : micro-film

4. Crime Scene Photography – Deals with the photographing the scene of the crime
on details of perpetuated crime.

*Example: Man Slaughter

1. Identification photograph of the victim

2. Specific place where the victim, is found

3. Minute object, article found in the scene

4. The place where the victim is remove

b. Classification of crimes committed

1. Injury sustain by the victim

2. General view of the scene must be photograph
3. The point of view must be photograph
4. The general view of the building where crime is committed

*Specific Crime Scene:

The following must be photograph into the case of hanging

1. The photograph of the victim when still hang, the distance between the feet and
the floor
2. Close-up photograph of the rope tied around the neck
3. The four corner where the victim is found
4. Close-up view of the knot

Rape Cases: (People Vs. Cezar Guy [Aug. 19___ SCRA])

a. The identification of the victim

b. Photograph of the victim with clothing
Photograph of the victim without clothing

c. Photograph of the victim in the stomach

d. Photograph of the vagina (close-up)
e. The area of laceration (close-up)
f) Place where the crime is committed
g) Close-up of the contusion, abrasion, hematomma

*Note: One with markings and one without

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5. Surveillance Photography – Deals with the photograph of individual without
his knowledge, such is the same in clandestine photography.
6. Infrared Photography – deals with the photographing of object visible,
divisible, invisible even with haze.
7. Ultra-Violet Photography – deals with the photographing of object or
markings which is invisible using reflected or fluorescent.
8. X-Ray Photography – deals with photographing of hidden object or
things.
9. Traffic Accident Photography – deals with the photographing of traffic
incident or occurrence especially in a vehicular accident.
a. Place of occurrence/accident.
b. Photograph of vehicle toward on both side of the drivers
c. Close-up photograph of the impact (You can identify through center
point of the point of impact
d. Close-up photograph of the debris

Photograph on the view of the witness

e. Identification photograph of both drivers involves

f. Photograph of some of the spectator around to include

passengers of both vehicles.

g. Close-up photograph of the damages occurred/sustain by both

vehicle

h. Photograph of both plate numbers

i. Photograph the specific place where the coalition took place

j. Photograph the skid mark.

10. Investigative Photography – deals with the study of the concept of

photography its application to law enforcement or investigation
process and the preparation of photographic evidence for court
presentation.
11. Mug Photography – Deals with the study of photographing individual for
identification process.
12. Finger Print Photography – Deals with the application of macro- photography
so as to produces an enlargement of finger print for comparison purposes.
13. Firearm Identification photography – Deals with the photographing of
firearm shells and bullet. It is also where photomicrography is
applied.
14. Question Documents - process of photographing document for purposes of
examination and as a substitute for duplicate copy when original is lost and the
purpose of duplicate photograph is to establish the contents of the lost original
document.
15. Arson and Questionable Fires – It is the willful and malicious burning of
property, usually a building or dwelling unit.
* Photographing the scene of arson especially when the fire is in progress can
establish the following:

1. The origin of fire. Very often in the crime of arson, fires started in
several places or area of the building. All of these occurrence must be shown in
the photographs;

2. The direction and fast spreading of the fires must be photographed;

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 3. Recorded color of the smoke, color of the flame and the size of the
flame can establish the nature of burning substance which can be the proximate
cause of fires. Color film must be used in photographing the fires while in
progress;

4. The entire area of the scene of the crime must be photographed in such
a manner that spectators, who are watching the fires must be included. Usually,
the arsonist will stay at the scene of the fire to watch the burning of the property.

* Importance of Photography in Law Enforcement:

1. For Records
2. For identification
3. For Presentation/Preservation
4. Substitution (Manila Vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil. 151)
5. Extension of man visual/limitation
6. Communication
7. Information
III. Preparation of Photographic Evidence:

a. Definition of Terms:
Preparation of Photographic Evidence – The moment the photographer received the order to
have/conduct a photograph with the crime scene.

Comparison Photograph – Using a comparison microscope with an aid of a camera attached into the
eye piece of the latter.

Juxtaposition – Is the result between two object/image in a comparison microscope with camera
attachment.

Composite Photograph – Use in comparing question hand writing from the standard to the one in
question.

Overlay – To determine whether the document hand writing is trace or

original/standard.

Sources of Photographic Evidence:

1. Police Photographer
2. Amateur Photographer
3. Media Photographer

b. Crime Scene Photography:

Criminal Investigation – determination of facts and circumstances surrounding the

commission of the crime and the identification of perpetuators.

Investigator – Persons who collect facts to accomplish the triple G:

1. Identity the Guilty Party

2. Locate the Guilty Party
3. To provide evidence of Guilt
c. Three methods of recording the crime scene:

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 1. Note Taking

2. Sketching

3. Photographing

 Purpose:
• Record Original Scene & Conditions
• Document Appearance of Evidence
• Capture Permanent Record

 Admissibility Issues:
• Photo must be relevant
• Non-prejudicial
• Distortion-free
• Accurate representation

d. DO’s and DON’Ts of Police Photographer

 Photograph the scene as soon as possible

 Use Photo Log for documentation
 Utilize various views of the scene
• Overall
• Medium
• Close-up (with and without scale)

 Photograph all evidence prior to collection

 Photograph the scene completely to include:
• Points of entry/exit
• Surrounding area/neighborhood
 Take photographs at eye level
 Photographs supplement sketches and notes - they do not stand alone
 FILM IS CHEAP! Use it!
 Body with five (5) Angles
 Close-up of Obvious Wounds
 Weapons
 Trace Evidence
 Signs of Prior Activity
 Evidence of Struggle
 Witness Perspective Shots
 Autopsy
 Do take your time
• Doing more is better than less
 Don’t Reposition Evidence
 Don’t destroy in the process

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