Course Outline Se 301: Research Methods in Education: Instructors

COURSE OUTLINE SE 301: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
INSTRUCTORS
1. Mr. P. Tarimo (office NO. 210 Educational administration block)
2. Ms. A. Msigwa (office NO. 124 Educational administration block)
3. Ms. G. Edward (office NO. 121 Educational administration block)
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course is intended to familiarize students with the process of research planning, data
analysis and reporting, and get them to appreciate the value of research in improving the
quality of education in Tanzania
Week Topic
1 Student registration
2  What is research?
 What are the objectives of research? Characteristics of research
 Types of research
 Strengths and weakness of each type of research
3  Organization of research activities(from chapter one to chapter five)
 What is research problem?
 How to identify research problem?
 Sources of research problem
4  How to develop statement of research
 Purpose of research
 General objectives of research
 Specific objectives
5 What research question?
How to formulate research question?
What is hypothesis?
Types of hypothesis
Identifying variables in hypothesis(independent and dependent variables)
Definition of key terms
6, 7  What is literature review?
 Importance of literature review
 How to conduct literature review?
 How to cite(APA style)
 Theoretical and conceptual framework
8, 9  How to conduct research methodology
 Research design
 Types of research design
 Research population, sampling techniques, sample size.
10  Methods of data collection for both qualitative and quantitative approaches
 Strengths and weakness for each method of data collection
11  Data analysis techniques and results presentation techniques
Copyright© 2013 SE 301: Notes by Respicius Rwehumbiza. All rights reserved Page 1
(a) Qualitative data analysis methods and results presentation techniques
12, 13, 14. b) quantitative data analysis and results presentation techniques
15  Writing research study
a) Proposal writing
b) Report writing
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

By the end of this course, students should be able to;
 Identifying research problem
 Identify appropriate research methods and designs
 Review literature related to a particular research problem
 Write a research proposal
 Conduct data analysis
 Write the research report
 Identify ways to disseminate search findings
MODE OF DELIVERY: Lectures
Course evaluation
Individual assignment 10%
Timed test 1 15%
Timed test 2 15%
Total coursework 40%
UE 60%
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What is Research?
 i.e search for knowledge.
 -Scientific and systematic search for information on a specific topic.
 -A process of gathering data in a strictly organized manner.
 -A process of testing a stated idea or hypothesis to see if the evidence supports it or not
 - A way of finding out information on a specific topic.
Honorela
 Research is a systematic controlled, critical and guided by theories and presumed
theories.
 Can be termed as systematic process of collecting data and analyzing them for the aim of
solving a certain problem. Given by the student.
 Kothari (2004) is the scientific and systematic search of information on a specific subject/
problem.
 Detailed study of a subject or an aspect of a subject.
When you conduct your research you;

- Collect and analyze data and get new knowledge in a particular issue.
- The research should include scientific systematic collection of data for the aim of solving
certain problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
i. Research is systematic –has to follow structured rules and principles/procedures
ii. Research is logical-it employs a system that needs reasoning i.e.. why this and not that?
iii. It is empirical-it relies on empirical evidence may be after observation. e.g.. Observed data
iv. Research demands accuracy and description-precise and accurate data are needed.
v. Research is replicable/transferable-can be repeated through being done by other people or
other places i.e.. It can be recollected/replicated by reviewing other research findings.
vi. Research is directed towards the solution that is, done in order to answer questions or finding
the relationship between variables.
vii. Research is generative-that is, it generates other researches for other people to do.
viii. Emphasizes on making generalization, developing principles and establishment of theories.
ix. Research forecast future events-predicts future occasions
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
Qn; why research?
 Every research has its own purpose although the general purpose of research is to find the
answers to the hidden questions / unknown issues/problems while following scientific
procedures. (To find the truth of the phenomenon)
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
- To get solutions to certain issue/ problem.
- To generate knowledge.
- To prove method used before.
- To gain dipper understanding of the phenomenon (becomes familiar with a certain
problem)
- To determine when the collected data in time at point one in time can predict/ determine
behavior that can occur in a later point in time. E.g. can the pre class interview predict
their performance in the future especially in their final examination? (The earlier
collected data can predict the future result data/ result)
- To introduce intervention when some researchers seek to determine whether the
phenomenon can be improved or controlled by a certain intervention i.e. can the given
suggestions solve the current phenomenon.
SIGNIFICANCES OF THE RESEARCH (Rationales/ roles/ importance)
Rationales/ justification of research (i.e what motivates people to conduct a

research?)
i. Desire to get research degree along with its consequential benefits
ii. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative works.
iii. To be of service to the society.
iv. To face the challenges. (To solve problems in the society).
v. To get respectability
vi. To get directives from the government
vii. To create employment conditions.
- Helps to know the reality of the study.

- To add new knowledge to the existing knowledge.
- Source of income
- Promotes development of logical thinking and argumentation / organization of ideas.
- Facilitates the decisions to the policy makers.
- Can mean as a career (ACADEMIC STUDIES)
Types of research
There are several types of research
 Basic/pure/fundamental
 Applied
 Descriptive
 Evaluative
 Exploratory
 Correlational
 Causal
 Educational
Basic
its purpose is to formulate theories/make contribution to existing body of knowledge andto study
phenomena and their re/ships.
It is basically for a week of knowledge.
It is used to explore the fundamental of behavior regardless of how those basis manifests the real
world. Aim to explain certain behaviour.
Adv of basic
Easy to understand
Easy to conduct bcoz bases on people‘s behaviour
Dis adv of basic
Difficult to prove theory
Difficulty to prove the truth of something being studied
The proess of collecting and analyzing data is difficult.
Applied
Applied research-An immediate and practical solution applied to solve the problem.
It is conducted for the purpose of applying and testing theories and evaluate, if the theory is
capable of solving problem.
Aims at finding a soln at immediate problems in a society or in any organization. Deals with
practical problems and it is generally empirical.
Aims at answering real world problems.
Adv of applied
Its methodology is transparent
It uses purposeful sampling
Dis adv of applied
Needs clear interpretation of the results
Descriptive research
Focus on the decription of state of affairs as it exist to presents.
A researcher has no control to variables.
Includes survey and facts, finding inquiry on different kinds.
Collects data inorder to answer qns about current status of the topic of study.
Uses formal instruments to study people preferences, attitudes, practices, or interests for group
being studied.
Adv of decrptve
Varietyof information are obtained
Using its data collection methods, it is easy to study individual life experiences i.e provde a lot of
informations
Useful in identifying further areas of rsearch
Dis adv of descriptive
 Confidentiality is big dis adv in this type of research
 Observours paradox; if the participants knows that somebody is observing they may
change the style of living or acting in different way.
 Subjectivity and error; qns presented by researcher are predetermined and prescriptive.
h/she may choose the question to ask and leave others hence can lead to mis
interpretation of results.
 One can not identify the cause beyond the issue under the study.
Analytical
Use facts or information already available and analyse them to obtain new information.
Adv of analytical
Brings accurate data or information.
Dis adv of analytical
Difficult to conduct bcoz needs critical analysis of facts, so if no facts it is difficult to conduct
Only professionals are needed to conduct the analytical research.
Evaluative
Concern with termination of merits and worth on a given practice, which taking place on a
selected sight.
Uses systematic procedures to add rsearcch base knowledge
Concern with decision making about validity or effectiveness or value of programmes or
product.
Addv of evaluative
Mostly uses qualitative research methods, easy to get a lot of data at a time.
Dis adv of evaluative
1. It need professionals to get successifully results.
2. The danger of multiple audience in interpreting problems the same can mean different
things to different people
exploratory research
it is the it type of research which is done when the problem is not clearly defined
it is undertaken with aim to clarify ambiguous problems which are generally known but not
sufficient understood
 the purpose is to get more information
 to determine the cause of action
 to follow is not the purpose of action research
advantages of exploratory research

1. increases thee researchers understand of subjects clearly
2. researcher gains insights of the problems
disadvantage of exploratory research
it needs people who are experts
correlational research
it determines whether or what degree there is a relation between twoce or more variables but the
presence of correlation does not indicate the causal effect relationship due to multiple confiding
factors
advantages of correlation research
it is economical and choosing the respondents in using the respondents
eg. Can use simple random sample
disadvantages of exploratory research
it uses complex instruments in analyzing data eg. ANOVA
it need experts to conduct the correlational research
educational research research
it is the collection and analyzing of information in the world of education so as to understand and
explain it better
it is critical(sensitival), reflex and professional oriented activities
ORGANISATION OF RESEARCH PAPER / RESEARCH STUDY
Research activities always are organized into chapters. With respect to our University, we
usually use FIVE chapters but other universities and colleges can use six chapters.
Chapter 1: Back ground and its context

i. Introduction
Introduces the specific chapters it shows ;
 What is discussed in the chapter

Background
Required to trace out the source of the problem at hand
Collect information related to that topic
Find other what have discussed on that problems
Statement of the problem
To identify what others has been done and at what extent others have not done to find the
knowledge gap of the problem
Purpose of the study
This is the general aim of the study
Objectives
This is the proposal of the ways of fulfilling your study
General objectives
Specific objectives
Research questions in research
Hypothesis
The tentative ideas that are to be tested
Significance of the study
The usefulness of the study to the particular society
Scope and delimination
Scope is the boundaries of the or the coverage of the study
Can be the terms of instruments used
Limitations
Hindering blocks of obstacles that hinder the study your conducted
Can be in terms of instruments you use
Operational definitional definition of terms
On working definitions
Specific meaning of each variable terms which are used in the study
Chapter 2 review of literature/ literature review
Literature review
Introduction
Introduces the particular chapter
Theoretical frame work of the study
Theories that help in concluding the study the study
Theory act as as direction of forming objectives
Theories related to study variables
Review of related literatures
Make a a review of all related literature to the study
Two types of literature review
Local literature review
Foreign review
Aim of literature review is to justify if the issue is still existing in different context of the world
Conceptual frame work of the study

General map/image of the study
How the map looks the study looks like
You can use illustrations/narration by adapting or adopting the idea an telling where you have
taken the it before modifying it
Everything in the conceptual frame work acts as guideline for the forming of the research
questions to ask the respondents
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODLOGY

Introduction
Design of the study
Way carrying out your study
Approaches of the study(study approaches)
Quantitative approach
Qualitative approach
Location of the study
study population
study sample
sampling techniques
sampling characterstics
data collection techiniques
data collection depends on the type of study
Observing the confidentiality of the respondents
Everything should be secrete
Trust respondents and this can result to vice versa
CHPTER 4 DATQA PRESENTQATION ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction
Actual process of data analysis using spss, anova etc.
Discussion
Compare current and previous related results
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMNDATIONS OF THE STUDY

Introduction
Summary of the main findings
Conclusion of your study/your views on the study
Study recommendations
2 kinds of recommendations
1. Recommendations for action
-you want people to work or to do things related to your study
-recommendation for action in actual sense is what to be done by people on overcoming the
problem of the study
2. Recommendation for further studies

-recommending more other studies
RESEARCH PROCESS
As a systematic process employs structured procedures in providing answers to the question.
Thus, research is cyclic step that typically follows the following procedures;
1. Identification of a problem (problem identification)
2. Formulation of hypothesis (questions)-form predictions.
3. Literature review- go through various readings / books/ reports that relate to the topic to be
investigated.
4. Selecting research design- decides on the study approach.
a) Study approach -Qualitative approach.
-Quantitative approach.
b) Decide on the location of study
c) Decide on the study population.
d) People to be involved in the study and how to get them.
5. Developing research instruments
a) Refers to the tools used by the researcher. In the field to collect the
data/ information. Example questionnaires, interviews, documentary
reviews, observations, checklist etc.
6. Data collection.
Administering the instruments for the records.
7. Data analysis.
Cementations to the collected information into sensible data.
8. Report writing
Write the report and desigument to the audience. It is characterized by carefully
generalization or conclusion.
IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM
What is the research problem?
It is the situation that causes the researcher to feel amprehensive, confused and ill
at ease
It is a demarcation the problem earlier nvolving the whole why, what and where of
the problems
N formulating the research problem ;
Show the a researcher where previous researchers has been deficiency and where
to start with a thing that not yet known/persued
A gap called a research problem
A research problem is the 1st and most important requirement in research study
Determine all steps to be conducted in research study
THINGS TO CONSIDER IN FORMING OF PROBLEM

 Ones interest(researchers interest)
 Magnitude of the problem
 Measurement of the concepts
 Level of expertise(knowledge of researcher)
 Relevant of the study/research problem
 Availability of data
 Ethical issues(peoples ethics)
STEPS IN IDENTIFICATION AND FORMULATING OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
1) To identify general research area, you should like t study (broad area you
want to conduct the research)
2) Narrow your general areas of interests into small subcategories
3) Look for publications in order to learn sub categories of interests
4) Identify gaps in research knowledge based
5) Look at the objectives for each of the research questions in order to
determine whether feasiblility may find answer for them(set of
objectives)
6) Research questions as a statement at identifying the problem on these
questions who, what, why, when or where.
7) Write out several sentences very briefly explain the knowledge gap and
then place your research problems at end
Research statements showing what have been done, and what you plan to do
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

(1) Theories
(2) Experience/personal experiences
(3) Previous research findings
(4) Professional conferences
(5) Experts
(6) Observation
THEORIES
Related to deduction of the society and generalization relied to problems found in
the societies
From theory, a research can formulating a research problem or hypothesis. Stating
expected findings eg. Theory of behaviorism, cognitive theory etc.
EXPERIENCE
Everyday experience can give rise to what while research problem for investigation
PREVIOUS RESEARCH/STUDIES
Select of research problem can often be delivered on extensive and thorough
review of related studies, may give interest of conducting a new study associated
with overall area of interests
It help in identifying gaps and formulating a research problem
OBSERVATION
Through observation a research problem can bee formulated
PROFESSIONAL CONFERENCE
People who have knowledge of research when they derive out through conferences
a researcher can identify a gap and identify a research problem
EXPERTS
Can help and give rise to research problem when deriving knowledge.
Characteristics of research problem

• Should be manageable- in terms of time and money
• Should be researchable
• Should be of interest to the researcher
• Should seek to bring originality
Developing statement of the research

 Research statement is the brief narration that summarizes the research development to date
and future goals of your research.
 It is a summary of the entire study and achievement of the study
Often it includes current findings and aims as well as future goals. Research statements are
usually requested as a part of relevant job application process.
A typical research statement follows a typical pattern in regard to layer out, it often includes
features of other research documents:
 Abstract
 Research background
 Goals
What makes a good research statement?
A good research statement begins by introducing the broad area. It should explain generally what
the research is centered and gradually leads to the reader
It should start from general to specific; therefore it should be simple which explain everything in
the research.
Purpose of research
This is the general intention of the research, it is always broad or general
All scientific studies aim to find answers to various questions.
Research objectives
Objectives are the purposes that can be reasonably achieved within expected timeframe andwith
available resources
A research objective is clear concise and clerative statements which provide direction to
investigate variables/entities
Characteristics (features) of research objectives

 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Realistic
 Time bound
Types of research objectives

1. General objectives
These are broad goals to be achieved and state what the researcher expect in study in general
terms. They are always less in number because they are big themes. They can be broken nto
small logically connected parts to form specific objectives. General objective is met through
accomplishing all the specific objectives
2. Specific objectives
Are shorter objectives and narrow in focus, they are more in number and they systematically
address various aspects of a problem as defined under statement of the problem. A key factor
is to address the problem as stated in the research statement. They should specify what the
researcher will do in the study, where and for what purpose
Research questions
Clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable questions around which you center your
research. They are Interrogative statements that identify a phenomenon to the study. They
are questions that you tried to answer when conducting a research study
Research questions save two purposes:
1. It determines where and what kind of research the writer/researcher will be looking for
2. It determines the specific objectives of the study/research addresses.
Importance of Research questions

1. It helps the researcher focus their research by providing a part through a research and
writing process
2. Is one of the methodological steps the researcher must undertake during the study
How to formulate Research questions

 Have good knowledge of the topic of study and then
 Make sure that your topic is right size of the purpose (topic must neither be too
large/complex to relate with the relation to time or resources to work with nor too small)
 Narrow to small or short
 Then now formulate research questions and construct
Research questions have identified features/characteristics

 It should be relevant/up to date
 It should be manageable (work with it)
 It should be substantial and with original dimensions
 It should be consistent with requirement of the assessment
 Should be clear and simple
 Should be interresting
FORMULATION HYPOTHESIS (QUESTIONS)

Hypothesis- a proposition that we want to verify
Hypothesis – a tentative (uncertain/ not sure/ predictive statement about the outcome of the
study.
According to Kerlinge, (1970) – Is the conjectural / imaginary thing statement of relations
between two or more variables. Conjectural means uncertain / not exactly.
Hypothesis can be the statement about the expected relationship / differences between the
variables of the study.
IMPORTANCES OF STATING THE HYPOTHESIS
 Facilitates the extension of the knowledge in an area indicates the researcher that has
enough knowledge in that area.
 Provides direction to the research. It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant
(provides rational statements that is directly testable in a research study)
 Serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.
Characteristics of hypothesis
 Should be simple, specific and conceptually clear
 Can be verified
 Should be relating to the existing body of knowledge
 It should be operationalizable (every term used should be measured/clearly defined
Types of Hypothesis
(a) Alternative hypothesis (H1)
(b) Null hypothesis (H0).
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
This is what the researcher really thinks is the cause of a phenomenon. It is the statement created
by the researchers when they speculate upon outcome of the research or outcome.
It is stated in a positive way
Example; there is relationship between IQ and academic performance in children.
It is in an affirmative way.
There is a relationship between sleeping and memory.
There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
Stated in a negative way. It is null because it states that there is no relationship, no
difference, and no defects. It is the hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove,
reject or nullify. It is the assertion that we hold as true until we have sufficient statistical
evidence
Example; there is no relationship between IQ and academic performance in
children.
There is no relationship between sleeping and memory.
How errors are committed in testing hypothesis

 The study design selected fault
 The sampling procedures adapted is fault or irrelevant
 Methods of data collecting if inaccurate
 Wrong analysis procedures
Type I error
This is the error made when we reject the null hypothesis while it is true/should not be rejected
Type II error
The error committed when we accept the null hypothesis while it is false
THE HYPOTHESIS AND ITS VARIABLES

Variable: a quantity whose value changes. It is an entity that varies from one observation to next
or an empirical property that is capable of taking two or more values
It is the factor or characteristics of interest that the researcher would like to manipulate in
research. Example age, sex, weight, height, intelligence academic performances etc.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. INDEPENDENT (predictor) VARIABLES

Is a variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effects in another variable.
The variable that is judged.
Example; the teacher‘s prize on the reading skills achieved in std. ii
Here we can see two variables i.e. Teacher‘s prize and achieved reading skills.
Teacher‘s prize can be changed so it is independent variable while the achieved skills cannot be
changed so it is dependent variable
2. DEPENDENT (outcome) VARIABLES

Is the variable that observed to determine the effects of manipulating the independent variables.
It is controlled by the independent variables and not by the researcher. Example; a study of
teacher student classroom interaction at different levels of schooling.
-The student classroom interaction is dependant variable
-The level of schooling is independent variable.
Note that, you can manipulate levels of schooling and interaction.
Example; the comparative of study professional altitudes of secondary school teacher by sex.
-altitude of professional is dependant
-sex is independent because in case of altitudes, can be seen to both male and females.
3. Extraneous or intervening or mediating variables

These are several other factors operating in real life that may change in dependant variables
NB:
Whether dependent or independent or extraneous variables, they may still be discrete or
continuous or categorical
i. discrete variables
These are variables that can only take on a finite number of values. All qualitative
variables are discrete values. But only some quantitative values are discrete variables
such as:
 performance
 temperature round to the nearest degree/complete number
 discrete variables whose values are obtained by counting
eg. Number of ss present
Number of ss grade level
ii. continuous variables

These are variables whose value is obtained by measuring.eg height, distance, time
iii. categorical group (nominal variables)

A variable that can take one of a limited and usually fixed number of possible values.
Or, a variable that has two or more categories but there is no intrinsic ordering to the
categories. A categorical variable that can take only two values is called a binary or
dummy and it is treated as own specific variable.
e.g. -People blood group types
- states such as USA
- political parties
-types of rocks
Measurement of variables/ testing of variables

Measurement is essential or basic to an inquiry
4 types of measurement scales (Steven’s Scales of Measurement)

i. nominal or classificatory scale
ii. ordinal-ranking scale
iii. interval scale
iv. ratio scale
1. Nominal scale
Involve placing objects or individuals into distinct categories that are qualitative different
rather than quantization or in numbers-not to say how many! It enables the classification of
individuals, objects or responses based on common characteristics
Example:
 Education
 Marital status
 Gender
Classifying students into:
- Boys and girls
- Males and females
2. Ordinal scale
- Individuals or objects, are ranked/placed in order of a certain criteria (marks from highest
to lowest) or
- Direct comparison of individuals or objects in terms of the extent to which they possess
the attribute in question (teachers arrange students from highest to lowest scores in an
examination or in athletic competition
1st students, 2nd student, 3rd student and so on. 1 is higher than 2,3 and so on.
This is done without necessarily saying that the interval between 1 and 2 is equal or not
- In a athletics we may want to know who come 1st, 2nd, 3rd without necessarily
knowing how fast each one has made it
The difference between 1st and 2nd may not necessarily be the same as the 2nd and 3rd
3. The interval scale

A more precise measurement than the first two
Orders objects, individuals according to certain, attributes or equal intervals Example: The
temperature scale (centigrade thermometers)
The order and distance relationship among numbers have meaning (the difference between
500c and 510c is equal to the difference between 300c and 310c. Caution: Score zero in CE
301 test does not mean the student have zero knowledge
- Neither we do not say a student who scores 60% and the another 30% we do not say the
first is twice as intelligent as the second!
- The intervals are equal in terms of the instrument we are using. Not necessarily in terms
of ability we are measuring. Ability have no true zero.
- Examples: Think of the common practice we use in our University
- Application in education: A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1, F=0 are used as interval scale.
- It is difficult to accept that the difference between F=0 and D=1 represents the same
difference in academic achievement as the difference between C=2 and B=3
- It is important to be cautious when making interpretation of interval statistics.
- Note that the scale have no true zero (Score F=0 in CA or UE does not mean zero
knowledge).
4. The Ratio Scale

Have true zero as well as equal intervals (for example tape measure used to measure length is
a ratio scale) – why?
The origin is zero which mean no length at all!
It is possible to state that 10 metre length is twice 5 metres
The distance from Dodoma to Morogoro is about twice the distance from Dodoma to DSM
With ratio scale it is possible to multiply and divide unlike the interval scale for example 1m
multiply by 1,000 to get 1,000 metres to make 1 km and so on.
Literature review
Literature refers to works a researcher consulted in order to understand or investigate the
research problem.
Literature review- a critical analysis of what has been published by credited scholars and other
experienced researchers. It examines written documents such as books, journals, magazines,
dissertations, etc that are related to the study. It is the tool of the discussion of the findings
Importance of literature review

1. Sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundations of the research. Through literature review,
you will go through the theories.
2. It informs the researcher on what has been done on the related study
3. It helps the researcher to avoid unnecessary duplication of the work
4. It is useful in designing the methodology
Steps to an effective literature review

1. Identify key issues to be addressed by literature review
2. Formulate a preliminary statement of the problem
3. Identify the sources of information
4. Analyze critically the document
5. Classify and code the documents that you want to include in the literature review
6. Create an outline for the review
7. Synthesize the information gathered
8. Write review of the literature
 The researcher can select the most relevant to your study
 Put together the results of your study so that all are together and show how they are
relevant to the study
 Show that literature is incomplete hence it will make you to identify the incomplete
part
Criteria for selecting the documents on literature review

 Select those documents that are directly related to the study
 Select by looking the year of publication
 Select those in which they are credited internationally/more familiar documents
Theoretical framework and conceptual framework

A framework is a structure that holds the components of the study together
Theoretical framework
This is the skeletal structure that guides the research by relying in formal theory
Theoretical framework is established by coherent established theories
The study should much with the theory purposed.
The data collection/findings must be supported by selected theories
Conceptual framework
This is the skeletal structure of justifications. It is an argument that includes different
point of views, it adapts some ideas or concepts. It connects these ideas or concepts, it
tries to show how these ideas or concepts are interrelated. The concepts are not
necessarily to be derived from the theory hence it is distinguished from theoretical
framework
The research methodology

With the exception of tenses, its content is the same in the proposal and in the report. In
proposal, it is written in future tense as it is a plan while in the past it is written in the past tense.
Research methodology involves a set of decisions regarding research study such as:
 Study approach
 Design
 Study area
 Population of study
 Sample size and sampling techniques
 Data collection and analysis methods
 Validity and consistency (reliability)
 Ethical considerations
Research approaches
Types:
1. Qualitative approach
2. Quantitative approach
(a) Qualitative research approach- non quantitative methods are used. It doesn‘t use numerical
to describe the events/ situations.
It studies single individuals or situations each of which is called a case.
CATEGORIES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH designs

i- Phenomenology- descriptive study on how individuals experience a phenomenon
ii- Ethnography- researchers collect data about the situations or cultural group
through extensive interviews
iii- Grounded theory-
iv- Case study- involves in-depth examination of one individual/ situations or events.
v- Historical studies-
vi- Action research studies-
iii-Content analysis- focuses on the analysis of region documents; also called
Library study. You study in the library and collect the suitable data for your research
STRENGTH OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Original data are collected.
 Helps to determine the behavior of the researcher / particular person.
 Knowledge and competence of the source of the data.
 Consistency of the collected data.
WEAKNESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Too subjective
 Time consuming
 Too expensive.
 It is costful both transactions and physical materials.
 There is a possibility of having many interpretations since it is subjective.
 Because it is descriptive, most data analysis is done in the words.
 Bias and motives of the sources.
(b) Quantitative research- deals with quantifications of information. It uses objectives

measurements and numerical analysis in explanations of the phenomenon. It consists of
measuring numerical values from which description such as mean and standard diversion and
other measurements.
Its classification.
It is classified into two groups such as;
i- Experimental research
ii- Non experimental research.
Experimental research
Researchers administer different treatments to two or more groups and then
compare them. Example ; the mathematics teacher can make an investigation on
the better way to teach mathematical problems with the application of new
method to one stream and leave the other stream with the former method then
come to compare their results.
Stream A – teaching with the use of lecture approach which is a new method, so this is called
experimental class.
Stream B- teaching with the use of participatory approach which is traditional method, so this
class is called controlling class. At the end there should be the comparison of the results
between the two classes that were treated differently and get the better approach to teach them.
Non experimental research.
Researcher identifies variables thus looks the relationship between the variables.
Ex; the relationship between the family economic status and performance in
education.
Research design
It is viewed as a structure for the researcher activity. For any scientific activity, there is a need to
be a research design.
Research design involves a set of decisions that an individual / researcher has to make regarding
the topic of study; such as;-
The population for the study.
To whom the research will be undertaken -teachers.
-students.
-other stakeholders.
The sample of the study i.e. the number of participants.
Geographical area; this may be region, district, ward, village, street for the
study.
The methods of data collection
The methods of data analysis.
The design that one chooses determines the methods to be used. The methods will affect your
findings and the conclusion as well. Thus the research design is governed by the purposes. It
must suit aims/ goals of your study. The research should be practicable, visible.
TYPES OF quantitative RESEARCH DESIGN

There are several different kinds of research design and each has its purposes and aims. The type
of research design depends to the nature of a purpose of a research.
1, Historical research design

Is a procedure in which the researcher seeks/ needs to test the validity of the reports/
observation that have been made by others.
It bases on evidences or documentary (reports) or oral evidences.
It depicts the pasts accurately and tells objectively. It needs you to read other reports.
You prove the validity of others‘ research reports.
For example; factors for failures in science subjects; May find some reasons and
get conclusion to such findings.
As a new researcher, you read that report which was prepared by someone then you
want to prove the validity of such a research report. This is the called Historical
2, Survey research design

Omary, (2011) is probably the most common type of research design. This kind of
research aims at describing the phenomenon. Describing accurately the phenomenon
through factual data and opinions from the participants.
The most important here is it uses large samples in a large population i.e. large number of
respondents. E.g. Sensors.
It is mostly Quantitatively research methods/ approach. Most information is in
numerous.
3, Case study research design

It uses few samples (small sample size) .number of participants is small. This study focus
on obtaining detailed information, descriptions and explanations on a given event.
You get injects and go for further study. It is intensive and comprehensive analysis of an
individual unit (persons, organization and even institution). It never relay on an
individual entity.
E.g. having a study on bulling behaviors of form two students against form one.
It goes for the contests phenomenon. This goes hands to hands with geographical
location. You identify differences and similarities. It is analysis of persons in a periods,
projects, policies, decisions, classification etc. You study it as it appears (Holistic
manner)
4, Developmental research designs

Aims assessing at changes over an extended period of time. Changes of child from
infancy to adult, language acquisition, physical developments.
It is commonly done in children as the subject. It is done in different development
subjects.
E.g. you test the performance development achievement in one‘s academically from class
to class, test to test etc.
Focus on how people develop and change from time of conceptions to death. This can be
longitudinal or cross sectional research study and it can be done as an individual
research.
A .Longitudinal research.
Researcher asses changes using number of periods. E.g. asses the performances of a child
from form I-IV, from January to December.
B. Cross sectional research.
It companies all data in a single time, this may be to know the changes in the of an
individual; once you collect the data may be at the end of the of some one‘s study and
collect all the needed information in some one‘s performance just once and then write the
report since you have collected all the required data.
5, Correlation research design

Investigates the relationship between the variables (these may be two or more variables).
The correlation may be either positive or negative; also may be strong or weak.
Investigate the extent of variability among the variables. This is Quantitative research
parcel. There is no room for qualitative study here.
You end up of having the extent of (+/- or strong or weak) correlation between the
variables.
It is said to be purely research technology with most advanced statistics techniques. Note
that there is a differential statistics SSS techniques although it can be done in a
combination.
6, Casual comparative research design

Sometimes called Ex-post facto research design. It is more similar and correlation
research designs since it investigates the relationship between two variables. Here it deals
with the cause relationship between the two variables by observing existing consequences
for reasonable casual variables i.e. casual effects of variables; thus, it seeks to explain the
cause of already observed phenomenon. It doesn‘t need to manipulate the variables.
For example: drop outs rate of pupils from the school.
The subject is already a consequence, therefore you go for the causes of such a drop outs.
You search for the factors of drop outs in the field
7, Experimental researches design.

I, Quasi experimental research
II, True experimental research
*True experimental research
The cause of effects of two related variables
*Quasi experimental research
The cause and effect between two variables.
The aim of experimental research design is to investigate on possible causes and affect
relationship between by manipulating the independent variables by observing the effects
of dependent variables.
The researcher will be able to see the difference in these two variables.
Note the example on changing the teaching approach in a certain class (two streams)
remember the controlling class and experimental/ test class. Consider the results resulted
from the changes on teaching approach i.e. effects then give the reasons or cause of
changes in relation to teaching approach.
NB. COMMON TERMS

Treatment and non treatment group i.e. Controlling and experimental classes.
True experimental research demonstrates changes to the independent variables that have
been caused by dependent variables.
Quasi experimental research design; uses variables of similar nature. These may be
dependent or independent variables. It studies about causes and relationship between the
two variables.
Having a controlling class or experimental group is done with the purpose (importance).
One group may be assigned to partially purpose while the other one it has predetermined
purposes.
8, Action research design

It looks for the solutions to uncovered / unsolved or existing problems. It seeks for the
immediate solutions to the existing problems. If the epidemic disease rises for example in
a certain place, the action research should be pressed immediately for solving such a
problem.
It finds the cause of the problem for the possible solution towards such a problem/
emergency solution. It seeks for the answer of ―WHY‖ upon the phenomenon attained.
9, Evaluation research design

Aims at assessing the expected outcomes. The evaluation is based on purposes/ aims
objective that you studied in a certain project. It seeks for the answer of what were the
aims/ purposes for your studies. Example you may asses the achievements of SEDP and
PEDP. The conclusion always comes with the suggestions for the modification or
appreciations of the initiated program
SAMPLING AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

 What is sampling?
 Why do we sample?
SAMPLING – is the process of selecting a sample / participants for the study. i.e. In
order to investigate, there should be samples from the big population.
 We do sampling for the purposes of reducing the cost, time, money and human
resources.
 Also it is possible to test the hypothesis just a small portion of the population;
i.e. you can easily test the hypothesis if the small portion of the big population is
tested.
TERMINOLOGIES
1. POPULATION:
Totality of any units which have one or more characteristics in a common, that is of interest to
the researcher. ―Thus it should be a unit of one or more characteristics‖ for example, teachers
have the same common characteristics, the same to learners depending to the nature of their
work. Etc.
Population therefore, is a group of people of interests fro when the information may be obtained.
2. SAMPLE:
Is the set of elements taken from large population that is selected for the investigation. I.
e. it is the sub set of the population.
OMARY, (2011) a small population selected for the observation.
3. SAMPLE SIZE:
Means the number of the sample. Therefore these are the numerical statistics; they indicate
numeral statistics.
4. STATIATICS:
Refers to the numerical characteristics of the sample; mean, mode, standard deviations etc.
5. PARAMETER:
A numerical statistics of the population.
6. SAMPLE ERROR:
Refers to the difference between the values of samples statistics and the value of the population
parameter.
7. THE RESPONSE RATE:
Is the percentage of people in the sample selected for the studies who actually participate in the
study. I.e. sample size-population x 100%=the response rate.
8. THE SAMPLING FRAME:
A list of all people in all the population. Example students of all pupils of NGH‘ONGH‘ONHA
secondary school. This is in terms of names that are listed.
TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING
There are two majors of sampling in research.
 Probability/ random sampling
 Non probability/ non random sampling.
RANDOM/ PROBABILITY SAMPLING

This reproduces a representative sample population. It involves the process of selecting sample
by random selection. Members of that population have the same/ equal chance to participate in
the research. Any member of the population can become the member of the sample group.
TYPES
(a) Simple Random Sampling:
A sample is drawn from randomly from the list of individual in the population. It is unequal
probability sampling method. All the mass have the same chance to be selected to participate in
the research.
(b) Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic selection of participants where a researcher has to select each and nth term
(participants)
For example; if people are listed in groups of ten people each, then you decide to pick the third
or any other number from the list for all groups so as to meet the sample size. With this it
requires to decide on the sample size and how many do you need and don‘t mix the column of
selection
(c) Stratified Random Sampling
Involves the inviting the population into starters / small groups then you picks few of them
randomly. But the group needs homogenous (the similar / common characteristics) so as to
represent the population in terms of gender, age, education etc.
Sub Kinds of Stratified Random Sampling.
1. Proportional stratified random sampling.

You must make sure that the sub-groups are proportional to the size of their population:
e.g. population of 200 can represented with a sample size of 100 people, if men in total
are 150 may be, then 50% of each group may present the remaining population which
means 75 male and 25 female.
2. Disproportional Stratified Random Sampling.
The sub samples are not proportional to their size of population. Example the total
population is 200 people whereby, male are 150 and females. The sample size may
include 100 people in the ratio of equal number regarding their gender i.e. 50 males
and 50 females. This is disproportional since it has included all the female population
instead of their 50% that could balance the males with 75 and 25 females.
With this the only case is about equal size / number of both groups.
(c) Cluster sampling / ecological sampling.
It is frequently used and usually more practical sample method. It is common used in
situations where there is no sample frame ( not listed). Also used when the Geographical
distribution of individuals is widely scattered.
Sampling obtained by sampling the higher level to lower level sampling. Example; you
mal sample from the Regions, then district then you narrow down to village and streets
respectively
Kagera- Ngara- Bugufi- Nyamiaga- Ngara town- Mukididili- Mugitanga….here a
representative is selected from the top level to lower level of geographical expansion
however the population is reduced in regarding the level.
(e) Stage sample / step sampling.
It is an extension of cluster sample. There is process of selecting the participant is almost
similar since it selects in levels. It selects samples within a sample. Example in primary
school- you choose some schools among the chosen schools you select some classes, then
you pick some streams and finally you point out some individuals to participate in your
research as the sample. All the sampling is regarded by one criterion. Only one criterion
should be used to sample.
(f) Multistage sampling.
Criteria for sampling differ from one stage / level to another.
Note that: All probability methods allow findings to generalize are Quantitative Researches i.e.
Generalization of data.
NON PROBABILITY / NON RANDOM SAMPLING

It does not produce a representative sample. The findings cannot be generalized to the
population.
The selection of the sample is just by chancy. Participants have no equal chance to participate/ to
become the participants of the research process.
The participants have no common characteristics, only few people are selected regardless their
needs and interests.
Members of the population have no equal chance to be selected to be selected. The particular
individual to be selected is selected basing on the one who fits your interests.
Participants are selected depending to the needs of the study I. e it is specifically for Qualitative
research approach.
It is very useful when researchers are restricted to time, money, human resources etc. just few
number of sample size is selected. It is not a product of randomization i.e. the sample cannot be
picked randomly rather with q specific reasons/ purpose of choosing them.
The subject of no probability sample is usually selected on the bases of their accessibility and
purposive personal judgment however there will be the population to be left. Thus the result
cannot be used for generalization. Since you sample had no common characteristics.
Sub types of Non Probability Sampling.

(a) Convenience.
The most common to be used by researchers since it is very simple to undertake. Also called
opportunity/ accidental sampling. The samples are selected because are accessible to the
researcher.
(b) Consecutive.
Uses the same criteria as convenience. It uses the accessibility of the participants, only this uses
the participants that are accessible in the location of the study. It is very practical. It can take a
lot of time, money, physical resources and human resources etc. other participants are in risk to
be left thus it is not reliable.
(c) Quota sampling.

It has been described as equivalent to quartering of population of the sampling. This can be
commonly used where the population for the study is very wide. Small groups i.e. quarters
represent the whole population as it is used in stratified sampling but all have equal proportional
sampling. The respondents are selected in a proportional matter / case or nature.
Cohen et al. (2000) identified three stages of quota sampling.
 Divide the population in quarters with common interests/ characteristics.
 Identify the proportion i.e. numbers of the individuals of each group and
percentages.
 To ensure that the proportion you have reflects the population in terms of
characteristics.
(d) Judgmental sampling.

Commonly known as purposive sampling. The subject of the study is chosen with a specific
purpose. The answer for the question of why these respondents and not the other one?
Researchers believe that, some individuals have the right information that the researcher need
compared to others. E.g. prefects instead of all pupils since it are assumed that they know their
fellows behavior well. You have also to reason on the type of participants of your choose.
(e) Strategic / snow ball Sampling.
Is done when there is a very small population size. It is very useful when you have a sensitive
study. What is required here is here is to identify one individual/ just a very few number of the
individual. You have to recommend on the participants/ individuals. The participants may not
represent the population. It has very few respondents. E.g. you want to study on drug abusers,
you may interview one and recommend on the other.
INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

There are several instruments used for the data collection. There is no one best basically for
collecting data. The decision on data collection depends on;
a. What you need to know. If number or story.
b. Where the data resides (environment/locality) of data.
c. Resources and time available.
d. Complexity of data to be collected.
e. Frequency of data collection. Note that: Each type of instrument has its strength
and weakness.
It is important to know these instruments that are being used in collecting data.
 Observation
 Questionnaires.
 Interviews.
 Experiments.
 Documentary review/ analysis.
 Checklist.
OBSERVATION
Refers to the direct evidences of the eye to witness the events. Researchers relay on what they
see, hear, feel, and smell and not what others have said.
Types of observation
(a) Naturalistic observation.
The subjects are not aware of that are being observed. For instance the playing children
themselves.
(b) Participant observation.

The researcher participates with the subject. It involves the researcher stay with the community
that is being studied. Normally it takes long time like 10 years and above. It is easier to study the
behavior in more natural environment.
(c) Non participant observation.
No need for the researcher to be a part and parcel of the studied community. The observer is
apart observing the activities but not participating. Normally, the observer seeks/ guides are
prepared.
Advantage of observation.
 Uses the researcher as the main instrument of the research.
 Sounds better chance of retaining a natural setting i.e. there is no environmental
modification.
Disadvantages of observation
 It is costful in terms of money and time.
 Can be potential dangerous, physically, socially psychologically etc.
 Sometimes information gathered may not be complete.
 There are some biases.
 It is not very reliable i.e. minimal reliability of the information.
INTERVIEW
It is a purposeful conversation between the two or more people (oral interaction) in order to get
information. Oral interaction between the interviewer (researcher) and interviewee (respondent)
that is designed to get information.
Types of interview.
(a) Structured interview.

Involves tightly and strictly control over the format of questions and answers. The researcher has
a pre-determined list of questions. There are no supplementary questions. Each respondent is
with identical questions. Choices of alternative answers are restricted to a pre-determined list.
This type is standardized and formal.
(b) Semi-structured interview

It has a clear list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. There is flexibility in
order of the topic, but not necessarily to be in a sequential form. Questions have no answers
already. The interview is given a chance to develop ideas and speak more widely on the issues.
The answers are open ended.
(c) Unstructured interview

The emphasize is placed on the interviewee‘s thoughts. The topic is given, and then the
interviewee is given the chance to speak on the topic. To give their minds in the better well.
Gives opportunity for the in-depth investigation.
Advantages of the interviews

a) It gives in-depth investigation- it allows details/ information
b) Equipments- it requires just simple equipments.
c) Flexibility- it is flexible as a method of collecting data.
d) Reliability- it has a direct contact/ data can be checked for the accuracy and
relevance.
e) High response rate.
f) Therapeutic- it has personal element i.e. rapport.
g) Not restricted for example literate people only.
Disadvantages of interview
a) It is time consuming. Data analysis can take more time.
b) Less reliability- consistence and connectivity are hard to achieve.
c) Invasion of privacy.
d) It is costful in terms of money and time i.e. travelling and transactions.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Is the set of questions that a respondent is asked to fill in. it is the device for securing answers to
questions by using the form that the respondent has to fill in.
Types of Questionnaires
 Closed questionnaire
 Open questionnaire
Closed Questionnaires
Are those questions for the short answers. NO/YES responses questions.
Ex: are you married? The answer must be either YES or NO or not otherwise.
These questions normally have alternative answers as pre-determined. Multiple choices or listed
answers.
Open Questionnaires. Are questions that respondents are free to give their answers/ responses.
There are no clauses or indicators for the type of response to be used. Are used when the factual
options are needed and not assumptions.
Advantages of questionnaires.
a) Are less economically i.e. money, time and materials.
b) Are easier to arrange.
c) Apply standardized answers.
d) Permit a wide coverage.
Disadvantages of questionnaires.
a) These pre-determined questions discourage the respondent from answering the
questions.
b) Cannot be used with illiterate or small children i.e. needs literacy.
DOCUMENTARY REVIEW/ ANALYSIS

Is used as a method of investigation that offers itself as an alternative to the questionnaires,
interview and observation.
Types of documentary.
a) Personal document. E.g. diary, letter, autobiography.etc.
b) Official documents. E.g. meetings minutes, newsletters, research reports, policy
documents, articles, personal files.
c) Books and journals.
d) Photographs.
e) Website pages and internets.
Advantages of documentary analysis

Access to information is easier and cheap i.e. less expensive than the other methods of data
collection.
It is suitable for the larger data
Disadvantages of documentary analysis
a) There is no creditability of the resources. The report should be credible.
QUALITIES OF RESEARCH
This refers to;
Validity and Reliability.
Validity and reliability are two criteria used to guide the qualities of the research.
Validity- means appropriateness / meaningfulness and usefulness of the test scored. The validity
ensures that the research is correct, accurate, true and meaningful and if it is right.
The validity of the test also means the accuracy with which the test aimed to measure.
Types of validity.
(a) Content related validity.
The subject matter of something/ amount of substances contained in something.
In the classroom situation then, content means coverage of topics. If the contents are not yet
covered, the examination still covers all contents then that test is said to be invalid.
(b) Criterion related validity.

Means the established rules, standard or principles on which the judgment is based.
Sub-types of criterion related validity.
i. Predictive validity- refers to the usefulness of an instrument in predicting some
future performance. Eg the performance of form vi examination can determine / predict
the university matriculation performance.
ii. Concurrent validity- refers to the usefulness of an instrument in relation to
other measures at the same time. This instrument should be relevant and free from bias.
(c) Constructed related validity.

This refers to the general idea of something from the mind. For example if you say LOVE you
have to specify the meaning of it as you intended to mean.
Factors affecting validity

(a) Unclear directions.-The instructions should be clear for the test to be valid unless the
test will be encountered invalid.
(b) Vocabulary – poor vocabulary lead to the failure of respondent to respond to the
tools.
(c) Difficult sentence constructions.
(d) Inappropriate time limit- time is of a great role in test validity since ensures the
respondent to know the working duration with regard to the covered contents.
(e) Inappropriate coverage.
(f) Helo-effect- this refers to general impression on someone or some situation like regarding
poor hand writing as there is no point or it‘s vice versa.
(g) Identifiable patterns of answers especially multiple choices questions. The series of
related answers can lead to guessing of the answers. E.g. ABCD, ABCD or BADC or
BADC, BADC or DCBA,DCBA etc. TFTFTF, TTTRTTTTFTTTF……
RELIABILITY- Refers to the consistence of the scores. It is an instrument ability to

produce approximately the same score for the individual over the repeated testing or across
different ratters i.e. inter ratter reliability.
Types/ methods of estimating reliability
(a) Test re-tests reliability
Stability of the instrument of the time. The same instrument is administered to the same group
twice with a time gap.
(b) Alternative form reliability
Also called equivalent or parallel form of reliability. It bases on the stability of the items.
(c) Internal consistence reliability
Commonly called split half / spearman Brown method. You give the same test to two groups of
your learners then you compare their results.
(d) Inter ratter reliability.
The ability to produce the same results / score for the individual across different ratters i.e. the
same score for the different ratters.
Factors affecting reliability

(a) Interval-the longer the time between two tests administration the lower the reliability.
(b) Test length- many items more reliability, less items reliability of the test.
(c) Inappropriate time limit.
(d) Group homogeneity- the more the heterogeneity the more the reliability. The less the
heterogeneity the less the reliability.
(e) Optional questions- if optional questions are given people attempt different questions
as a result that the reliability is reduced
Preparing Research Tools
Setting of the Questions

A tool is an instrument used for the method e.g. an interview schedule which is
used for interviewing or a questionnaire form, a check list for observation
Generally there are two types of questions a researcher can set for attaining
research purpose:
Closed Questions
Closed questions prescribe the range of responses from which the participant may
choose. They are quick to complete and straight forward to code for computer
analysis. They include dichotomous, multiple choice, rank order questions and
rating scales. On the other hand they do not enable participants to add any remarks
and explanations to the categories. There is also a risk that the categories might not
be exhaustive and that there might be bias in them (Oppenheim, 1992:115).
Open Questions
Open questions enable participants to write a free response in their own terms, to
explain and qualify their responses and avoid the limitations of pre-set categories
of response. On the other hand the responses are difficult to code and to classify.
Types of Questionnaire Items

There are several kinds of questions and response modes in questionnaires,
including, for example:
 Dichotomous questions
 Multiple choice questions
 Rating scales
 Open-ended questions
• Though there is a large range of types of questionnaire, there is a simple rule of

thumb: The larger the size of the sample, the more structured, closed and
numerical the questionnaire may have to be. The smaller the size of the sample,
the less structured, more open and word based the questionnaire may be.
Dichotomous Questions
• Dichotomous questions require a ‗yes‘/‗no‘ response, e.g. ‗have you ever had to
appear in court?‘, ‗do you prefer ordinary buses or luxury buses‘?
Advantages of Dichotomous Question

• It is possible to code responses quickly, as there being only two categories of
response.
• It is a funneling or sorting device for subsequent questions, for example: ‗if you
answered ―yes‖ to question X, please go to question Y; if you answered ―no‖ to
question X, please go to question Z‘.
• Allows researcher to ask for information about dichotomous variables, for
example gender (male/female), type of school (elementary/secondary), type of
course (vocational/non-vocational).
Weaknesses Dichotomous Question

• A ‗yes‘ or a ‗no‘ may be inappropriate for a situation whose complexity is
better served by a series of questions which catch that complexity
• There may be comparatively few complex or refined questions which can be
answered with a simple ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘.
• Requiring participants to make a ‗yes‘/‗no‘ decision may be inappropriate; it
might be more appropriate to have a range of responses, for example in a rating
scale.
• Simple dichotomous question might build in participant bias as it is a natural
human tendency to agree with a statement rather than to disagree with it.
Multiple Choice Questions

• The researcher can move towards multiple choice questions, where the range of
choices is designed to capture the likely range of responses to given statements.
Rank Ordering
• The rank order question is similar to the multiple choice question in that it
identifies options from which participants can choose, yet it moves beyond
multiple choice items in that it asks participants to identify priorities.
• This enables a relative degree of preference, priority and intensity to be charted.
• In the rank ordering exercise a list of factors is set out and the participant is
required to place them in a rank order. E.g. Please indicate your priorities by
placing numbers in the boxes to indicate the ordering of your views, 1=the
highest priority, 2=the second highest, and so on.
• Rankings are useful in indicating degrees of response. In this respect they are
like rating scales.
Rating scales
• One way in which degrees and intensity of response, and the move away from
dichotomous questions has been managed can be seen in the notion of rating
scales
• These are very useful devices for the researcher, as they build in a degree of
sensitivity and differentiation of response whilst still generating numbers. E.g.
How important do you consider your work placements to be in urban?
 1 = not at all
 2 = very little
 3 = a little
 4 = a lot
 5 = a very great deal
Child labour is a survival option to orphans and those living in hardships

 1- strongly agree
 2- agree
 3- undecided
 4- disagree
 5- Strongly disagree
• The participant indicates on the scale by circling or putting a mark on that

position which most represents what she or he feels.
• Rating scales are widely used in research, as they combine the opportunity for a
flexible response with the ability to determine frequencies, correlations and
other forms of quantitative analysis.
• They afford the researcher the freedom to temper measurement with opinion,
quantity and quality.
• They include Likert scales, semantic differential scales, Thurstone scales,
Guttman scaling etc.
Disadvantages of Rating Scales

• The researcher may not be able in infer a degree of sensitivity and refinement
from the data that they cannot bear.
• There is no check on whether the participants are telling the truth.
• There is no way of knowing if the participant might have wished to add any
other comments about the issue under investigation.
• Most of us would not wish to be called extremists.
 For rating scales this means that we might wish to avoid the two extreme poles
at each end of the continuum of the rating scales, reducing the number of
positions in the scales to a choice of three (in a five-point scale).
Open-ended Questions
• The open-ended question is a very attractive device for smaller scale research or
for those sections of a questionnaire that invite an honest, personal comment
from the participants in addition to ticking numbers and boxes.
• The questionnaire simply puts the open-ended questions and leaves a space (or
draws lines) for a free response.
• It is the open-ended responses that might contain the information that otherwise
might not have been caught in the questionnaire
• Oppenheim (1992:56–7) suggests that a sentence- completion item is a useful
assistant to an open-ended question.
• An open-ended question can catch the authenticity, richness, depth of response,
honesty and openness.
Practical considerations in setting of the questions in a questionnaire
• Firstly, a questionnaire‘s general purposes must be clarified and then translated
into a specific, concrete aim or set of aims.
• If you are using a questionnaire is important, perhaps, for participants to be
introduced to the purposes of each section of a questionnaire, so that they can
become involved in it and maybe identify with it.
• If space permits, it is useful to tell the participant the purposes and focus of the
sections/of the questionnaire, and the reasons for the inclusion of the items.
• To attain this you can include Covering letters
• The purpose of the covering letter is to indicate the aim of the research, to
convey to participants its importance, to assure them of confidentiality, and to
encourage their replies
• The covering letter/sheet should:
 provide a title to the research;
 introduce the researcher, her/his name, address, organization, contact telephone/
fax/e-mail address, together with an invitation to feel free to contact the
researcher for further clarification or details;
 indicate the purposes of the research;
 indicate the importance and benefits of the research;
 indicate any professional backing, confirmation, or sponsorship of, or
permission for, the research
 set out how to return the questionnaire (e.g. in the accompanying stamped,
addressed envelope, in a collection box in a particular institution, to a named
person; whether the questionnaire will be collected and when, where and by
whom).
 indicate the address to which to return the questionnaire
 indicate what to do if questions or uncertainties arise
 indicate a return-by date
 indicate any incentives for completing the questionnaire if any
 provide assurances of confidentiality, anonymity and non-traceability
 thank participants in advance for their cooperation.
• The layout of the questionnaire is important. The appearance of the
questionnaire is vitally important.
 It must look easy, attractive and interesting rather than complicated, unclear,
unfriendly and boring.
 Clarity of wording and simplicity of design are essential.
 Clear instructions should guide participants: e.g. ‗Put a tick‘, for example,
invites participation.
 Complicated instructions and complex procedures threaten participants
• Avoid leading questions, questions that their response categories presented in
such a way as to suggest to participants that there is only one acceptable
answer, and that other responses might not gain approval or disapproval
respectively.
 E.g. Do you prefer water from well or rivers which is flowing ………..
• Avoid highbrow/intellectual questions even with sophisticated participants.
 E.g. What particular aspects of the current positivistic/interpretive debate would
you like to see reflected in a course of development?
• Avoid complex questions.
 E.g. Would you prefer a short, non-award bearing course (3,4 or 5 sessions)
with part-day release (e.g. Wednesday afternoons) and one evening per week
attendance with financial repayment for travel, or a longer, non-award bearing
course (6, 7 or 8 sessions) with full-day release, or the whole course designed
on part day release without evening attendance?
• Avoid irritating questions or instructions.
 For example: Have you ever attended an in-service course of any kind during
your entire working time? Or If you are over forty, and have never owned a
house, put one tick in the box marked NEVER and another in the box marked
OLD.
• Avoid questions that use negatives and double negatives
 E.g. How strongly do you feel that no body should join the intervention, award-
bearing program who has not completed at least secondary education?
• Avoid too many open-ended questions on self completion questionnaires.
 Because self-completion questionnaires cannot probe participants to find out
just what they mean by particular responses.
• Avoid preparing too long questionnaire.
 E.g. This can be off putting the participants: Use pages 5, 6 and 7 respectively
to respond to each of the questions about your attitudes to in-service courses in
general and your beliefs about their value in the professional life of the serving
teacher.
• Avoid ambiguity questions or words.
 Take the following examples:
a) Does your child regularly do homework?
 What does this mean: on roll, on roll but absent; marked as present but out of
school on a field trip; at this precise moment or this week (there being a
difference in attendance between a Monday and a Friday), or between the first
term of an academic year and the last term of the academic year for secondary
school students as some of them will have left school to go into employment
and others will be at home revising for examinations or have completed them?
b)How many computers do you have in school?
 What does this mean: present but broken; including those out of school being
repaired; the property of the school or staffs‘ and students‘ own computers; on
average or exactly in school today?
• Put sensitive questions later in the questionnaire in order to avoid creating a
mental set in the mind of participants, but not so late in the questionnaire that
boredom and lack of concentration have occurred.
• Avoid, where possible, splitting an item over more than one page, as the
participant may think that the item from the previous page is finished.
• Ensure that the participant knows how to enter a response to each question, e.g.
by underlining, circling, ticking, writing;
• For postage questionnaire
• Use good-quality envelopes, typed and addressed to a named person wherever
possible.
• Use first class rapid postage services wherever possible.
• Enclose a stamped envelope for the participant‘s reply.
• Include a brief note at the end of the questionnaire which can:
 ask participants to check that no answer has been unintentionally missed out.
 ask an early return of the completed schedule.
Validity and Reliability of the Study

If the study you are doing was designed by someone else, then describe the previous validity and
reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to perform the same
reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. But if you have developed your own
study, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of how
you will measure its reliability
Validity
Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of an instrument. Are we measuring what we think
we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. Instruments are valid when they
measure what they set out to measure.
Types of validity
1. Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
Basically face validity refers to the degree to which an instrument appears to measure what it
purports to measure. With face validity the instrument should simply make sense to
individuals as a reasonable way to assess what you want to measure. Pre-testing an
instrument is a good way to increase the likelihood of face validity.
2. Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic.
Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretesting the instrument help to establish content
validity.
3. Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular instrument. It
measures whether an instrument relates in a theoretically predictable way to another
established variable. Construct validity is the degree to which a instrument measures an
intended hypothetical construct. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain
a phenomenon. For example, whether quality of teaching relates to years of experience, or
that quality of life relates to adequacy of housing.
4. Criterion validity assesses the extent to which the instrument correlates with other existing
instruments. For example, that a new measure of depression or quality of life has a high
correlation with another measure for the same purpose.
Other Ways to Achieve Validity

Triangulation in data sources where respondents of varying age, socio-economic and educational
background etc. Triangulation in data collection methods where multiple techniques in which
one instrument complemented the other
Subjecting the instruments for data collection to the researcher‘s supervisor, lecturers and
colleagues.
Back translation of the research instruments.
Internal Validity
Internal validity is affected by errors within the study itself such as not controlling some of the
major variables (a design problem), or problems with the research instrument (a data collection
problem).
"Findings can be said to be internally invalid because they may have been affected by factors
other than those thought to have caused them, or because the interpretation of the data by the
researcher is not clearly supportable" (Seliger & Shohamy 1989, 95). These other factors include
the confounding variables. Confounding variable is an extraneous variable that is related to or
correlated with the independent variable. This means that as the independent variable changes,
the confounding variable changes along with it. Failing to take a confounding variable into
account can lead to a false conclusion that the dependent variables are in a causal relationship
with the independent variable. Take, for example, a study that seeks to investigate the
relationship between income levels and test scores. Without controlling for other variables, the
study finds that higher income correlates with better test scores and concludes that the two must
be directly related. This is a illogical conclusion because there are many confounding variables
that may influence this supposedly clear-cut relationship in line with independent variables. E.g.
perhaps individuals at one school received better education than those at another school. Without
controlling for the confounding variables of education level and quality of education, the
relationship between income level and test scores cannot be assumed. Internal validity applies in
studies that seek to establish a causal relationship between two variables. The essence of internal
validity is whether or not a researcher can definitively state that the effects observed in the study
were in fact due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not due to another factor.
Basic Threats to Internal Validity

1. History—History refers to any external or historical event that occurred during the course of
the study that may be responsible for the effects instead of the program itself. History has to
do with an external event of some kind.
2. Maturation—Maturation refers to a natural process that leads participants to change on the
dependent measure. Maturation can refer to a decline as well as an improvement. E.g. some
loss of short term memory abilities as you get older. You can distinguish between history and
maturation because maturation is internal, a natural course of things having to do with some
quality of the participants in the study.
3. Instrumentation— It refers to an improvement or decline caused by the measure itself. E.g.
two examiners for an instructional experiment administered the post-test with different
instructions and procedures. Instrumentation is most commonly found with observational
measures. There is a common problem with observers getting better at observing. As an
example, say we were observing young kids‘ verbal behaviors. It may be that the observers
miss a number of behaviors indicative of good verbal skills during the pretest, but they were
more likely to count these behaviors at post-test.
4. Testing—Is a threat that involves an improvement in scores on the post-test due to taking the
test a pretest. Something about taking the test the first time leads to a change in the test the
second time. Such as learning the answers or how the trick questions are set up.
5. Mortality (Attrition)—Mortality refers to people dropping out of the study during its course
due to death or no shows.
6. Time given for the data collection
7. Participants’ selection E.g. The experimental group in an instructional experiment consisted
of a high-ability class, while the comparison group was an average ability class.
External Validity
External validity is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to a larger group or
other contexts. Is the degree to which the results of an empirical investigation can be generalized
to and across individuals, settings, and times. If your research lacks external validity, the findings
cannot be applied to contexts other than the one in which you carried out your research. E.g. if
the subjects are all males from one ethnic group, your findings might not apply to females or
other ethnic groups. Or, if you conducted your research in a highly controlled laboratory
environment, your findings may not faithfully represent what might happen in the real world.
Findings can be said to be externally invalid because they cannot be extended or applied to
contexts outside those in which the research took place (Seliger & Shohamy, 1989).
Factors Affecting External Validity

1. Population characteristics (subjects)
2. Interaction of subject selection
3. The effect of the research environment
4. Data collection method
5. The effect of time
Reliability
Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. An instrument that yields consistent results
over time is said to be reliable. Joppe (2000) defines reliability as: The extent to which results are
consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population under study. Therefore, if
the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is
considered to be reliable. Instruments are reliable (replicable) to the extent to which using them on
the same individual at different times or in different circumstances still produces a relatively similar
result.
Types of Reliability
1. Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability – is used to assess the degree to which different
raters or observers give consistent estimates of the same behavior (eg the scores of interview
panel)
2. Test-retest reliability- is used to assess the consistency of an instrument from one time to
another
3. Internal consistency reliability- is used to assess the consistency of results across items
within the instrument. When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same
construct, then we would expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those
items.
Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different wording in
different parts of the questionnaire. However, reliability is a difficult criterion to attain in
qualitative research (Mtahabwa, 2007). This is because social phenomena are too complex to
yield similar results over time (Ezzy, 2002 as cited in Mtahabwa, 2007). Therefore, in order for
the researcher to come up with a reliable qualitative study, the researcher should precisely
describe the phenomena as well as minimise researcher‘s bias or subjectivity in the data analysis
process by bracketing all assumptions, beliefs and values.
DATA ANALYSIS
Qualitative Data Analysis
Once data from the field have been collected, the next stage involves analysing
them and interpreting. Analysis is required to make sense and understanding of the
data. In qualitative study, the data analysis is inevitably interpretative. Hence the
data analysis is less a completely accurate representation as in the numerical, but
more of a reflexive, reactive interaction between the researcher and the
decontextualized data that are already interpretations of a social encount.
Qualitative data involves words and observations not numbers which are referred
to as text/narrative. Narrative data may come from open ended questions from
interviews or questionnaires, stories, observations, documents, diaries etc.
Creswell (2007) argue that analyzing text and multiple other forms of data presents
a challenging task for qualitative researchers. Deciding how to represent the data
in tables, matrices, and narrative form adds to the challenge (ibid).
Types of Qualitative Data Analysis

You can think of the different types of qualitative data analysis as positioned on a
continuum. At the one end are the highly qualitative, reflective types of analysis,
whereas. on the other end are those which treat the qualitative data in a quantitative
way, by counting and coding data. For those at the highly qualitative end of the
continuum, data analysis tends to be an on-going process, taking place throughout
the data collection process. The researcher thinks about and reflects upon the
emerging themes, adapting and changing the methods if required. For example, a
researcher might conduct three interviews using an interview schedule she has
developed beforehand. However, during the three interviews she finds that the
participants are raising issues that she has not thought about previously. So, she
refines her interview schedule to include these issues for the next few interviews.
This is data analysis as she has thought about what has been said, analysed the
words and refined her schedule accordingly. In this sense, the processes of data
collection, data analysis, and report writing are not distinct steps in the research
study. They are interrelated and often go on simultaneously in qualitative research.
Qualitative researchers often "learn by doing" (Dey, 1993, p. 6) data analysis. This
approach is called thematic analysis, as analysis is by theme. This type of analysis
is highly inductive, that is, the themes emerge from the data and are not imposed
upon it by the researcher. In this type of analysis, the data collection and analysis
take place simultaneously. Closely connected to thematic analysis is comparative
analysis. Using this method, data from different people is compared and contrasted
and the process continues until the researcher is satisfied that no new issues are
arising. Comparative and thematic analyses are often used in the same study, with
the researcher moving backwards and forwards between transcripts, memos, notes
and the research literature. For those types of analyses at the other end of the
qualitative data continuum, the process is much more mechanical with the analysis
being left until the data has been collected. Perhaps the most common method of
doing this is to code by content. This is called content analysis. Using this method
the researcher systematically works through each transcript assigning codes, which
are words, to specific characteristics within the text. Some researchers may adopt
both approaches. However, with these two types of analysis, thematic and content
analysis; each of the qualitative research design has additional procedures for data
analysis.
Content Analysis
Having recorded the interviewee‘s response, either by summarizing it during or
after the interview itself, or verbatim by tape recorder, the researcher may subject it
to content analysis. Generally, data analysis in qualitative research consists of
preparing and organizing the data for analysis, then reducing the data into themes
through a process of coding and condensing the codes, and finally representing the
data in figures, tables, or a discussion.
To synthesize these are comparatively generalized stages.
1. Reading the data to understand them/to generate of meaning of the data.
2. Categorizing the data which involves coding (organizing)
3. Classifying / theme generation
4. Interpreting
Understanding the Data

Good analysis depends on understanding the data. In order to understand the
qualitative data it needs you to read and re-read the data. If you have tape
recording you listen to them several times. Then, write down any impression you
are getting as will help later in the analysis. Review the purpose of the study and
what you want to find out. Identify few key question as you analysis to answer and
write them down as will help how to begin although may change as you work with
data. In analysis you may focus to questions, objectives, time period or event i.e.
look how each individual or group responded to each question or topic for a given
time period or event. Review the purpose of the study and what you want to find
out. Identify few key question as you analysis to answer and write them down as
will help how to begin although may change as you work with data.
Categorizing the data
Organize the information into coherent categorise where some call as coding the
data with labels and not numbers as in quantitative research. Miles and Huberman
(1994) attach much importance to coding of narrative data like interview
responses, partially as a way of reducing what is typically data overload from
qualitative data. Coding has been defined by Kerlinger (1970) as the translation of
question‘s responses to specific categories for the purpose of analysis. In
qualitative study coding is the ascription of a category label to a piece of data. The
category label may either been decided in advance or in response to the data that
have been collected. This lead to Pre-set categories and emergent categories. Pre-
set categories allows a researcher to start with a list of categories/ themes and then
search the data for these categories. Pre-set categories provide direction to search
for what you are looking for. Emergent categories implies that rather than relying
to preconceived categories, a researcher reads through the text and find
themes/categories that recur in the data. Therefore, categorise emerge from the data
after you have worked with them. Sometimes, you may combine the two; starting
with preconceived categories and adding others as they become apparent.
Auerbach and Silverstein (2003) consider coding as a procedure for organizing a
text of the transcripts which allows seeing immediately the patterns within them
that would be difficult to discover in a massive text. In coding a piece of
transcription the researcher systematically goes through the data, typically line by
line, and writes a descriptive code by the side of each piece of datum.
For example:
Text Code
 The students will undertake PROB problem-solving in
science
 I prefer to teach mixed ability MIXABIL

classes
What makes a quality educational program?

 staff (Stf)
 relevance (Rel)
 Participation (Part)
 timeliness (Time)
 Content (Con)
The codes are frequently abbreviations, enabling the researcher to understand

immediately the issue that they are describing because they resemble that issue,
Rather than, assigning a number as a code for each piece of datum, where the
number provides no clue as to what the datum or category concerns. Miles and
Hubermann (1994) suggest that the coding label should bear sufficient
resemblance to the original data so that the researcher can know, by looking at
the code, what the original piece of datum concerned.
Identification of Themes
Identify theme or patterns and connections within and between the categories. This
involves assembling the data into similar themes. Sometimes you may count to see
the frequency of the responses or find how the themes relate to one another. The
relationship between categories may be presented in tables or matrix
Interpretation
Interpretation i.e. Bringing it all together. Use your themes and connections to
explain your findings i.e. attaching meaning and significance to the analysis.
Develop a list of key points or important findings as a result of categorizing and
sorting the data. Synthesis and tape the meaning of the findings. Stand back and
see what you have learned. What are the major lessons? What new things did you
learn? What application the findings has to other setting, studies and programs?
What will those who will use the findings be interested to know?
Writing a Report
Develop an outline for presenting the results to other people i.e. an outline for
writing a report. The length and format of the report will depend to you audience.
It is often helpful to include quotes and descriptive examples to illustrate your
points and bring the findings to life.
Different Perspectives in Qualitative Data Analysis

Various authors have presented different perspectives in qualitative data analysis,
however; they advocate many similar processes, as well as a few different
processes. Almost all authors comment on the central steps of:
 Coding the data (reducing the data into meaningful segments and assigning
names for the segments),
 Combining the codes into broader categories or themes,
 Displaying and making comparisons in the data graphs, tables, and charts.
These are viewed as the core elements of qualitative data analysis.
For example, Miles & Hubermann (1994) presents 3 stages and Auerbach &
Silverstein (2003) have six stages of analysing qualitative data.
Miles & Hubermann (1994) qualitative data analysis techniques has the following
steps:
1. Data Reduction – here the qualitative data analyst sorts out the data to obtain
relevant data as per the research concerns/objectives
2. Data Organization – the qualitative data analyst develops themes inductively.
Two major guidelines could be useful (Pellegrini, 1998) in data organisation i.e.
homogeneity and mutual exclusiveness. Homogeneity concerns making sure
that the information under each theme accurately represent the theme in
question, while Mutual exclusiveness refers to the extent to which information
under a particular theme belongs to just one and only one theme.
3. Data Interpretation and Theme Verification – the main task here is to try as
much as possible and using much of the insiders‘ (emic) perspective to make
sense of the collected data in writing a report.
Auerbach & Silverstein (2003) qualitative data analysis framework, explain the
following six (6) steps:
1. Raw text – this refers to presence of the typically huge amount of unsorted data
which form the basis of qualitative data analysis.
2. Relevant text – here the qualitative data analyst sorts out relevant text as per the
research concerns/objectives. One major caution is that if unexpected data or
data once considered not relevant keep occurring from different informants, it
means that such information is important and the analyst must find a way to
accommodate it in the report.
3. Repeating Ideas – the analyst determines information that keep repeating across
informants.
4. Theme Development – the analyst clumps together repeating ideas that
communicate a specific message into a theme.
5. Construct Development – as with theme development, construct development
involves clumping together themes that communicate a specific message.
6. Preparing a Narrative – this is the final step involving preparation or writing of
the report. Under this step, the analyst should use the relevant texts to argue for
particular cases in the study. This results in generation of a theory.
Quantitative analysis
Statistics- This is the language that can be employed to express concepts and relationships than
cannot be communicated in other way. Statistics is a language to organize, analyze, and interpret
numerical data
Statistics analysis- science of assembling, classifying, tabulating and analyzing facts or data.
Statistics-can function to
i) Describe data, i.e..
-To explain how the data look
-Where the center point of data is
-How spread out the data may be
-How one aspect of the data may be related to one or more other aspects.
Eg. If you want to describe the total number of pregnancies in the adolescent population, you
must calculate:
 The average age at the time of pregnancy,
 The age range of the group,
 The relationship between age at first coital experience and at the time of pregnancy,
 And the number of premarital complications.
You should describe this group of adolescents

(Descriptive statistical analysis)
NB: No conclusion can be made beyond this group
Any similarities to those outside (adolescents) can not be assumed
ii) The second function of statistics is to infer-

(Inferential statistical analysis)
You observe a sample, conclusions about the population are inferred from the obtained
information from the sample
E.g.. If you were observing the behavior of random sample of adolescent mothers from Moshi
Urban.
You could make inference of all adolescent mothers of Tanzania. Here generalization can be
made from the sample results.
Inferential statistical analysis
Inferential statistical analysis-can be used for estimation and predictions.

E.g. Graduate Examination Records (GRE) can predict how well a candidate may perform in a
graduate studies program
Extrapolation is also a component of inferential statistics. E.g. Estimation of Tanzania population
in 2020 with current HIV/AIDS prevalence.
Types of statistics analysis

1. Descriptive analysis
2. Inferential analysis
Descriptive analysis
This aims to describe particular characteristics of the specific population of objects. It is done in
order to describe phenomenon, individual, situation or data
Types of Descriptive analysis
1. Univariate analysis- focuses on only one variable and sees how that changes
2. Bivariate analysis- focuses on two variables eg location and ethnic of people
3. Multi-variate- focuses on more than two variables
Univariate analysis
- Frequencies
- Measures of central tendency
- Measures of variability
Levels of measurement
There are several statistical techniques available to social science researchers who wish to
describe the observed research group.
1. Measures of Central Tendency
2. Measures of Dispersion, spread or variation
3. Measures of relationship
a) Spearman rank order correlation (rs)
b) Pearson product-moment correlation (r )
 It is the responsibility of the researcher to select the technique that best fits her/his data
Measures of central tendency
Mode-is the most frequently occurring score
E.g.
student Score (x)

1 9
2 8
3 7
4 7
5 7
6 6
7 5
8 4
9 2
Mode-is 7. Mode is the quickest estimate of central value & show the most typical case
Unlike the mean, median is not affected by extreme scores. In some instances it can be the more
stable measure of central tendency than the arithmetic mean, Our 9 scores with a median of 7 is a
good example.
However, it is reserved when a quick measure of central tendency is required to mark the
skewness of distribution
Median-is the measure of position or point above and below which one of the scores fall
student Score (x)

1 9
2 8
3 7
4 7
5 7
6 6
7 5
8 4
9 2
Mean=Σx =55=6.11
n 9
Mean=6.11
Where:
x=scores in distribution
N=number of students
Mean is the fulcrum/balance point of a distribution and its one of the most useful statistical
measures because it provides much information. It is affected by all scores in the distribution. It
serves as basis of further computations such as variability. Although measures of central
tendency are useful, sometimes we need to know more about the description of the sample or
population. E.g. When comparing two groups with the same mean
Skewed distribution- is the distribution if frequencies are not balanced about the average or
arithmetic mean. It indicates whether majority scores lie to the left of mean (positively skewed)
or to the right of the mean (negatively skewed)
Range-basically this is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score in a
distribution. It account only the extremes and not the bulk of observations.
Scatter gram is the means of presentation of the data in correlations showing variables that
correspond to the X and Y axis.
Line of best fit-The line that you draw to coordinate the points is called the line of best fit or
Regression line.
Regression line- The line that you draw to coordinate the points is called the line of best fit or
Regression line.
Spearman Rank order Correlation is used to determine the relationship between two ranked
variables (not interval or ratio data). This is designed for nonparametric data. E.g. ―The
relationship between type of family and marital status‖ steps: 1st step. Replace the observations
by rank number in ascending order. If two or more variable are equal, find the average rank. 2nd
step. Record the difference btn the ranks 3rd Square the differences and 4th step. Sum up the
squared differences. Rs= 1-(6Σd2/n(n-1))
Pearson product-moment correlation (r) is often used for parametric data and is the most
precise coefficient of correlation. E.g. The relationship between age and weight for infants
between age and weight. See the MCH card (clinic card) r= NΣXY-ΣXΣY/√NΣX2-
(ΣX)2√NΣY2-(ΣY)2
Hypothesis testing is a procedure to test whether all observed differences (from the sample)
provide enough evidence to believe that there is corresponding difference in the population. It
determines:
1. The difference should be attributed to random error. BUT if you find there is difference
you reject the null hypothesis.
2. Whether the difference is large enough for us to conclude that the population values are
different. If there is large difference you accept the null hypothesis
Skewness-The times when the distribution is concentrated in either side is called Skewness. If
the scores are concentrated at the UPPER end , so the tail is of the curve skews to the left, we
call the curve is NEGATIVELY SKEWED. But if the scores are concentrated at the
LOWER end of the distribution, so the tail of the curve skews to the right,We say the curve is
POSITIVELY SKEWED
Perfect positive correlation (1.00) specifies that for every unit increase in one variable there is a
proportional unit increase in the other variable.
Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) concomitantly means that for every unit increase in one
variable there is a proportional unit decrease in the other variable
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1. It should be clear and precise otherwise your hypothesis will not be taken as reliable.
2. It should be capable of tested for confirmation or disproved by observation.
3. It should state relationship between variables (i.e. DVs & IVs), if its relational
hypothesis. E.g.. Academic performance and birth order.
4. It should be specific and limited in scope. Narrower hypothesis are more testable
5. It should be tested in most simple terms to be understood by all concerned.
6. It should be consistent with facts/theories
7. It should be agreeable/pleasant to testing within a reasonable time because one can not
spend life-time collecting data to test it.
8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that give time to the need for explanation i.e. it should
have empirical reference
Level of significance is the power the researcher has to make decisions on whether or not his/her
hypothesis (or observed evidence) is true. It is the chance of accepting or rejecting H0
Degree of freedom- is the number of values in the study that are free to vary. It is the probability
of making either type I or type II error
Research proposal and final report

All the information that are found in the research proposal are present in the final report
Differences between R.P and F.R: 1. Proposal is planned for future uses wile final report is
done + 2. Uses future tenses while ..uses past tense +3. Abstract is not necessary in proposal
whle… abstract is necessary+ 4. It is expectation of research while… it is the product of
research.

Course Outline Se 301: Research Methods in Education: Instructors

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Course Outline Se 301: Research Methods in Education: Instructors

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COURSE OUTLINE SE 301: RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

MODE OF DELIVERY: Lectures

When you conduct your research you;

SIGNIFICANCES OF THE RESEARCH (Rationales/ roles/ importance)

Rationales/ justification of research (i.e what motivates people to conduct a

- Helps to know the reality of the study.

advantages of exploratory research

ORGANISATION OF RESEARCH PAPER / RESEARCH STUDY

Chapter 1: Back ground and its context

Introduces the specific chapters it shows ;

 What is discussed in the chapter

Conceptual frame work of the study

How the map looks the study looks like

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODLOGY

CHPTER 4 DATQA PRESENTQATION ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMNDATIONS OF THE STUDY

2. Recommendation for further studies

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN FORMING OF PROBLEM

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Characteristics of research problem

Developing statement of the research

Characteristics (features) of research objectives

Types of research objectives

Importance of Research questions

How to formulate Research questions

Research questions have identified features/characteristics

FORMULATION HYPOTHESIS (QUESTIONS)

How errors are committed in testing hypothesis

THE HYPOTHESIS AND ITS VARIABLES

1. INDEPENDENT (predictor) VARIABLES

2. DEPENDENT (outcome) VARIABLES

3. Extraneous or intervening or mediating variables

ii. continuous variables

iii. categorical group (nominal variables)

Measurement of variables/ testing of variables

4 types of measurement scales (Steven’s Scales of Measurement)

3. The interval scale

4. The Ratio Scale

Importance of literature review

Steps to an effective literature review

Criteria for selecting the documents on literature review

Theoretical framework and conceptual framework

The research methodology

CATEGORIES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH designs

STRENGTH OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

(b) Quantitative research- deals with quantifications of information. It uses objectives

TYPES OF quantitative RESEARCH DESIGN

1, Historical research design

2, Survey research design

3, Case study research design

4, Developmental research designs

5, Correlation research design

6, Casual comparative research design

7, Experimental researches design.

NB. COMMON TERMS

8, Action research design

9, Evaluation research design

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

RANDOM/ PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Proportional stratified random sampling.

NON PROBABILITY / NON RANDOM SAMPLING

Sub types of Non Probability Sampling.