IIT NOTES

APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE
Syllabus in IIT JEE : Tangents and normals, increasing and decreasing functions,
maximum and minimum values of a function, applications of Rolle's theorem and
Lagrange's Mean value theorem.
Tangent-Normal-Rate Measure & approximation and differentials-Monotonicity
(Significance of sign of 1st order derivative) Rolle’s & LMVT & optimizing functions.
dy
TANGENT & NORMAL : (Define) ; tan φ =
dx P
(1) Equation of a tangent at P (x1, y1)
dy
y – y1 = ( x − x1)
dx x1 , y1
(2) Equation of normal at (x1, y1)
1
y – y1 = – (x – x1)
 dy 
 
 dx  x1 , y1
Note that the point (x1, y1) must lie on the equation of the curve the tangent and normal.
If the equation of the curve is represented parametrically
dx dy
i.e. x = f (t) and y = g (t) where = f ' (t) and = g ' (t), {f ' (t) ≠ 0} then
dt dt
dy dy dt g' ( t ) dy dt
= = and the equation of the tangent is y – g (t) = dx dt {(x – f (t)}.
dx dx dt f '(t)

IMPORTANT NOTES TO REMEMBER :

dy
(a) If = 0 ⇒ tangent is parallel to x-axis and converse.
dx x1 , y1

dy a
If tangent is parallel to ax + by + c = 0 ⇒ =–
dx b
dy dx
(b) If dx → ∞ or = 0 ⇒ tangent is perpendicular to x-axis.
x1 , y1 dy x
1 , y1
If tangent is perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0
dy  a
⇒ dx · −  = – 1.
x1 , y1  b

(3) If the tangent at P (x1, y1) on the curve is equally

inclined to the coordinate axes
dy
⇒ = ± 1.
dx x1 , y1
(4) If the tangent makes equal non zero intercept on
dy
the coordinate axes then dx =–1
x1 , y1

dy
(5) If tangent cuts off from the coordinate axes equal distance from the origin ⇒ = ± 1.
dx
dy
(6) If = fails to exist then also a tangent can be drawn at (x1, y1)
dx x1 , y1
y = x3 5
 at x = 0
e.g.
y = | x | 
(7) OT is called the initial ordinate of the tangent
dy
Y–y= (X – x)
dx
put X = 0 to get
dy
∴ Y = OT = y – x (It is the y intercept of a tangent at P)
dx
(8) If a curve passes through the origin, then the equation of the tangent at the origin can be
directly written by equating to zero the lowest degree terms appearing in the equation of
the curve.
e.g. in
(i) x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy = 0
equation of tangent is gx + fy = 0
(ii) x3 + y3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 + x2 – y2 = 0
equation of tangents at origin are x2 – y2 = 0
(iii) Equation of tangents to x3 + y2 – 3xy = 0 are xy = 0
(iv) If there is a tangent to an even function at x = 0 then it is always parallel to x-axis.

Note: If the curve is x4 + y4 = x2 + y2, then the equation of the tangent would be
x2 + y2 = 0 which would indicate that the origin is an isolated point on the graph.
Proof : Let the equation of the curve be
a1x + b1y + a2x2 + b2xy + c2y2 = 0 ....(1)
y1
Tangent : y – 0 = Lim ( x − 0)
x1 → 0 x1
y1 → 0
Now equation (1) becomes
y1 y y1
a1 + b1 + a2x1 + b2 1 · x1 + c2 x · y1 = 0 ....(2)
x1 x1 1
y1
at x1 → 0 & y1 → 0, →m
x1
from equation (2)
a
a1 + b1m = 0 [ ∴ m=– 1 ]
b1
Hence tangent is
a
y = – 1 x ⇒ a1x + b1y = 0
b1
(9) Same line could be the tangent as well as normal
to a given curve at a given point.
e.g. in , x3 + y3 – 3xy = 0 (Folium of descartes)
the line pair xy = 0 is both the tangent as well as normal at x = 0.
(10) SOME COMMON PARAMETRIC COORDINATES ON A CURVE :
(a) for x 2 3 + y2 3 = a 2 3 take parametric coordinate x = a cos3θ & y = a sin3θ.

(b) for x + y = a take x = a cos4θ & y = a sin4θ.

xn yn
(c) n
+ n
= 1 taken x = a (sin θ)2 n & y = b(sin θ)2 n.
a b
(d) for c (x2 + y2) = x2 y2 take x = c secθ and y = c cosecθ.
2

Note: The tangent at P meeting the curve again at Q.

dy y − y1
⇒ = 2
dx P x 2 − x1
m OP
Consider the examples y2 = x3 find m .
OQ
Take P (t2, t3)
ILLUSTRATION ON TANGENT AND NORMAL
1. Find the equation of a tangent and normal at x = 0 if they exist on the curve
y = x1/3(1 – cosx)
dy
[Hint : =0
dx x = 0
Concept: F(x)=f(x)·g(x) are such that f (x) is continuous at x = a and g(x) is differentiable at
x = a with g(a)=0 then the product function f(x)·g(x) is diffenentiable at x = a ]
2.(a) Equation of the normal to the curve x2 = 4y which passes through (1, 2).
(b) normals to the curve x2 = 4y which passes through (4, – 1).
(c) Find all points on the curve y = x3 – 3x such that the line tangent to this curve at P
passes through (2, – 2). [Ans. there are 3 points: t = 1, 1 + 3, 1 – 3 ]
x3
dt
3. Tangent to the curve y = ∫ at x = 1.
x 2 1 + t2
2x
4. Tangent to the curve y = sin–1 at x = 3
1 + x2
2
if − 1 < x < 1
dy  1 + x2
= 
dx  2
− if x > 1 or x < −1
1 + x2

5. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = be− x a at the point where the curve
x y
crosses the y-axis. [Ans. + = 1]
a b
 x
6. Prove that all points on the curve y2 = 4a  x + a sin  at which the tangent is parallel
 a
to the x-axis lie on a parabola.
7. Tangents are drawn from the origin to the curve y = sin x. Prove that their point of
contacts lie on the curve x2y2 = x2 – y2.
8.(a) Find the point on the curve y = 2x3 – 15x2 + 34x – 20 where the tangents are parallel
to the line y + 2x = 0. [Ans. (2, 4), (3, 1)]
2 2
(b) Show that the tangents to the curve 3x + 4xy + 5y – 4 = 0 at the points in which it
is intersected by the lines 3x + 2y = 0 and 2x + 5y = 0 are parallel to the axes of
coordinates.
π
9. Equation of the tangents and normal at θ = to the curve x = a(θ + sinθ) and
2
y = a(1+ cosθ).
dy
[Hint : = −1]
dx θ= π 2

10. Show that the portion of the tangent to the curve x = a cos3θ and y = a sin3θ intercepted
between the coordinate axes is constant. [Ans. l = a ]
11. Show that the condition for the line x cosθ + y sinθ = p to touch the curve
m m m
xm ym
+ = 1 is (a cos θ) m −1 + ( b sin θ) m −1 = p m −1 (only strategy to be told)
am bm
12. Prove that the portion of the tangent to the curve (tractrix)

x + a 2 − y2 a + a 2 − y2
= ln intercepted between the point of contact and the
a y
x-axis is constant. [Ans. l = a ]
[Hint: Substituting y = a sinθ ....(1)
x + a cos θ a + a cos θ 1 + cos θ
= ln = ln = ln (cosec θ + cot θ)
a a sin θ sin θ
x
= ln (cosec θ + cot θ) – cosθ
a
1 dx − cosec θ(cosec θ + cot θ) 1 cos 2 θ
=– + sinθ = – cosecθ + sinθ=sinθ – =–
a dθ cosec θ + cot θ sin θ sin θ
dx a cos 2 θ dy
∴ =– ....(1) also = a cosθ ....(2)
dθ sin θ dθ
dy a cos θ sin θ
∴ = = – tanθ
dx − a cos 2 θ
equation of tangent Y – y = – tanθ (X – x)
y
Y–y=– (X – x)
a2 − y2

Y=0 ; X=x+ a 2 − y2 = x1 (say)

PT2 = a2 – y2 + y2 ⇒ PT = a = constant.
(11) ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO CURVES :
Definition : The angle of intersection of two curves at a point
P is defined as the angle between the two tangents to the curve
at their point of intersection.

If the curves are orthogonal then

 dy1   dy 2 
   = – 1 everywhere whereever they intersect.
 dx   dx 

 dy1   dy 2   dy1   dy2 

If     = – 1 but  dx   dx  ≠ – 1
 dx  P  dx  P  Q  Q
then the two curves are orthogonal at P but not at Q hence they are not orthogonal.
e.g. y2 = 4ax & e − x 2a ; xy = a2 & x2 – y2 = b2 and y = ax & x2 + y2 = c2 are
orthogonal but y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by are not orthogonal.
Note: If the curves touch at P then θ = 0 hence f ' (x1) = g ' (x1).

ILLUSTRATION ON ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO CURVES :

1. Find the angle between the curves
(i) y = sin x & y = cos x. [Ans. tan–1( 2 2 )]
π
(ii) y = x2 & 6y =7 – x3 at (1, 1) [Ans. ]
2
2.(a) Find the angle between the curve 2y2 = x3 and y2 = 32x
[Sol. Solving 2y2 = x3 and y2 = 32x
we get (0, 0) ; (8, 16) and (8, – 16)
for 2 y = x x or 2 y =– x x
dy
at (0, 0) =0
for I dx (0, 0)

dy
at (0, 0) =∞
for II dx ( 0, 0 )
hence angle = 90°
dy 3x 2 3 64
now = = · =3
dx I 4 y 4 16
dy 32 16 3 −1 2 1
= = =1 ∴ tanθ = = =
dx II 2 y 16 1+ 3 4 2
Note: Also see that tangent at the origin on 2y2 = x3 is y2 = 0 i.e. y = 0 i.e. x-axis and
tangent to y2 = 32 x at the origin is x = 0 ⇒ angle between the two curves at the origin
is 90°]
(b) Prove that the angle between the curves y2 = x and x3 + y3 = 3xy at the point other
than origin is tan–1(16)1/3.
Sol. y2 = x ; x3 + y3 = 3xy
dy dy 1
2y =1 ⇒ = 2y
dx dx P 1
 again for the 2nd curve
dy y1 − x12
=
dx P y12 − x1
solving y2 = x and x3 + y3 = 3xy ; y6 + y3 = 3y3 ⇒ y3 + 1 = 3 ⇒ y3 = 2
∴ y1 = 21/3 and x1 = 22/3
1 4
1 1 23 − 23
now m1 = 1 = 4 ; m2 = 2 2 → ∞
2·23 23 23 − 23
m1
1− 1
m 2 − m1 m2 1 4 1
tanθ = = = = 2 3 = 16 3 ∴ θ= tan–1( 16 3 ) ]
1 + m1m 2 1 m1
+ m1
m2

3. Find the condition for the two concentric ellipses a1x2 + b1y2 = 1 and a2x2 + b2y2 = 1
1 1 1 1
to intersect orthogonally. [Ans. a − a = b − b ]
2 1 2 1
[Sol. a1x2 + b1y2 = 1 & a2x2 + b2y2 = 1
dy
2a1x + 2b1y > =0
dx
dy ax
=– 1
dx b1y
I
dy ax
=− 1 1 ....(1)
dx x1 , y1 b1y1

II
dy a x
=− 2 1 ....(2)
dx x1 , y1 b 2 y1
If the two curves are orthogonal
a1x1 a 2 x1
·
b1y1 b 2 y1
=–1

a1a 2 x12
=–1 ....(3)
b1b2 y12
now a1x12 + b1y12 = 1 & a 2 x12 + b 2 y12 = 1 (as x1y1 satisfy the given equations)
subtracting (a1 – a2) x12 + (b1 – b2) y12 = 0

x12 b1 − b 2
=–
y12 a1 − a 2
a1a 2 b1 − b 2
putting in (3) b b a − a = 1
1 2 1 2

a1 − a 2 b1 − b 2 1 1 1 1
= ⇒ − = − ]
a1a 2 b1b 2 a 2 a1 b 2 b1
4. Find the condition for the line y = mx to cut at right angles the conic
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1. Hence find the direction of the axes of the conic.
[Ans. m2h + m(a – b) – h = 0. The roots of the quadratic equation are the slope of the
axes]
[Sol. ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1 ....(1)
 dy  dy
2/ ax + 2/ h  x + y  + 2/ by = 0
 dx  dx
dy
(xh + by) = – (ax + hy)
dx
dy ax + hy
=–
dx hx + by

 ax + hy 
∴ + m   = + 1
 hx + by 
 ax + h · mx 
m  =1
 hx + b · mx 
m (a + hm) = h + bm
m2h + (a – b)m – h = 0 ]

(12) CARTESIAN TANGENT & NORMAL:

x 2 y2 x 2 y2
to y2= 4ax ; 2 + 2 = 1 and 2 − 2 = 1 should normally be remembered.
a b a b
replace y2 → yy1 ; x2 by xx1 etc.

LENGTH OF TANGENT, NORMAL, SUBTANGENT AND SUBNORMAL:

(i) Tangent :
2
 dy 
y 1+  
 dx 
PT = MP cosec ψ = y 1 + cot 2 ψ = dy
dx

(ii) Subtangent : TM = MP cot ψ = y

(dy dx )
2
 dy 
2
(iii) Normal : GP = MP sec ψ = y 1 + tan ψ = y 1 +  
 dx 

 dy 
(iv) Subnormal : MG = MP tan y = y  
 dx 
ILLUSTRATION
x y2
1. Show that for the catenary y = c cosh   the length of the normal at any point is .
c c
 x −
x 
x  ec + e c 
[Sol. y = c cosh = c  
c  2 
 
x x
−
dy ec −e c
= = mT
dx 2
−2
∴ mN = x x = m say
−
−e ec c

equation of normal Y – y = m (X – x)
y
Put Y = 0 X=x–
m

2
y2 2 2
L = 2 +y =y 

1 +
1  
= y 1 +
2 ex c − e− x c ( )2  = y 2 
(
 4 + e x c − e− x c )2 
m  m 2   4   4 
   

 x c − x c 2 
 xc −xc
e +e   ⇒ L = y e + e y y2
= y2   
= y · = Proved ]
 2   c c
    2 

2. Show that for the curve by2 = (x + a)3 the square of the subtangent varies as the
subnormal.
2 3
 y   dy   dy 
[Hint: TPT   = k · y   or y = k  
 (dy dx )   dx   dx 
dy dy 3( x + a ) 2
now 2by = 3(x + a)2 ⇒ =
dx dx 2by
2
y y 8b 3 y 3 8b3  y 2  8b3 1 8b
hence = = = · 2 = Ans. ]
(dy dx )3 2 y( x + a )6  3
2y  (x + a)  27 b 27

3. Show that at any point on the hyperbola xy = c2 , the subtangent varies as the abscissa
and the subnormal varies as the cube of the ordinate of the point of contact.

APPROXIMATION AND DIFFERENTIALS :

For the figure it is clear that if ∆x and ∆y are
sufficiently small quantities then
∆y dy
= tan ψ = = f ' (x)
∆x dx
Hence approximate change in the value of y,
called its differential is given by
∆y = f ' (x) · ∆x
ILLUSTRATION
1. Compute the square root of 101
f (x) = y = x ; y + ∆y = x + ∆x
∴ ∆y = x + ∆x – x = f ' (x) · ∆x
put x = 100 ; ∆x = 1
1
101 = 10 + 20 × 1 = 10 + 0.05 = 10.05 Ans.

2. 99/02 In an acute triangle ABC if sides a, b be constants and the base angles A and B vary,
show that
dA dB
=
a 2 − b 2 sin 2 A b2 − a 2 sin 2 B
a b
[Sol. =
sin A sin B
or b Sin A = a sin B
b cos A dA = a cos B dB
dA dB dA dB
= ⇒ =
a cos B b cos A a 1 − sin 2 B b 1 − sin 2 A
dA dB
=
b 2 sin 2 A a 2 sin 2 B
a 1− b 1−
a2 b2
dA dB
= ]
a 2 − b 2 sin 2 A b2 − a 2 sin 2 B
RATE MEASURE :
1. If the area of circle measures at a uniform rate, show that the rate of increase of the
perimeter varies inversely at its radius.
2. If the side of an equilateral triangle increases at the rate of 3 cm/sec and area increase
at the rate 12 cm2/sec then the side of the equilateral triangle is ______. [Ans. 8]
2
3. An aeroplane is flying horizontally at a height ofkm with a velocity of 15 km/hr. Find
3
the rate at which it is receding from a fixed point on the ground which it passed over
2 minutes ago. [ Ans. 9 km/hr ]
2 2
[Sol. l = h + x 2

dl dx dl x dx
2l = 0 + 2x ⇒ = ·
dt dt dt l dt
1 2 1 4 5
where x = km, h = km then l = + = km
2 3 4 9 6
dl 1 6
∴ = · · 15 = 9 km/ hr]
dt 2 5
4. The height h of a right circular cone is 20 cm and is decreasing at the rate of 4 cm/sec.
At the same time, the radius r is 10 cm and is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/sec. Find the
400π
rate of change of the volume in cm3/sec. [Ans. ]
3
1
[Hint: V = πr2h. differentiating w.r.t. time
3
dV π  2 dh dr  dh dr
= r + 2rh  ; when h = 20, = – 4 ; when r = 4, =2
dt 3  dt dt  dt dt
 MONOTONOCITY
(Significance of the sign of the first order derivative)
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION :
The most useful element taken into consideration amongst the total post mortuam
activities of functions, is their monotonic behaviour.
Functions are said to be monotonic if they are either increasing or decreasing in
their entire domain e.g. f (x) = ex ; f (x) = ln x & f (x) = 2x + 3 are some of the
examples of functions which are increasing whereas f (x) = – x3 ; f (x) = e–x and
f (x) = cot–1(x) are some of the examples of the functions which are decreasing.
Functions which are increasing as well as decreasing in their domain are said to
be non monotonic e.g. f (x) =sin x ; f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c and f (x) = | x |,
 π
however in the interval 0,  , f (x) = sin x will be said to be increasing.
 2

2. MONOTONOCITY OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT :

A function is said to be monotonic increasing at x = a if f (x) satisfies
f (a + h) > f (a) 
for a small positive h. ....(1)
and f (a – h) < f (a) 
Small positive h means no discontinuity in f between a – h & a and a & a + h.

and monotonic decreasing at x = a if

f (a + h) < f (a) 
....(2)
and f (a – h) > f (a) 

It should be noted that we can talk of monotonocity of f (x) at x = a only if x = a lies

in the domain of f , without any consideration of continuity or differentiability of f (x) at
x =a.

3. MONOTONICITY IN AN INTERVAL :
For an increasing function in some interval,
if ∆x > 0 ⇔ ∆y > 0 or ∆x < 0 ⇔ ∆y < 0
then f is said to be monotonic (strictly) increasing in that interval. In other words if ∆y
dy dy
and ∆x have the same sign i.e. > 0, for increasing function. Hence if > 0 in
dx dx
some J (interval) then y is said to be increasing function in that J and conversely if f (x)
dy
is increasing in some J then > 0 in that J.
dx
dy
Similarly if < 0 in some J then y is decreasing in that J and conversely.
dx
Hence to find the intervals of monotonocity for a function y = f (x) one has to find
dy dy dy
and solve the inequality, > 0 or < 0. The solution of this inequality gives
dx dx dx
the interval of monotonocity.
 It should however be noted that
dy
(a) at some point may be equal to zero but f (x) may still be increasing
dx
at x = a. Consider f (x) = x3 which is increasing at x = 0 although
f ' (x)=0. This is because f (0 + h) > f (0) and f (0 – h) < f (0). At all
dy
such points where = 0 but y is still increasing or decreasing are
dx
known as point of inflection, which indicate the
change of concavity of the curve.
(b) If f is increasing for x > 1 and f is also increasing for x < 1 then
f is also increasing as x = 1 provided f (1) is defined.

Similarly if f is decreasing for x > 1 and f is also decreasing for

x < 1 then f is also decreasing for x = 1 provided f (1) is defined.

However if f (1) is not defined then monotonocity will not be indicated at x = 1

1
e.g. f (x) = is decreasing for all x ∈ R – {1}.
x −1
However if f is increasing and decreasing as shown
then at x=1 and x=2, f will have extremum values,
being
maximum at x = 1 and minimum at x =2.
(c) If x1, x2 ∈ domain of f and if
(i) x1 > x2 ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2), f is strictly increasing.
(ii) x1 > x2 ⇒ f (x1) ≥ f (x2), f is increasing.
Note that if a function is monotonic at x = a it can not have extremum point at x = a
and vice versa i.e. A point on the curve can not simultaneously be an extremum as well
as monotonic point.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Compute the intervals of monotonicity for the following :
1. f (x) = x2 · e–x [Ans: ↑ in (0, 2) and ↓ in (– ∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞) ]
2.(a) f (x) = x + ln (1 – 4x) [Ans: ↑ in (– ∞, – 3/4) and ↓ in (– 3/4, 1/4), (Asking) ]
(b) f (x) =ax – sinx [Ans: ↑ for a ≥ 1 & ↓ for a ≤ – 1 (Asking) ]
x
3. f (x) = ln x [Ans: ↑ in (e, ∞) and ↓ in (0, 1) ∪ (1, e) ]

4. f (x) = 2x2 – ln | x | [Ans: ↑ in (– 1/2, 0) ∪ (1/2, ∞) and ↓ in (– ∞, – 1/2) ∪ (0, 1/2)]

1
5. If the function f (x) = sin x – a sin 2x – sin 3x + 2ax is monotonic increasing ∀ x ∈ R,
3
then find 'a'. [ Ans : [1, ∞) ] [T/S]
[Hint: f ' (x) = 4 sin2x (a + cos x) ]
6. If the function f (x) = (a + 2)x3 – 3ax2 + 9ax – 1 is always decreasing ∀ x ∈ R, find 'a'.
[Ans : (– ∞, – 3] ]
2 9
7. Prove that f (x) = x – x6 + 2x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 1 is always increasing.
3
 x3
dt
8. Prove that f (x) = ∫ , (x > 0) is always an increasing function of x.
2 ln t
x
(Note that f (0) and f (1) not defined.) [Ans. ↑ in (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) ]
3x 2 1· 2 x 3x 2 2x x2 x x2 − x x ( x − 1)
[Hint: f ' (x) – = – = – = =
ln x 3 ln x 2 3 ln x 2 ln x ln x ln x ln x ln x
for (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) f ' (x) > 0 → f is increasing ]
9.218/01 Find all possible 'b' for which f (x) = sin 2x – 8(b + 2)cos x – (4 b2 + 16 b + 6) x is
monotonic decreasing for ∀ x ∈ R and has no critical point.
(
[ Ans. −∞,−(3+ 3) ∪ ) ( )
3 −1,∞ ]
[Sol.: f ′ (x) = 2 cos 2 x + 8 (b + 2) sin x − (4 b2 + 16 b + 6)
= 2 (1 − 2 sin2 x) + 8 (b + 2) sin x − (4 b2 + 16 b + 6)
= − 4 [ sin2 x − 2 (b + 2) sin x + (b2 + 4 b + 1) ]
for monotonic decreasing and no critical points f ′ (x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ R
hence sin2x – 2(b + 2) sinx + b2 + 4b + 1 > 0
[sinx – (b + 2)]2 – (b + 2)2 + 4b + b2 + 1 > 0
( 3)
2
[sinx – (b + 2)]2 – >0
[sinx – b – 2 – 3 ] [sinx – b – 2 + 3 ] > 0
[sinx – (b + 2 + 3 )] [sinx – (b + 2 – 3 )] > 0

Hence sinx > b + (2 + 3 )

or b + (2 + 3 ) < sinx V x ∈ R
∴ b + (2 + 3 ) < – 1

(
b < –(3 + 3 ) ⇒ b ∈ −∞, − 3 + 3 ( ))
|| ly sinx < (b + 2 – 3 )
or (b + 2 – 3 ) > sinx V x ∈ R.
b+2– 3 >1
b > –1 + 3
(
b > 3 – 1 ⇒ b ∈ ( 3 − 1), ∞ ] )
4. GREATEST AND LEAST VALUE OF A FUNCTION :
If a continuous function y = f (x) is increasing in the closed
interval [a, b] then
f (a) is the least value. (figure - 1)
and f (b) is the greatest value of f (x) in [a, b]
If f (x) is decreasing in [a, b] then f (b) is the least and f (a)
is the greatest value of f (x) in [a, b].(figure - 2)
However if f (x) is non monotonic in [a, b] and is continuous
then the greatest and least value of f (x) in [a, b] are those
where f ' (x) = 0 or
f '(x) does not exist or at the extreme values. (figure - 3)
ILLUSTRATIONS :
Find the greatest and the least values of the continuous function (1 to 4) given below in
the indicated intervals.
2 1
1. f (x) = e x − 4 x +3 in [– 5, 5] [Ans. M at x = – 5 & f (–5) = e48; m at x = 2 & f (2) = ]
e
x
 5π 4π   5π 4π 
2.(a) y = ∫ (3sin t + 4 cos t )dt in  ,  [Hint : note that y is a ↓ function in  ,  ]
4 3 4 3
5π
4
3 1 4π
[Ans. + − 2 3 at x = which is the least value ; greatest value = zero ]
2 2 3
x
 5π 7 π 
(b) y = ∫ (6 cos u − 2 sin u )du in  , 
3 4
5π
3
dy 7π
[Hint: > 0 ⇒ y is ↑ hence max. occurs at = 3 3 – 2 2 – 1. Min. Value = 0 ]
dx 4
3.107/4 Let f, g be differentiable on R and suppose that f (0) = g (0) and f ' (x) ≤ g ' (x) for all
x ≥ 0. Show that f (x) ≤ g (x) for all x ≥ 0. [ T/S, Q.1 Ex-2, Mono]
[Sol. Given f ' (x) ≤ g ' (x) and f (0) = g (0)
TPT f (x) ≤ g (x) ∀ x ≥ 0
consider a function
F (x) = f (x) – g (x)
F ' (x) = f ' (x) – g ' (x) ≤ 0
hence F (x) is a decreasing function for x ≥ 0
∴ F (x) ≤ F (0) ∀ x ≥ 0
but F (0) = f (0) – g (0) = 0 (given)
∴ F (x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ≥ 0
∴ f (x) – g (x) ≤ 0 ∀ x ≥ 0
∴ f (x) ≤ g (x) ]
 π 3π 
4. f (x) = cos 3x – 15 cos x + 8 in  , 
3 2 
dy π π 1
[Hint : = 0 when x = π, . Max. at x = π = 22 & Min. at x = = – ]
dx 3 3 2
1
5. Use the function f (x) = xx (x > 0) to ascertain whether πe or eπ is greater.
1 ln x 1
1 − lnx 
[Sol. f (x) = xx ; f (x) = e x ⇒ f ' (x) = xx  x 2 
for 0 < x < e, f ' (x) > 0 ; x > e, f ' (x) < 0
f (x) attains the maximum at x = e
1 1 1 1
∴ f (e) > f (x) for all x > 0 ; ee > ex ∴ ee > ππ eπ > πe ]
6. If f (x) = | px – q | + r | x | , x ∈ (– ∞, ∞), p, q, r > 0, assumes its minimum value only
at one point then find the relation between p, q, r.
q q
[Sol. Let x ≥ ; f (x) = p x – q + r x ; f ' (x) = p + r > 0 ⇒ f (x) increasing for x ≥
p p
  f ( x ) is ↑ if r > p
q 
0≤x< f (x) = q – p x + r x ; f ' (x) = r – p ⇒  cons tan t r = p
p 
 f ( x ) is ↓ if r < p
x < 0, f (x) = q – p x – r x ; f ' (x) = – (p + r) ⇒ f (x) is decreasing

7. Find the image of interval [–1, 3] under the mapping specified by the function
f (x) = 4x3 – 12x Ans. [–8, 72]
[Hint: f ' (x) = 0 ⇒ x = ± 1
Find f (–1), f (1) and f (3) and interpret.

max (f ( t ) : 0 ≤ t ≤ x ), 0 ≤ x ≤1
8. Let f (x) = x3 – x2 + x + 1 and g (x) = 3 − x 1< x ≤ 2
 for
Check the continuity and differentiability of g (x) in (0, 2).
x3 − x 2 + x + 1 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
[Hint: f '(t) is always (↑) increasing hence g (x)=  ]
 3 − x for 1 < x ≤ 2

1+ x
9. Find the greatest and least value of the function f (x) = in [–2, 0] and also
1− x
sketch the graph of f (x) and find its range.
1+ x
if − 1 ≤ x < 1
 1− x
[Sol. f (x) = 
 x + 1
if x > 1 or x < −1
x −1

2
↑ in (−1, 1)
 (1 − x ) 2
f ' (x) = 
 −2
↓ in x > 1 or x < −1
( x − 1) 2
Range in [0, ∞). Maximum value in [–2, 0] occurs at x = 0 and f (0) = 1 ;
Minmum value in [–2,0] occurs at x = – 1 and f (–1) = 0 ]
5. ESTABLISHING INEQUALITIES :
Notion of monotonocity helps is establishing variety of inequalities involving algebraic
and transcidental function with much greater ease.
ILLUSTRATIONS
π
1.106/03 2sinx + tanx ≥ 3x (0 ≤ x < )
2
[Sol. Consider , f (x) = 2 sinx + tanx – 3x
f ′ (x) = 2 cosx + sec2x – 3
2 cos3 x − 3 cos 2 x + 1 (cos x − 1) 2 (2 cos x + 1)
= =
cos 2 x cos 2 x
 π π
Hencef ′ (0) > 0 ∀ x ∈ 0,  ⇒ f (x) is ↑ in x ∈  0 , 
 2  2
 π
∴ f (x) > f(0) ∀ x in  0, 2  ; but f(0) = 0
 
∴ f (x) > 0 ; as equaly holds
  π
Hence f(x) > 0 in 0, 2  ⇒ the result ]
 
x
2. Find the set of values of x for which ln (1 + x) > [Ans. (–1, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)]
1+ x
1 1 x
[Hint: f ' (x) = – = ⇒ ↑ for x > 0 and ↓ 0 < x < – 1
1 + x (1 + x ) 2 (1 + x ) 2
⇒ f (0) is the minimum value of f (x) for all x > – 1 ]
tan x x π
3. > for 0 < x < . [T/S]
x sin x 2
[Sol. We have to show that
tan x sin x − x 2
> 0 for 0 < x < π 2
x sin x
Since x sin x > 0 for 0 < x < π 2 , it is enough to show that
tan x · sin x – x2 > 0, 0 < x < π 2
Let f (x) = tanx sinx – x2 for 0 < x < π 2
f ' (x) = sinx sec2x + tanx cosx – 2x = sinx sec2x + sinx – 2x
f " (x) = cosx sec2x + sinx . 2 sec2x tan x + cosx – 2
= sec x + cosx – 2 + 2 sinx tanx sec2x
= ( sec x − cos x )2 + 2 sinx tanx sec2x > 0 for 0 < x < π 2
∴ f ' is strictly increasing in [0, π 2 ). Also f ' (0) = 0
⇒ f ' (x) > 0 for 0 < x < π 2
⇒ f is strictly increasing in [0, π 2 ). Also f (0) = 0
⇒ f (x) > 0 for 0 < x < π 2 .
⇒ tanx sinx – x2 > 0 for 0 < x < π 2 .
tan x sin x − x 2
∴ > 0, 0 < x < π 2 .
x sin x
tan x x π
⇒ > for 0 < x < . Henced proved. ]
x sin x 2
4. For 0 ≤ p ≤ 1 and for any a > 0, b > 0.
(a + b)p ≤ ap + bp.
p p p
 b  b b
[Hint: ap 1 +  ≤ ap + bp ; 1 +  ≤ 1+  
 a  a a
[1 + x]p ≤ 1 + xp where x = b/a ]
5.97/02 Establish the inequality given below by examining the sign of the derivative of an
1  1 1
appropriate function: < ℓn  1 +  < for x > 0
x + (1 2)  x  x
2  1 −4  1 
[Sol. consider f (x) = − ℓn  1 +  ; f ′ (x) = −
1
⋅
2 x+ 1  x − 
(2 x + 1) 2 1 + (1 x )  x 2 
1 4 1
= x ( x + 1) − =
(2 x + 1) 2 x ( x + 1)(2 x + 1) 2
which is always +ve for x > 0
hence f (x) is ↑ for x > 0
i.e. f (x) < Lim f ( x ) (note carefully)
x →∞

 2  1 
but Lim f ( x ) = Lim  − ln  1 +   = 0
x →∞ x →∞  2 x + 1  x 
so f (x) < 0 i.e.
2  1
< ℓ n 1 +  Proved
2x + 1  x
 1 1 1
−
1 1
Similarly consider g(x) = ℓn 1 +  − ; g ′ (x) = = 2
 x x x 2 x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)
g ′ (x) is ↑ i.e.
so g(x) < Lim g (x) but Lim f (x) = 0
x →∞ x →∞
so g(x) < 0 hence proved ]
x
 1
6. Prove that f (x) = 1 +  is always an increasing function for all x in its domain. State
 x
its range and also plot the graph of the function.
x  1
x ln  1+ 
 1
[Sol. f (x) = y = 1 +  = e  x 
 x
x +1
Hence for domain > 0, ⇒ x ∈ (– ∞, – 1) ∪ (0, ∞)
x
x
 1
Also ln y = x ln 1 + 
1
now Lim 1 +  = e ;
x → ±∞  x  x
 1  1 
ln 1 +  −
 x ∞ x  x 2 
 = 0 ⇒ y = e0 = 1 ; ∴ Lim+ f ( x ) = 1
∴ Lim  =
x →0 + 1  ∞  x + 1 − 1  x →0
 
x  x2 
Lim f ( x ) = ∞ (obviously)
x → −1−
x x
 1   x  1 − 1  + ln 1 + x   1   x − 1 + ln 1 + x 
Now f ' (x) = 1 +     = 1 + 
 x   1+ x x  x   x  1 + x x 
x
Let = u [for x > 0, u ∈ (0, 1) ]
1+ x
consider a function
g (u) = u – 1 – ln u
 1
g ' (u) = 1 – < 0 which is negative for u ∈ (0, 1)
u
Hence g (u) is decreasing in (0, 1]
∴ g (u) > g (1) ∀ u ∈ (0, 1]
But g (1) = 0
∴ g (u) > 0 ∀ u ∈ (0, 1)
x 1+ x
∴ – 1 + ln >0 ∀ x>0
1+ x x
∴ f ' (x) > 0
∴ f (x) is increasing for x > 0 ....(1)
again for x < – 1
x
 1   1+ x x  1+ x
f ' (x) = 1 +  ln + − 1 put =u
 x  x 1+ x  x
1
consider g (u) = ln u + – 1 as x ∈ (– ∞, –1), u ∈ (0, 1)
u
1 1 u −1
g ' (u) = – 2 = 2 < 0 for u ∈ (0, 1)
u u u
g (u) is decreasing in (0, 1)
∴ g (u) > g (1)
g (u) > 0
1+ x x
ln + −1 > 0
x 1+ x
∴ f ' (x) > 0 for x ∈ (– ∞, –1)
∴ f (x) is increasing in (– ∞, –1) ....(2)
from (1) and (2)
f (x) is increasing for all x in the domain of f (x).

7. If f(x) = ln(lnx) where x > e

1 1
Prove that < f(m + 1) – f(m) < for m > e.
(m + 1)ln (m + 1) m ⋅ ln ( m )
[Sol. f (x) = ln (lnx)
1
g (x) = f ′ (x) =
xlnx
1  1 1 
− +
 x 2ln 2 x x 2lnx 
g ' (x) = [lnx + 1] =
− ( xlnx ) 2
which is < 0 for x > e
Hence g(x) is a decreasing function for x > e
hence g(m) > g(m + 1) for m > e
From the graph
m +1
g(m + 1) (m + 1 – m) < ∫ g( x)dx < g(m) [m + 1 – m]
m
m +1
g(m + 1) < ∫ f ' ( x )dx < g(m)
m

1 1
< f(m + 1) – f(m) < ]
(m + 1)ln (m + 1) m ⋅ ln ( m )
6. ROLLE'S & MEAN VALUE THEOREM :
(a) ROLLE'S THEOREM :
Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions :
(i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval of a ≤ x ≤ b.
(ii) f ′ (x) exists for every point in the open interval a < x < b.
(iii) f (a) = f (b).
Then there exists at least one point x = c such that a < c < b
where f ′ (c) = 0.
Note that if f is not continuous in closed [a, b] then it may lead
to the adjacent graph where all the 3 conditions of Rolles will be
valid but the assertion will not be true in (a, b).

EXPLANATION :

Note : Converse of Rolle's theorem is Not true i.e. if a function is such that
f ' (c) = 0 for at least one 'c' in (a, b) then it is not necessary
(i) f (x) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) f (x) is differentiable in (a, b)
(iii) f (a) = f (b)
ILLUSTRATIONS ROLLE'S THEOREM :
1. Verify Rolle's Theorem for
(a) f (x) = x (x + 3)e–x / 2 in [–3, 0] [ Ans. c = – 2 ; c = 3 (rejected) ]
sin x π
(b) f (x) = x in [0, π] [c = ]
e 4
2. Given a0, a1, a2, .......an are real numbers satisfying the equation
a0 a a a
+ 1 + 2 + ....... + n−1 + an = 0 then prove that there exists at least
n +1 n n −1 2
one real x between 0 and 1 such that
a0xn + a1xn – 1 + ....... + an = 0
a 0 n + 1 a1 n a
[Hint: Consider a function f (x) = x + x + ....... + n−1 x2 + anx and apply
n +1 n 2
Rolles theorem in [0, 1]
1
or integrate f (x) = a0xn + a1 xn – 1 + ...... + an in (0, 1) to prove ∫ f ( x ) dx =0]
0
3. Let f (x) =x(ex)– 1. Use Rolles theorem to prove that the equation f (x) = 0 has one
and only one root in (0, 1)
4. Suppose that the second derivative of f exists everywhere and that
f (x1) = f (x2) = f (x3) = 0 where x1 < x2 < x3. Show that f ''(c) = 0 for some number c
with x1 < c < x3.

5. Show that between any two roots of the equation excosx = 1 there exists at least one
root of ex sin x – 1 = 0.
[Hint: Consider f (x) = cos x – e– x and apply Rolle's theorem in it.]
6. Let f (x) and g (x) be differentiable functions such that f ' (x) g (x) ≠ f (x) g ' (x) for any
real x. Show that between any two real solutions of f (x) = 0, there is at least one real
solution of g (x) = 0. [T/S, Q.17, Ex-II, Monotonocity]
[Sol. Let a, b be the solutions of f(x)=0
suppose g(x) is not equal to zero for any x belonging to [a,b]
now consider h(x)= f ( x ) g ( x )
since g(x) not equal to zero
h(x) is differentiable and continuous in (a,b)
h(a) = h(b) = 0 (as f (a) = 0 and f (b) = 0 but g(a) or g (b) ≠ 0)
applying rolles theorem
h ' (c)=0 for some c belonging to (a,b)
f(x)g ' (x)= f ' (x)g(x)
this gives the contadiction ...
hence proved ]
7.80/4 Let P (x) be a polynomial with real coefficients. Let a, b ∈ R, a < b, be two consecutive
roots of P(x). Show that there exists 'c' such that a ≤ c ≤ b and P ' (c) + 100 P(c) = 0.
[Sol. Consider f (x) = e100x · P (x).
Now f (a) = f (b) = 0 {as P (a) = P (b) = 0 }
Also as P (x) is polynomial ⇒ f (x) is continuous and differentiable in [a, b]
⇒ Rolle's theorem can be applied
⇒ ∃ c ∈ (a, b) such that f ' (c) = 0
now f ' (x) = e100 x (P ' (x) + 100 · P(x) )
⇒ e100 c (P ' (c) + 100 · P(c) ) = 0, from (1)
⇒ P ' (c) + 100 · P(c) ) = 0 (as [e100 c ≠ 0]) hence proved. ]
(b) LMVT THEOREM : (LAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM)
Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions :
(i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval of a ≤ x ≤ b.
(ii) f ′ (x) exists for every point in the open interval a < x < b.
(iii) f(a) ≠ f(b).
f (b)−f (a )
Then there exists at least one point x = c such that a < c < b where f ′ (c) =
b−a
Geometrically, the slope of the secant line joining the curve at x = a & x = b is equal
to the slope of the tangent line drawn to the curve at x = c. Note the following :
Note : Now [f (b) – f (a)] is the change in the value of function f as x changes from
a to b so that [f (b) – f (a)] / (b – a) is the average rate of change of the function over
the interval [a, b]. Also f '(c) is the instantaneous rate of change of the function at x = c.
Thus, the theorem states that the average rate of change of a function over an interval is
also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of the interval. In particular,
for instance, the average velocity of a particle over an interval of time is equal to the
velocity at some instant belonging to the interval.
This interpretation of the theorem justifies the name "Mean Value" for the theorem.
Rolles theorem is a special case of LMVT since
f (b)−f (a )
f (a) = f (b) ⇒ f ′ (c) = = 0.
b−a
Proof: To prove that theorem, we define a new function ϕ involving f and designed so as to
satisfy the condition of Rolle's theorem, Let
ϕ (x) = f (x) + Ax , x ∈ [a, b]
where A is a constant to be determined such that
ϕ (a) = ϕ (b).
f ( b ) − f (a )
Thus, f (a) + Aa = f (b) + Ab ⇒ A = – .
b−a
Now, the function f is derivable in (a, b). Also x is derivable and A, is a constant.
Therefore, ϕ is derivable in (a, b) and its derivative is f ' (x) + A. Also ϕ is continuous
in [a, b].
Thus, ϕ satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem. There is, therefore, at least one
value 'c' ∈ (a, b) such that ϕ ' (c) = 0, so that we have
0 = ϕ ' (c) = 0 = f ' (c) + A ⇒ f ' (c) = – A
f ( b ) − f (a )
⇒ = f ' (c) ....(i)
b−a
Alternative form of LMVT :
Another form of statement of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem. If a function f is
continuous in a closed interval [a, a + h] and derivable in the open interval ] a, a + h [,
then there exists at least one number 'θ' ∈ (0, 1) such that
f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ' (a + θ h).
Proof:We write b – a = h so that h denotes the length of the interval [a, b] which may now be
rewritten as [a, a + h]. The number, 'c' which lies between a and a + h, is greater than a
and less than a + h so that we may write c = a + θh, where θ is some number between
0 and 1. Thus the equation (i) becomes
f (a + h ) − f (a )
= f ' (a + θ h) ⇒ f (a + h) = f (a) + h f ' (a + θ h)
h
ILLUSTRATIONS LMVT THEOREM :
3
1. Find c of LMVT f (x) = x − 1 in [1, 3] [Ans. c = ]
2
2. Using LMVT prove that | cos a – cos b | ≤ | a – b |
[Hint: Consider f (x) = cos x in [a, b]
cos b − cos a
= | – sin C | ≤ 1 ⇒ | cos b – cos a | ≤ | b – a |
b−a
| cos a – cos b | ≤ | a – b | Hence proved. ]
3.(a) Find a point on the curve f (x) = x − 2 in [2, 3] when the tangent is parallel to the
chord joining the end points. [Ans. (1/2, 9/4)]
(b) if a < b, show that a real number 'c' can be found in (a, b) such that 3c2 = a2 + ab + b2
 π
(c) Use LMVT to prove that tan x > x for x ∈  0,  (NCERT)
 2
[Hint: f (x) = tan x in [0, x] 0 < x < π/2
tan x − 0
sec2x = > 0 ; tan x > x ]
x
4. 157/04 Let a, b, c be three real number such that a < b < c, f (x) is continuous in [a, c] and
differentiable in (a, c). Also f ' (x) is strictly increasing in (a, c). Prove that
(b – c) f (a) + (c – a) f (b) + (a – b) f (c) < 0
[Sol. By LMVT in [a, b] for f
f ( b ) − f (a )
= f ' (u) where a < u < b
b−a
 and applying LMVT in [b, c]
f (c) − f ( b )
and = f ' (v) where b < v < c
c−b
Since f ' (x) is strictly increasing
f ( b ) − f (a ) f (c) − f ( b )
∴ f ' (u) < f ' (v) ; ∴ <
b−a c−b
f (b) (c – b + b – a) – f (a) (c – b) – f (c) (b – a) < 0
∴ (b – c) f (a) + (c – a) f (b) + (a – b) f (c) < 0 ]
5. If the function f : [0, 4] → R is differentiable then show that
(i) for a, b ∈ (0, 4) f 2 (4) – f 2 (0) = 8 f ' (a) f (b)
[Sol.(i) Since f is differentiable on [0, 4] so it is continuous also. Hence by LMVT,
f ( 4) − f ( 0)
∃ some a ∈ (0, 4) such that f ' (a) = ....(1)
4−0
again, by intermediate value theorem for continuous functions,
∃ b ∈ (0, 4) such that
f ( 0 ) + f ( 4)
f (b) = ....(2)
2
from (1) and (2)
f 2 (4) − f 2 (0)
f ' (a) · f (b) = ]
8
4
(ii) ∫ f ( t )dt = 2[α f (α2) + β f (β2)], ∀ 0 < α, β < 2
0
x2
[Sol.(ii)consider a function g (x) = ∫ f ( t )dt x ∈ [0, 2) ⇒ g ' (x) = 2x f (x2)
0
apply LMVT in [0, 1], ∃ some α ∈ (0, 1), such that
g (1) − g (0)
g ' (α) = ....(1)
1− 0
again applying LMVT in [1, 2), ∃ b such that
g (2) − g (1)
g ' (β) = ....(2)
2 −1
4
adding (1) and (2) g ' (α) + g ' (β) = g (2) i.e. 2[α f (α2) +βf (β2)] = ∫ f ( t )dt ]
0
6.59/04 If f and F are continuous in [a, b] and derivable in (a, b) with F' (x) ≠ 0 ∀ x∈(a , b) .
f ' (c) f ( b ) − f (a )
Prove that ∃ c ∈ (a, b) such that = .
F' (c) F(b) − F(a )
f ' (c) K1
[Sol. Let K1 = f (b) – f (a) and K2 = F(b) – F(a) ⇒ TPT =
F ' (c) K 2
Consider a function φ (x) = K1 F(x) – K2 f (x) ....(1)
∴ f (x) and F(x) are continuous in [a, b] and derivable in (a, b) hence φ (x) will also be
continuous and differentiable
also φ (a) = K1F(a) – K2 f (a) and φ (b) = K1F(b) – K2f(b)
now φ (a) – φ (b) = K1 ( F(a) – F (b) ) – K2 ( f (a) – f (b) )
= [ f (b) – f (a)] [ F(a) – F(b) ] – [ F(b) – F(a)] [ f (a) – f (b) ]
= [ f (b) – f (a) ] { F(a) – F(b) + F(b) – F(a) ] = 0
⇒ φ (a) = φ (b)
 Hence rolles theorem is applicable for φ (x)
∴ ∃ some c ∈ (a, b) , such that , φ ′ (c) = 0
φ' ( x )]x = c = K1 F ′ (x) – K2 f ′ (x) = 0 or K1 F ′ (c) = K2 f ′ (c)
f ' (c) K f ( b ) − f (a )
∴ = 1 = ]
F' ( c ) K 2 F( b) − F(a )
7.86/04 Use the mean value theorem to prove
ex ≥ 1 + x, ∀ x ∈ R,
[Sol. Consider the function f (x) = ex – 1 in [0, x] where x > 0
∴ f is continuous and differentiable hence using LMVT ∃ some c ∈ (0, x)
(e x − 1) − 0 ex − 1 f ( x ) − f (0)
f ' (c) = = [ f ' ( c) = ]
x x x −0
c ex − 1
but f ' (c) = e ; hence = ec > 1, for x > 0
x
∴ x
e –1>x
∴ ex > x + 1 for x > 0 ....(1)
again consider the function
f (x) = ex – 1 in [x, 0] where x < 0
using LMVT ∃ some c ∈ (x, 0) such that
0 − (e x − 1) 1 − e x ex − 1
f ' (c) = = =
−x −x x
x
e −1
but f ' (c) = ec hence = ec < 1 for c < 0
x
x
(e − 1)
hence < 1 for x < 0
x
(ex – 1) > x (as x is – ve)
ex – 1 – x > 0 for x < 0 ....(2)
from (1) and (2)
ex > x + 1 for x ≠ 0
∴ for x = 0 equality holds
∴ ex ≥ x + 1 for x ∈ R ]
7. CONTRIBUTION OF MONOTONIC BEHAVIOUR IN PLOTTING THE
GRAPHS OF MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS :
General tips for plotting the graph of a rational function :
(1) Examine whether denominator has a root or not. If no, then graph is continuous and f is
x
non monotonic. For eg. f (x) = 2 .
x − 5x + 9
If denominator has roots then f (x) is discontinuous. Such functions can be
monotonic / non-monotonic.
x 2 + 2x − 3 ( x + 3) ( x − 1)
For eg. f (x) = 2 =
x + 2x − 8 ( x + 4) ( x − 2)
(2) If numerator and denominator has a common factor ( say x = a) it would mean removable
( x − 2) ( x − 1)
discontinuity at x = a e.g. f (x) = . Such a function will always be
( x + 3) ( x − 2)
monotonic i.e. either increasing or decreasing and removable discontinuity at x = 2 .
(3) Compute points where the curve crosses the x-axis and also where it cuts the y-axis by
putting y = 0 and x = 0 respectively and mark points accordingly.
 dy
(4) Compute and find the intervals where f (x) is increasing or decreasing and also
dx
where it has horizontal tangent.
(5) In regions where curve is monotonic compute y if x → ∞ or x → – ∞ to find whether
y is asymptotic or not.
(6) If denominator vanishes say at x = a and (x – a) is not a common factor between
numerator and denominator then examine Lim and Lim to find whether f approaches
x →a + x →a +
∞ or – ∞. Now plot the graphs of the following functions.
ILLUSTRATIONS GRAPHS OF MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS :
x2 − x + 1 2( x 2 − 1) 1
1. f(x) = ; f ′ (x) = 2 2 = f(1)= ; f(–1) = 3
x2 + x + 1 ( x + x + 1) 3
1 
D : x ∈ R, Range  3 , 3
 

( x + 2)( x − 1) 2(2 x + 1)
2. f (x) = x ( x + 1) ; f '(x) =
[ x ( x + 1)]2

x 2 − 5x + 4 ( x − 4)( x − 1)
3. f (x) = 2 =
x + 2x − 3 ( x + 3)( x − 1)

x −1
=1 x >1
 x −1

 N.D. at x = 1,−1
| x − 1| 
| x | −1  1 − x = −1
4. y= =
 x −1 0 ≤ x <1

 1 − x x −1
= x < 0, x ≠ −1
− ( x + 1) x + 1

Home Work :
x+2 x 2 + 2x −11 x 2 + 2x − 3
(1) f (x) = (2) f (x) = (3) f (x) = 2
2 x 2 + 3x + 6 2( x − 3) x + 2x − 8
x 2 − 3x + 2 2
x − x +1 x2 − 1
(4) f (x) = (5) f (x) = 2 (6) f (x) = 2
x2 + x − 6 x + x +1 x − 3x
 MAXIMA - MINIMA
( Functions Of Single Variable )
(A) GENERAL INTRODUCTION :
The notion of optimising functions is one of the most useful application of calculus
used in almost every sphere of life including geometry, business, trade, industries,
economics, medicines and even at home. In this chapter we shall see how calculus
defines the notion of maxima and minima and distinguishes it from the greatest and
least value or global maxima and global minima of a function. Since most of the functions
which we encounter with in practical world are differentiable hence we continue our
discussion with such functions only unless otherwise slated.
(B) HOW MAXIMA & MINIMA ARE CLASSIFIED
1. A function f (x) is said to have a maximum at
x = a if f (a) is greater than every other value
assumed by f (x) in the immediate
neighbourhood of x = a. Symbolically
f (a ) > f (a + h ) 
⇒ x = a gives maxima
f (a ) > f (a − h ) 
for a sufficiently small positive h.
Similarly, a function f (x) is said to have a minimum value at x = b if f (b) is least than
every other value assumed by f (x) in the immediate neighbourhood at x = b.
Symbolically if
f ( b) < f ( b + h ) 
⇒ x = b gives minima for a sufficiently small positive h.
f (b) < f (b − h ) 
Note that :
(i) the maximum & minimum values of a
function are also known as local/relative
maxima or local/relative minima as these are
the greatest & least values of the function
relative to some neighbourhood of the point
in question.
(ii) the term 'extremum' or (extremal) or 'turning value' is used both for maximum or a
minimum value.
(iii) a maximum (minimum) value of a function may not be the greatest (least) value in a
finite interval.
(iv) a function can have several maximum & minimum values & a minimum value may
even be greater than a maximum value.
(v) maximum & minimum values of a continuous function occur alternately & between
two consecutive maximum values there is a minimum value & vice versa.
(C) NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM &
MINIMUM :
dy
Consider the interval (a – h, a), we find f (x) is increasing ⇒ > 0. Similarly for the
dx
dy
interval (a, a + h), we find f (x) is decreasing ⇒ < 0.
dx
dy
Hence at the point x = a (maxima) ; =0
dx
 dy
similarly = 0 at x = b which is the point of minima.
dx
dy
Hence = 0 is the necessary condition for maxima
dx
dy
or minima. These points where vanishes are known
dx
as stationary points as instantaneous rate of change of
function momentarily ceases at this point.
dy
However if for x < a, >0
dx 
(in the imm. nbd)  ⇒ x = a is the po int of local max ima
dy 
and for x > a , <0
dx
(in the imm. nbd)

dy
and if for x < b, <0
dx 
(in the imm. nbd)  ⇒ x = b is the po int of local min ima

>0 
dy
and x > b,
dx
(in the imm. nbd)
Hence if
f ′(a − h)>0 
⇒ x = a is a point of local maxima, where f ′ (a) = 0.h is a
and f ′ (a + h)<0 
 sufficiently
 small positive
f ′(b − h)<0
Similarly  ⇒ x = b is a point of local minima, where f ′(b) =0.  quantity
f ′(b + h)>0
However, if f ′ (x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a certain complete
neighbourhood of c, then f(x) is either strictly increasing or decreasing throughout this
neighbourhood implying that f(c) is not an extreme value of f. e.g. f (x) = x3 at x = 0.

(D) USE OF SECOND ORDER DERIVATIVE IN ASCERTAINING THE MAXIMA

OR MINIMA:
EXPLANATION :
As shown in the figure it is clear that as x increases from a – h to a + h, the function
dy
continuously decreases, i.e. (+) ve for x < a, zero at x = a and (–) ve for x > a.
dx
dy d2y
Hence itself is a decreasing function. Therefore 2 < 0 in (a – h, a + h).
dx dx
dy d2y
Hence at local maxima, = 0 and 2 < 0.
dx dx
dy d2y
similarly at local minima, = 0 and 2 > 0.
dx dx
Hence if
(a) f (a) is a maximum value of the function f then f ' (a) = 0 & f " (a) < 0.
(b) f (b) is a minimum value of the function f, if f ' (b) = 0 & f " (b) > 0.
 However, if f " (c) = 0 then the test fails. In this case f can still have a maxima or
minima or point of inflection (neither maxima nor minima). In this case revert back to
the first order derivative check for ascertaning the maxima or minima.
SUMMARY− −WORKING RULE :
FIRST : When possible , draw a figure to illustrate the problem & label those
parts that are important in the problem. Constants & variables should be clearly
distinguished.
SECOND : Write an equation for the quantity that is to be maximised or
minimised. If this quantity is denoted by ‘y’, it must be expressed in terms of
a single independent variable x. his may require some algebraic manipulations.
THIRD : If y = f (x) is a quantity to be maximum or minimum, find those values of
x for which dy/dx = f ′(x) = 0.
FOURTH : Test each values of x for which f ′(x) = 0 to determine whether it provides
a maximum or minimum or neither. The usual tests are :
(a) If d²y/dx² is positive when dy/dx = 0 ⇒ y is minimum.
If d²y/dx² is negative when dy/dx = 0 ⇒ y is maximum.
If d²y/dx² = 0 when dy/dx = 0, the test fails.
positive for x < x 0 
dy
(b) If dx is zero for x = x 0  ⇒ a maximum occurs at x = x0.

negative for x > x 0 
But if dy/dx changes sign from negative to zero to positive as x advances through x0
there is a minimum . If dy/dx does not change sign, neither a maximum nor a minimum.
Such points are called INFLECTION POINTS.
FIFTH : If the function y = f (x) is defined for only a limited range of values a ≤ x ≤ b
then examine x = a & x = b for possible extreme values.
SIXTH : If the derivative fails to exist at some point, examine this point as possible
maximum or minimum.
ILLUSTRATIONS :
Geometrical Problem: Inventa,
(Minima) : Karl Fisher,
1. Of all the open right circular cylinders with a given volume, the one Du pont,
which is most economical i.e. requiring the least, surface area. Barmag,
(Maxima) : (h = 2d) Mackenzy,
2. For a given slant height volume of conical tent Technimont,
is maximum if θ = tan–1 2 E.I.L.

(Minima) :
3. One corner of a rectangular sheet of paper, width 1m,
is folded over so on just reach the opposite edge of
the sheet. Find the minimum length of crease.

(Maxima) :
4. A box is constructed from a rectangular metal sheet of dimension
8m × 5m by cutting out identical squares from the four corners
and turning up the sides. Find the length of the side of the
square to be cut so that the box is of maximum volume.
[Ans. x = 1]
 Water Filteration plant with pumping station (Industrial) : -Minima
5.87/02 Two towns located on the same side of the river agree to construct a pumping station
and filteration plant at the river’s edge , to be used jointly to supply the towns with
water. If the distance of the two towns from the river are ‘a’ & ‘b’ and the distance
between them is ‘c’, show that the pipe lines joining them to the pumping station is
atleast as great as c 2 +4ab .
[Sol. L = AP + PB
L= a2 + x2 + (K − x ) 2 + b 2
dL 2x 2( K − x )
= –
dx 2 a 2 + x 2 2 (K − x )2 + b 2
dL
for maximum or minimum =0
dx
x K−x
=
a2 + x2 (K − x ) 2 + b 2
x2 [(K–x)2 + b2) ] = (K–x)2 (a2 + x2)
b2 x2 = a2 (K–x)2
∴ bx = a (K – x)
x ( a + b) = aK
Ka Kb
x= (K– x = )
a+b a+b

2 K 2a 2 2 K 2b 2
L x = Ka = a + + b +
a+b (a + b ) 2 (a + b ) 2

a b
= (a + b ) 2 + K 2 + (a + b ) 2 + K 2
a+b a+b

(a + b) 2 + K 2
= (a + b ) = (a + b ) 2 − c 2 − (a − b ) 2 = c2 + 4ab ]
a+b
6. A wire of length 20 cm is cut into two pieces. One piece converted into a circle and the
other into a square. Where the wire is to be cut from so that the sum total of the areas
of two plane figures is (a) minimum (b) maximum.
7.89/02 A point P is given on the circumference of a circle of radius r. Chords QR are parallel
to the tangent at P . Determine the maximum possible area of the triangle PQR.
[Ans: ( 3 3 4 ) r²] [ JEE ’90, 4 ]
2/ r cos θ (r + r sin θ)
[Sol. Ar. of ∆PQR =
2/
2
A(θ) = r cosθ (1+ sinθ)
A′(θ) = r2 [cosθ . cosθ – (1 + sinθ) sinθ]
for maximum or minimum A′(θ) = 0
cos2θ – sinθ (1 + sinθ) = 0 = 1 – sin2θ – sinθ – sin2θ = 0
= 2 sin2θ + sinθ – 1 = 0 = (sinθ + 1) (2 sinθ – 1) = 0
sinθ = –1 (not possible)
sinθ = 1/2 hence, θ = π/6 or 5π/6
 d2 A
= – 2 cosθ sinθ – cosθ – 2sinθ cosθ
dθ 2
d2 A 
 = – ve ⇒ A is maximum
dθ2  θ= π / 6
3 11 3 3 2
Amax = 2r2 1 +  ⇒ Amax = r ]
2  22 4
x 2 y2
8. Find the coordinates of the point P on the curve + = 1 in the
8 18
1st quadrant so that the area of the triangle formed by the tangent at
P and the coordinate axes is minimum.
[Ans. (2, 3)] [Ans. (x = 2 2 cos θ , y = 3 2 sin θ ) ]
9. For a train/steamer the cost of fuel varies as the square of its speed (in km/hr.) and the
cost is Rs 24/hr when the speed is 12 km/hr. If other expenses amounts to Rs. 96 /hr,
find the most economical speed and the cost of journey for 100 km.
[Ans. 24 km/hr; Rs. 800/-]
10. Find the equation of a line through (1, 8) cutting the positive semi axes at A and B if
(i) the area of ∆OAB is minimum
(ii) its intercept between the coordinate axes is minimum.
(ii) sum of its intercept on the coordinates axes is minimum.
[Ans. (i) 8x + y = 16, (ii) 2x + y = 10 ; min. intercept 5 5 , (iii) 2 2x + y = 8 + 2 2 ]
11 Find the altitude of the right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed
in a given right circular cone of height 'h'. [Ans. h 3 ]
12. Find the altitude of the right cone of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere
of radius R. [Ans. 4R 3 ]
13. The corridors of width a & b meet at right angles . Show that the length of the longest
pipe that can be passed round the corner horizontally is, (a2/3 + b2/3)3/2. [T/S]
b
2 12
14. Find the value of a and b where a < b, for which the integral ∫ (24 − 2x − x ) dx has
a
25π
the largest value. [Ans. a = – 1, b = 4, I = ]
4
b
2 12
[Sol. I = ∫ [25 − ( x + 1) ] dx
a
for I to be largest (x + 1)2 must be minimum ⇒ x = – 1 i.e. a = – 1
b
∴ I = ∫ (24 − 2 x − x 2 ) dx
−1
dI
for maxima, = 24 – 2b – b2 = 0 ⇒ b2 + 2b – 24 = 0 ⇒ (b + 6)(b – 4) = 0
db
as b ≠ – 6 hence b = 4
4
2 12
hence I = ∫ (25 − (x + 1) ] dx put x + 1 = 5 sin θ
−1
π2
= 24 ∫ cos 2 θ dθ = 25π Ans. Hence a = – 1; b = 4; Imax =
25π
]
0 4 4
 Cost and Revenue function:
14.198/AOD The cost function at American Gadget is
C(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 15x (x in thousands of units and x > 0)
The production level at which average cost is minimum is
(A) 2 (B*) 3 (C) 5 (D) none
[Hint: C(x) = cost of producing x items > 0
C( x )
average cost = = x2 – 6x + 15 = f (x)
x
f ' (x) = 2x – 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3 ]
GENERAL CONCEPT :
Given a fixed point A (a, b) and a moving point P ( x, f (x) )
on the curve y = f (x). Then AP will be maximum or minimum
if it is normal to the curve at P.
Proof : F (x) = (x – a)2 + (f (x) – b))2 ⇒ F ' (x) = 2 (x – a) + 2(f (x) – b) · f ' (x)
 x −a  f (x) − b
∴ f ' (x) = –   . Also mAP= . Hence f ' (x) · mAP = – 1.
 f ( x ) − b  x − a
ILLUSTRATION ON GENERAL CONCEPT :
1. A straight line l passes through the points (3, 0) and (0, 4). The point A lies on the
parabola y = 2x – x2. Find the distance p from point A to the straight line and indicate
the coordinates of the point A (x0, y0) on the parabola for which the distance from the
parabola to the straight line is the least.
2. Four points A, B, C, D lie in that order on the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c. The
coordinates of A, B, and D are known A (–2, 3), B (–1, 1), D (2, 7). Find the coordinates
of C for which the area of the quadrilateral ABCD is the greatest.
1 7
[Ans. a = b = c = 1,  ,  ]
2 4
(E) USEFUL FORMULAE OF MENSURATION TO REMEMBER :
F Volume of a cuboid = lbh.
F Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl).
F Volume of a prism = area of the base x height.
F Lateral surface of a prism = perimeter of the base x height.
F Total surface of a prism = lateral surface + 2 area of the base
(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangles).
1
F Volume of a pyramid = (area of the base) × (height).
3
1
F Curved surface of a pyramid = (perimeter of the base) x slant height.
2
(Note that slant surfaces of a pyramid are triangles).
1
F Volume of a cone = π r2h.
3
F Curved surface of a cylinder = 2 π rh.
F Total surface of a cylinder = 2 π rh + 2 π r2.
4
F Volume of a sphere = π r3.
3
F Surface area of a sphere = 4 π r2.
1 2
F Area of a circular sector = r θ, when θ is in radians.
2
(F) SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIGN OF 2ND ORDER DERIVATIVE AND
POINTS OF INFLECTION :
The sign of the 2nd order derivative determines the
concavity of the curve. Such points such as C & E on
the graph where the concavity of the curve changes are
called the points of inflection. From the graph we find
that if:
d2y
(i) > 0 ⇒ concave upwards
dx 2
d2y
(ii) < 0 ⇒ concave downwards.
dx 2
At the point of inflection we find that
d2y d2y
=0& changes sign.
dx 2 dx 2
d2y
Inflection points can also occur if fails to exist . For example, consider the graph
dx 2
of the function defined as,
3/ 5
 x for x ∈ ( −∞,1)
f (x) = 
 2−x 2 for x ∈ (1, ∞)
Note that the graph exhibits two critical points one is a point
of local maximum & the other a point of inflection.
3x ( x + 1)  π
Example Prove the inequality : sin x + 2x ³ ∀ x ∈ 0, 
π  2
Study the following graphs, w.r.t. stationary point / critical point / monotonic
point / Extremum point (Local maxima or minima):
(a) In an open interval, a continuous function need not have either
a maximum or a minimum value. The function f (x) = x has
neither a largest nor a smallest value in (0, 1).
x + 1, − 1 ≤ x < 0
(b) 
f (x) = 0 if x=0
 x − 1, if 0 < x ≤ 1
Note that even a single point of discontinuity can help a
function from having either a maximum or a minimum value
in a closed interval.
(c) Observe the extremum value.
(d) Look the inflection point in the following

x = c point of inflection

(G) DIFFERENT GRAPHS OF THE CUBIC :

y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
(1) One real & two imaginary roots. (always monotonic)
Condition : f ' (x) ≥ 0 or f ' (x) ≤ 0 together with either f ' (x) = 0 has no root
(i.e. D < 0) or f ' (x) = 0 has a root x = α but f (α) = 0.

e.g. y = x3 – 2x2 + 5x + 4 y = (x – 2)3 – 1

y ' = 3x2 – 4x + 5 (D < 0) y ' = 3(x – 2)2 = 0
gives x = 2, y (2) = 1
Note: In this case if f ' (x) = 0 has a root x = α and f (α) = 0 this would mean f (x) = 0
has repeated roots which is dealt separately.

(2) Exactly one root and non monotonic. (3) Three roots

(4) All three distinct roots (5) All three roots concident

f (x1) · f (x2) < 0 f '(x) ≥ 0 or f '(x) ≤ 0 & f (α) = 0

where x1 & x2 are the roots of f ' (x) =0 where α is a root of f ' (x) = 0
e.g. y = (x – 1)3
Note : (i) Graph of every cubic polynomial must have exactly one point of inflection.
(ii) In case (4) if f (a), f (b), f (c) and f (d) alternatively change sign.
ILLUSTRATIONS :
1. If the cubic y = x3 + px + q has 3 distinct real roots then prove that 4p3 + 27q2 < 0.
[Sol. f ' (x) = 3x2 + 0x + p
p
x1 + x2 = 0 & x1 x2 =
3
( x13 + px1 + q ) ( x 32 + px 2 + q ) < 0

x13 · x 32 + p x13 x2 + q x13

p2x1x2 + px1 x 32 + q x 32 + pqx1 + q2 < 0
+ pqx2 ]
ax 3
2. For a cubic f (x) = + (a + 2)x2 + (a – 1) x + 2. Find the value of 'a' for which it
3
(a) + ve point of maximum [both root of f '(x)=0 must be + ve (a > 0) ]
(b) – ve point of minimum [both root of f '(x)=0 must be – ve (a > 0) ]
(c) + ve point of minimum [at least one root of f '(x)=0 must be + ve ]
(d) – ve point of maximum [at least one root of f '(x)=0 must be – ve ]
d2y
(e) – ve point of inflection [abscissa corresponding to =0 must be – ve]
dx 2

d2y
(f) + ve point of inflection [abscissa corresponding to =0 must be + ve]
dx 2