Preliminary

Basic definitions

Definition: 1 Graph

A graph G consist of a pair (V, E) where V is a non-empty finite set whose elements
are called vertices and E is another set whose elements are called edges such that each edge
e ∈ E is associated with orered or unordered pair of element of V, i.e there is a mapping from
the set of edges E to the set of ordered or unordered pair of elements of V.

The graph G with vertices V and edges E is written as G = (V, E) or G(V, E)

Definition:2 Finite graph

A graph G(V, E) is said to be finite if it has a finite number of vertices and finite
number of edges. Otherwise it is called an infinite graph

e.g. G = (V, E) is a (4, 6) graph

Let V = {1, 2, 3, 4}, E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}

Definition: 3

A line joining a point to itself is called a loop

G=

V1 V2

V1 & V2 are loops

Definition: 4

If more than one line joining two vertices are allowed, the resulting object is called
multi graph
Definition: 5

If a graph G contains multiple edges and loops, then it is called pseudograph

Definition: 6

A graph whose edge set in empty is called a null graph or a totally disconnected
graph

Definition: 7

A graph in which any two distinct points are adjacent is called a complete graph. The
complete graph on P point is denoted by kp. Clearly kp has P vertices and Pc2 edge

Definition: 8
 A graph G is called a bi-graph or bipartite graph if V can be partitioned into two
disjoint non-empty subsets V1 & V2 such that every line of G join a point of V1 to a point V2

If further G contain every line joining the points of V1 to the points of V2, the G is
called complete bipartite graph. If V1 contain m point and V2 contain n point then the
complete bi-graph G is denoted by k, m, n.

Eg. Let V = { V 1 , V 2 ,V 3 , V 4 , V 5 ,V 6 , V 7 ,V 8 }

V 1= {V 1 , V 2 ,V 3 } ,

V 2= {V 4 ,V 5 , V 6 ,V 7 , V 8 }

Definition: 9

A walk of a graph G is an alternating sequence of vertices and edges v 0, e1, v1, e2, v2,
……, vn-1, en, vn beginning and ending with vertices such that each line e i is incident with vi-1
and vi

We say that the walk joins v0 and vn and it is called as v0-vn walk. Here v0 is called the
initial point and vn is called the initial point and vn is called the terminal point to the walk.

The number of edges in the walk is called the length of the walk.
 E.g.

In a graph G, v0e1 v1e2 e3v3 e5v1 e2v2 e3v3 e4v5 is a walk.

Here, v0 is the initial point and v4 is the terminal point.

In a walk, both vertices and edges can be repeated. Here the vertices v1, v2, v3 and the edges
e2, e3 repeated.

Definition: 10

A walk is called a trail if all its edges are distinct

E.g.

In a graph G, v0e1 v1e2 v2e3 v3e4 v4e5 v2 e6v5 is a trial. In a trail, vertices can be
repeated. Here vertices v2 is repeated

Definition: 11

A walk is called a path if all its vertices are distinct

e.g
in a graph G v0e1 v1e2 v2e3 v3e4 v4e5 e5v5 is a path.

Definition: 12

A v0-vn walk is closed, if v0 = vn. A closed walk v0, v1, v2,…….., vn = v0 in which n > 3
and v0, v1, ……, vn-1 are distinct is called a cycle of length n.

E.g

In a graph G, v0e1 v1e2 v2e3 v3e4 v4e5v0 in a cycle.

Definition: 13

Two vertices u and v of a graph G are said to be connected if there exist a u –v path is
G.

Definition: 14

A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of vertices are connected.

A graph G is said to be disconnected if it is not connected.

e.g. of connected
e.g of disconnected
Definition: 15

Let Gi denotes the induced sub group of G with vertex set Vi clearly the subgroup G1,
G2, ……….. Gn are connected and are called the components of G.

e.g.

In G, the number of component

1) is exactly one

In G, the number of component is 3

2)

In G the number of component is 5

3)

Definition: 16

A cut vertex of a graph G is vertex whose removal increases the number of

component

In G, 1, 2, and 3 are cut vertices

Definition: 17 strongly connected

A directed graph is called strongly connected if for any pair of vertices of the graph
both the vertices of the pair are reachable from one another.

Definition: 18 weakly connected (or) connected

A directed graph is called connected or weakly connected if it is connected as un

undirected graph in which each directed edge is converted to an undirected graph.

Definition: 19 unilaterally connected

A directed graph is said to be unilaterally connected if for any pair of vertices of the
graph at least one of the vertices of the pair is reachable from other vertex
 The graph is unilaterally connected but not strongly connected.

Theorems

Component

Defn: Let Gi denote the induced subgroup of G with vertex set V i – clearly the sub graphs G1,
G2, ………….Gn are connected and are called the component of G

The graph the number of

component is exactly one

The graph the no. of

component is 3

P−1
1) Thrm: A graph G with p points and δ ≥ is connected
2

Proof: T.P G is connected suppose G is not connected

Then G has at least two components Let G1=(V ¿ ¿ 1, X 1) ¿ be a first component of G.

Let V 1 ∈ V 1

P−1 P−1
Since δ ≥ , F at least points in G1 adjacent to v1.
2 2

P−1
Hence v1 contains at least + 1 number of points
2

P+ 1
Thus v1 contains at least number of points
2

P+ 1
Thus each component of G contains at least points.
2
 P+ 1 P+1
Hence the number of points in G is at least + .
2 2

i.e) number of points in G is at least P+1 which is a

Hence G is connected

Chap II: Disconnected components & complementary graph Defn of complement

Let G = (V, X) be a graph. The complement G of G is defined to be the graph which

has V as its set of point and two points are adjacent is G if they are not adjacent in G.

1. Thrm: If G is not connected then G is connected.

Proof: suppose G is not connected T.P G is connected.

Since G is disconnected, G has more than one component.

Let u, v be two point of G.

We will prove that there is a u – v path is G

If u, v belong to different component in G, they are not adjacent in G and hence they
are adjacent is G.

 In this case there is a u – v path is G

Hence G is connected.

If u, v lies in the same component of G, choose w is a different component of G.

 Then u, w, v is a u – v path is G

Hence G is connected.

Disconnected graph

A graph that is not connected is called disconnected

Is disconnected graph

2. Thrm: A graph G is disconnected if its vertic set V can be partitioned into two non-
emty, disjoint subsets v1 and v2 such that there exists no edge is G whose one end
vertex, is in subset v1 and the other in subset v2.

Proof:

Suppose that such a partitioning exists.

Consider two arbitrary vertices a & b of G, such that a ∈ v 1∧b ∈ v 2

No path can exist between vertices a and b. otherwise there would be at least one edge
whose one end vertex would be in v1 and the other is v2.

Hence, if a partition exist G is not connected.

Conversely,

Let G be a disconnected graph consider a vertex a is G.

Let v1 be the set of all vertex that are connected by paths to a. since G is disconnected,
v1 does not include all vertex of G. the remaining vertices will form a (non- empty) set v2.

No vertex is v1 is connected to any vertex is v2 by path.

Hence the partition exists.

Thrm: 3
 A simple graph with n vertices anf k components can have at most (n – k) (n-k+1)/2
edges.

Proof:

Let the number of vertices in each of the k – component of a graph G be n1, n2, …..nk.

Thus, we have,

n1 + n2 + …… nk = n

Where ni > 1 for I = 1, 2, ….k

k
Now, ∑ (n¿¿ i−1)=n−k ¿
i=1

¿¿

¿
k k
2
∑ (n¿¿ 1−1) +2 ∑ (n¿¿ j−1) ( n j−1 ) =n2 + k 2−2 nk ¿ ¿
i=1 i , j=1 ,i ≠ j ≠

k k k

∑ (¿)2−2 ∑ n1 +k +2 ∑ (n ¿¿i−1) ( n j−1 ) =n2 +k 2−2nk ¿

i=1 i=1 i , j=1 ,i ≠ j

k k

∑ n2i −2 n+k + 2 ∑ (n¿¿ i¿−1) ( n j −1 )=n2+ k 2−2 nk ¿ ¿

i=1 i , j=1 ,i ≠ j

n k

∑ n2i + 2 ∑ (n¿¿ i−1) ( n j−1 ) =n2 +k 2 −2 nk+ 2 n−k ¿

i=1 i , j=1 ,i ≠ j

Since each (n¿ ¿i−1)≥0 ¿

n

∑ n2i ≤ n2 +k 2−2 nk +2 n−k =n2 + k ( k−2 n )−(k −2 n)

i=1

n2 −( k−1 )(αn−k )

Now, the maximum number of edges in the i th component of G is ni (ni-1)/2. Since the
maximum number of edges is a simple graph with n vertices is n(n-1)/2.

 the maximum number of edges is G is

k n
1 1 n
∑ ni ( ni −1 )= ∑ ni2−
2 i=1 2 i=1 2
 1 2 n
≤ [ n −( k −1 ) ( 2n−k ) ]−
2 2

1 2
¿ [ n −2 nk +2 n=k 2−k−n ]
2

1
¿ ¿
2

1
¿ ( n−k ) (n−k +1)
2

Thrm: 4

The minimum number of edges is a connected graph with n vertices is n-1

Proof:

Let m be the number of edges of such a graph.

We have to show m > n-1

We prove this by method of induction on m.

If m = 0 then obviously n= 1

Clearly, then m > n – 1.

Let the result be true for m= 0, 1, 2, 3, ., k. we shall show that the result is true for m = k +1.

Let G be a graph with k+1 edges.

Let e be an edge of G.

Then the subgraph G-e has k edges and n number of vertices.

If G-e is also connected then by our hypothesis k > n-1.

i.e. k+1 > n > n-1

if G – e is disconnected then it would have two connected components.

Let the two components have k1, k2 number of edges and n1, n2 number of vertices
respectively.
 So, by our hypothesis, k1 > n1 – 1 and k2 > n2 -1.

These two imply that k1 + k2 > n1 + n2 – 2

i.e k > n – 2 (since, k1 + k2 = k, n1 + n2 = n)

i.e. K + 1 > n – 1.

Thus, the result is true for m = k + 1

Note:

 A graph H is a connected component or component of a graph G if

 H is a sub graph of G
 H is connected.
 No connected sub graph of G has H as a sub graph and contains vertices.

A connected graph G and a connected component of the graph G are

Figure

Example: 1 Which of the graphs are connected

Figure

Solution: (i) the graph (a) is not connected. In drawing a graph two edges may cross at a
point which is not a vertex.

The above graph can be redrawn as follow

Figure

(ii) The graph (b) is connected since for every pair of distinct vertices there is a path
between them.

(iii) the graph © is also connected

Example: 2

Find the number of connected component of each of the following graph

Figure
Solution : (i) The number of connected component of graph (a) is two

(ii) The graph it can be redrawn.

Figure

Number of connected component in the graph is 3.

Chapter – III Block connectivity

Definition: Block

A connected non-trivial graph having no cut point is a block. A block of a graph is a

sub graph that is a block and is maximal with respect to this property.

Figure

Trm: 1

Let G be a connected graph with at least three points. The following statement are
equivalent.

1. G is a block
2. Any two point of G lie on a common cycle.
3. Any point and any line of G lie on a common cycle.
4. Any two lines of G lie on a common cycle.

Proof:

(1)  (2) suppose G is a block. We shall prove by induction on the distance d (u, v)
between u and v, that any two vertices u and v lie on a common cycle.
Suppose d(u, v) = 1

Hence u and v are adjacent.

By hypothesis, G ≠ K2 and G has no cut point.

Hence the line x = uv is not a bridge and hence by the thrm,

[A line x of a connected graph G is a bridge iff x is not on any cycle of G]

x is on a cycle ofG.
Hence, the point u and v lie on a common cycle of G.

Now, assumes that the result is true for any two vertices at distance less than k and let
d(u, v) = k >2.

Consider a u – v path of length k

Let w be the vertex that procedure b on this path.

Then, d (u, w) = k-1

Hence by induction hypothesis there exist a cycle c that contains u and w. Now since
G is a block, w is not a cut point of G and so G-w is connected. Hence there exist a u – v path
p not containing w.

Let v1 be the last point common to p and c

Since u is common to p and c such a v1 exist.

Now, let Q denote the u – v1 path along the cycle C not containing the point w.

Then, Q followed by the v1-v path along p, the line vw and the w-u path along the
cycle c line disjoint from Q from a cycle that contain both u and v. this completes the
induction.

Figure

Thus any two point of G lie on a common cycle of G

(2)  (1) .

Suppose any two point of G lie on a common cycle of G. suppose v is a cut point of
G. then there exist two points u and w distinct from v such that u-w path contains v.

Now by hypothesis u and w lie on a common cycle and this cycle determines two u-w
paths and at least one of these paths does not contain v which is a contradiction.

Hence G has no cut point so that G is a block.

(2)  (3)

Let u be a point and vw a line of G.

 By hypothesis u and v lie on a common cycle C.

If w lies on C, then the line vw together with the v-w path of c containing u is the
required cycle containing u and the line vw.

If w is not on C, let C1 be a cycle containing u and w.

This cycle determines two w-u paths and at least one of these paths does not contain
v. denote this path by p.

Let u1 be the first point common to p and c. (u 1 may be u itself). Then the line vw
followed by the w-ui sub path of p and the u1-v path in C, containing u from a cycle
containing u and the line vw.

(3)  (2) is trivial

(3)  (4). The proof is analogous to the proof of (2)  (3).

(4)  (3) is trivial,

Thrm: 2

k
A connected graph with blocks B1, B2, …..Bk has (∑ )i=1
n(Bi ) −k +1 vertices.

Proof:

We use induction on k.

Basis step k = 1

A graph that is a single block B1 has n (B1) vertices.

Induction step: k > 1

When G is not 2 – connected, there is a block B that contains only one of the cut –
vertices. Let this vertex be v, an index the blocks so that Bk= B.

Let G1 = G – (V(B) – {v})

The graph G1 is connected and has blocks B1, … … Bk-1.

By the induction hypothesis

 n ( G 1 )=¿

Since we deleted n(Bk) – 1 vertices from G to obtain G1.

The number of vertices in G is an desired

Result:

Every two blocks have at most one vertex in common, namely a cut vertex.

Figure,

Thrm: 3

The centre of every connected graph G lies in a single block of G.

Proof:

Suppose the opposite there is a connected graph G whose center Cen (G) does not lie
within a single block of G.

Then G has a cut – vertex v such that G-V contains components G1 and G2, each of
which contains distinct vertices of Cen (G).

Let u be a vertex such that d(u, v) = e(v), and let P1 be a v-u geodesic.

At least one of G1, G2 say G1 does not contain vertex from p1.

Let w be a vertex of Cen (G)belonging to G1, and let p2 be a w-v geodesic.

The paths P1 and P2 from together a u – w path P3, which is a u-w path of length d(u,
w).

Then e(w) > e(v) which contradicts the fact that w is a central vertex.

Figure

E(w) > d(u, w) > d(u, v) = e(v) which contradicts the fact that w ∈ Cen (G),

Thrm: 4

Every vertex of G has even degree iff every block of G is Eulorian.

Proof: Sufficiency
 If every block is Eulorian then each vertex receives even degree from each block
containing it. The blocks partition the edges, so the total degree at each vertex is even.

Necessity: since every block is connected, if sufficies to show that each vertex has even
degree in each block.

Certainly, his holds for a vertex appearing in only one block.

For a cut vertex v, let G1 be the sub graph consisting of one component of G-V
together with its edges to V. Each block containing V appears in one such sub graph.

Every vertex of G1 other than V has even degree in G1, since it tetains all of its
incident edges from G. also V has even degree in G1.

Hence V has even degree in the block of F containing v that is contained in G1.

Chapter – I

Connectedness graph

Defn of connected:

A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of it point an connected.

Figure

Thrm:

p−1
A graph G with p point & δ ≥ is connected.
2

Proof:

Suppose G is not connected. Then G has more than one component.

Consider any component G1 – (V1, X1) of G.

Let V 1 ∈ V 1

p−1 p−1
Since δ ≥ there exist at least points in G1 adjacent to V1 and hence V1
2 2

p−1 p+1
contains at least + 1= points
2 2
 p+ 1
Then each component of G contains at least points and G has at least two
2
components.

Hence number of point in G > P + 1 which is a contradiction.

Hence G is connected.

Thrm: 2

A graph G is connected iff for any portition of V into sub sets V1 & V2 then is a line
of G joining a point og V1 to a point og V2.

Proof:

Suppose G is connected

Let V = V1 U V2 be a partition of V into two subset.

Let u ∈V 1∧v ∈ V 2 .

Since G is connected, there exist a u-v path is G, say u = V0, V1, V2, …..Vn = V

Let I be the least positive intege such that ui ∈ v 2.

Thus u1 ∈ v1 and ui-1, ui are adjacent.

Thus there is a line joining u1 ∈ v1 and ui ∈ v 2

Conversely, we assume that

For any partition of V into sub set V1 & V2 there is a line of G joining a point of V1 to
a point of V2.

T.P G is connected

Suppose G is not connected.

Suppose G is not connected.

Then G contains at least two components let V1 denote the set of all vertices of one
component and V2, the remaining vertices of G.
 Clearly V = V1 U V2 is a partition of V and there is no line joining any point of V1 to
any point of V2

Which is a contradiction

Hence G is connected.

Defn:

A graph G is said to be n connected if k (G) > n and n – line connected if  (G) > n.

Thus a non-trivial graph is 1 – connected iff it is connected.

A non- trivial graph is 2 – connected iff it is a block having more than one tin.

Hence Kz is the only block which is not 2-connected.

pk
Pln: 1 Prove that if G is a K – connected graph thus q ≥
2

Sln: Since G is K – connected, k ≥ δ . [ by one thrm, for any graph G , k ≤≤ δ ¿

1
∴ q= d (v ) [∴d ( v ) ≥ δ ]
2∑

1
≥ pδ
2

pk
∴q≥
2

Plm: 2 P.T there is no 3 – connected graph with 7 edges.

Soln:- Suppose G is a 3 – connected graph with 7 edges.

G has 7 edges  p > 5

3p
Now q ≥ ( by plan 1 )
2

15
∴q≥
2

 q > 8 which is a contradiction. Hence there is no 3 connected graph with 7 edges.

Connectedness of Directed graph

(Strongly connectedness of a directed graph)

A directed graph G = (V, E) is strongly connected if there is a path in G between

every pair of vertices in V.

For example

Figure

The directed graph G = (v, E) given by

V = {a, b, c, d, e, f}

E = {(a, b), (b, c), (b, c), (c, a), (d,, e), (e, f), (f, d)}

Weak connectedness of a directed graph

A directed graph G = (V, E) is weakly connected if the underlying undirected graph G

is connected.

For example

Figure

Since the undirected graph G is connected, the directed graph G is weakly connected.

Consider, when we remove the edge (b, e) from the directed graph G. the underlying
graph that we get is G.

When we remove edge (b, e) from G the graph that remain is neither strongly
connected nor weakly connected.

Defn:

i) A directed graph is strongly connected iff there is a directed path from a to b

for any too vertices a and b.
ii) It is weakly connected iff the underlying graph is connected.

Example:

Is the following graph strongly connected? It is weakly connected?

Figure

This graph is strongly connected.

Because there is a directed path between every pair of vertices.

If a directed graph is strongly connected then it must also be weakly connected.

Biconnected graph

A bi connected graph is a connected graph on two or more vertices having no

articulation vertices. Such graph are also sometimes called block or nonseparable graph. The
number of bi connected simple graphs.

2-path graph

Figure

A number of graphs that are connected but not bi connected. Such graphs are called 1
– connected.

e.g. 3 – path graph 4 – path graph

Figure

2 – Connected graphs

A graph is connected if for any two vertices x, y ∈ V(G), there is a path whose end
point are x & y.

A connected graph G is called 2-connected if for every vertex x ∈ v ( G ) ,G−x is connected.

Figure

Defn: Cut vertex

Let G be a connected graph. If V is a vertex of G such that G – V is not connected.

i.e. disconnected then the vertex V is called a cut vertex.

Figure
 If V is a cut vertex of G, then the removal of the vector V increase the number of
component in G.

Thrm: 3

A vertex V in a connected graph G is a cut vertex if and only if there exist vertices u
and v distinct from V such that every path connecting u and w contains the vertex v.

Prf: Let V be a cut vertex is a connected graph G.

Then G – V is disconnected and G – V contains at least two component say A and B.

Let u be a vertex of A and w be a vertex of B.

There is no path in G – V containing u and w. since G is connected there exist a path

P from u to w in G.

If the path does not contain v, then the removal of V from G will not disconnected the
vertices u and w., which is a contradiction to the fact that u and v lie on two different
component of G – V.

Conversely, if every path from u to w contains the vertex V, the removal of v from the
graph G disconnected u and w.

Hence, u and w lie in different component of G.

Which shows that G – V in a disconnected graph. Them V is a cut vertex of G.

Defn: (Cut edge or bridge)

Let G be a connected graph. If e is an edge of G, such that G – e is disconnected, the

edge e is called a cut edge (or bridge)

Figure

In the above graph ‘e’ in a cut edge.

Edge connectivity

Defn: Let G be a connected graph. The edge connectivity of G is the minimum number of
edges whose removal results is a disconnected.
 In other words, the number of edges in the smallest cut set is defined as the edge
connectivity of G.

The edge connectivity of a connected graph G is denoted by F(G). if G is a

disconnected graph thus f(G) = 0.

If G is a connected graph and has a bridge, then the edge connectivity of G is one.

Example: find the edge connectivity of the graph

Figure

Clearly G= { e1 , e 2 } is a disconnected graph

∴ ( G )=2

Thrm: 4

The edge connectivity of a connected graph G can’t exceed the minimum degree of F.

i.e. ∴ ( G ) ≤ δ (G)

Prf: Let G be a connected graph and V be a vertex of minimum degree is G. then the
removal of edges incident with the vertex V disconnected the vertex V from the graph G.
then the set of all edges incident with the vertex v forms a cut set of G.

But from the definition edge connectivity is the minimum number of edges in G
whose removal disconnect G.

This implies that the edge connectivity ( G ) is always less than the number of edges
incident with the vertex v.

Hence ( G ) ≥ δ(G)

Note: The ( G ) need not be eaqual toδ ( G ) .

Example:

Figure

Vertex connectively
Defn: Let G be a connected graph. The minimum number of vertices whose removal
result in a disconnected is called the vertex connectivity of G.

The vertex connectivity of G is denoted by K(G).

If K(G) = 1, then G has a vertex V such that G-V is not connected and the vertex V is
called a cut vertex.

IF G = Kn then

K (G) = n-1

K (Cn) = 2 (n > 4).

If a graph G has a bridge then the vertex connectivity of G.

i.e. K(G) = 1

Thrm: 5

The vertex connectivity of a graph G is always less than or equal to the edge
connectivity of G. i.e. K ( G ) ≤ ( G ) .

Proof: If G is disconnected then K ( G ) ≤ ( G )=0. If G is connected, let  = (G) be the

edge connectivity. Then there exist a cut set S in G with  edges. Let V1 and V2 be the
partition of the vertex set of G with respect to S.

Then the edges is S are the edges of G between V1 and V2.

If no two edges in S have the same end vertex in the set V1 or V2.

Then removal of all the end vertices of the edges in S disconnect G, otherwise the
number of vertices required to disconnect G is less than the number of edges in S.

Hence the theorem.

Observation:

For any graph G,

K ( G ) ≤ ( G ) ≤ δ (G ) .

Example:
 Find the edge connectivity and the vertex connectivity of the following graph.

Figure

Soln: The minimum number of edges removal disconnected the graph is 3.

  (G) = 3

The minimum number of vertices required to disconnect the graph is 1.

 K (G) = 1