Westinghouse Electric Corporation 0002

Wbstinghouse
LIGHTING
HANDBOOK
NTERNATIONAL
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The Association for Preservation Technology International
For the
Building Technology Heritage Library
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INTERNATtONAL
Digitized by
The Association for Preservation Technology International
For the
Building Technology Heritage Library
htt p://archive.oro/details/buildinqtechnoloqyheritaqelibrary
LIGHTING
HANDBOOK ^1
Revised June, 1947
i
I
I
Price Two Dollars
I
I
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION I
Coniiuercial Engineering Department
LAMP DIVISION BLOOMFIELD, N. J. I
I
A4064A
Copyright 1947 by
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
PRINTED IN U. S. A,
BACTERICIDAL
"BIACK
LIGHT"
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2,500 3.000 3,500 4,000 4.500

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROM UNITS
10,000 1x10'' 1x10' 1x10'"
5,500 G.OOO 6.500 7.000 7,500 10,00(

000
RELATIVE EKERGY
6,000 6.500 7.000 7.500 10,00

000 5,500
RELATIVE RESPONSE
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POWER
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-- LIGHT
1
INDUCTION HEATING ,
1
INCANDESCENT
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COIL
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RADIATOR (
HEATER
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15,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
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INCANDESCENT
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15. DOO 20. 300 30. 000 40, 000 50. 000
TABLE OF COI^TEI^TS^
Chapter 1 The Eye and Vision. . . .
Chapter 2 Light —Characteristics and Measurements,

Chapter 3 Light Sources
Chapter 4 Introduction to Lighting Design
Chapter 3 Illumination Levels
Chapter 6 Interior Lighting Design .
Chapter 7 Interior Wiring for Lighting
Chapter 8 Store, Office, School, and Public Building.
Chapter 9 Industrial Lighting
Chapter 10 Architectural Lighting ,
Chapter 11 Floodlighting Design
Chapter 12 Street Lighting.
Chapter 13 Aerodrome and Airway Lighting
Chapter 14 Sign Lighting
Chapter 15 The Cost of Lighting

— 1
CHAPTER ONE
THE EYE AND VISION
Since the purpose of lighting is to make vision possible, any study of

lighting must begin with a consideration of the eye and the seeing process.
Only as the illuminating engineer understands the mechanism of the eye
and the way in which it operates can he satisfactorily fulfill his primary
—
function to provide light for the performance of visual tasks with a
maximum of speed, accuracy, case, and comfort, and a minimum of strain
and fatigue.
THE SEEING MECHANISM

The human eye often compared
is
to the camera, which in many re- _
spects it resembles. Each has a
lens, which focuses an inverted image
on a light-sensitive surface the film
in a camera, the retina in the eye.
The eyelid corresponds to the camera
shuuer. In front of the lens in the
camera is a diaphragm, which may
be opened or closed to regulate the
amount of light entering the camera.
In front of the lens in the eye is the
iris, which performs the same func-
tion.
However, this analogy cannot safe-
ly be carried too far. There are im-
portant differences between the eye
and the camera. The eye is a living
organ and it is amazingly adaptable, SHUTTER
operating over a range of illumina-
tion levels greater than a million to ''DIAPHRAGM
one. Furthermore, the continuous
changes necessary for good vision
under constantly changing condi-
tions are made automatically, with-
out conscious effort. Because of these facts, it is quite possible to abuse
the eye. Taking pictures in dim light or in poor focus does no harm to the
camera. But using the eyes under light of insufficient quantity or poor
quality results, at least, in excessive consumption of nervous energy and
unnecessary fatigue, and may lead to inflammation of the eyes and head-
aches. Consistent misuse of the eyes may even be a contributing cause in
the development of disorders in other parts of the body.
THE PARTS OF THE EYE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Eyelid —
A flap of skin that protects the eye, and under conditions of
extremely high brightness helps to regulate the amount of light reaching it.
—
Cornea A transparent portion of the outer membrane surrounding
the eye. It serves as part of the refractive system.
I—
WESTINGHOUSE LIGHTING HANDBOOK
Iris —The colored (blue, brown)

portion of the eye, which functions
as a diaphragm, controlling the
amount of light entering the eye.
—
Pupil The opening in the center
of the iris through which light enters
the eye. The size of the pupil opening
is controlled by the action of in-
voluntary muscles.
Lens —A
transparent capsule be-
hind the whose shape can be
iris
changed in order to focus objects at
various distances.
—
Ciliary Muscle A ring-shaped muscle which adjusts the tension on
the lens, thereby changing its curvature to focus near or distant objects.
—
Retina The light-sensitive surface at the back of the eyeball. It con-
tains a delicate film of nerve fibers branching out from the optic nerve^ and
ending in minute cone- and rod-shaped structures.
—
Cones The receptors in the retina which make possible the discrimi-
nation of fine detail and the perception of color. They are insensitive at
low levels of illumination. The cones are found principally near the center
of the retina, with the greatest concentration at the fovea ^ an area about
0.3 mm in diameter which is composed of cones alone. It is at the fovea
that the eye involuntarily focuses the image of an object that must be ex-
amined in minute detail.
Rods^ —The receptors in the retina which are sensitive to low levels of
illumination. They have no color response. Rods are found only outside
the foveal region, increasing in number with distance from the fovea. The
outer portions of the retina, composed chiefly of rods, do not afford distinct
vision, but are highly sensitive to movement and flicker.
A
Visual Purple (rhodopsin)— purple liquid found in the rods. It is
light-sensitive, and bleaches rapidly when exposed to light. Its regenera-
tion is an important factor in dark adaptation.
—
Blind Spot Î'he point on the retina where the optic nerve, which
carries light impulses to the brain, enters the eye. At this point there are
no rods and cones, and therefore a light stimulus gives rise to no sensation.
SEEING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EYE

Accommodation — When the lens
is at its flattest, the normal eye is
LENS ROUNDED focused on objects at infinity. To
fOR NEAR VISION
focus on nearer objects, particularly
within 20 feet, necessitates increas-
ing the convexity of the lens by the
contraction of the ciliary muscle.
The nearer the object, the more con-
vex the lens must become. This is
part of the process known as accont"
modation.
LENS FLATTENED
FOR DISTANT VISION, Accommodation also includes
changes in pupil diameter. When
the eye is focused on distant objects
1—2
S
THE EYE AND VISION
the pupil is relatively large. When attention shifts to a close visual task
"harper deiinitiou but admitting
'«='>'''î°g
less FigEt to°?h"e e.""""
Adaptation—The eye is enabled to function over a tremendously

range of .llum.nat.on levels by means of a wide
process known as adalmion
tfXT r"-"? t
"^^"^^
with photochemical changes in 'V^"
?'"« "^ "^« P"P'""y
the retina.
openings
6' " " 'o
The size of the pupil opemng is primarily a function

of the amount of
=*.»''« «y\ 1° very dim light the pupil
iM'^l^"'^-?.
with higher illumination the opening becomes opens^debu
smaller His is partû arW
appareal on going from a well-lighted area to a
much darker one, or when
a glaring heht source comes within the
range of vision. The retinal
change involves a balancing of the rate of regeneration
of the photochemi'
'°
sftuali'on^"''^^
"*'"" *^^'°*' ^^ requirements of the eye for a given
The length of time required for the adaptation process

previous state of adaptation and the magnitude
depends upon the
of the change. In rneral
however adaptation to a higher illumination level
takes place more^rapidly
than in the opposite direction. The major share of
light adaptation ordinari^
^^^ "'"^ê, whereas adaptatfon to darkness proceeds
omTe rlnf^Tv °^ /
quite rapidly for fully 30 minutes, and
complete dark adaptation may
require an hour. These are facts which the
illuminating engineer Zist
consider in lighting motion picture theaters,
traffic tunnels, or any Seas
where people pass abruptly from one lighting level
to another.
"XV* °°* '"J"''"y "nsitive to energy of

all^w!v!f.n!ihJ^-'' <^"'^*r'^l'«
all wavelengths, i.e., to all colors.
Tests on a large number of observers
have established an eye senîuvity curve which
gives the response of the
uZ^^ThlV.y'^'"'^
light. ""^"r^' "-^
1 be maximum sensitivity
.""^'gy
is in
"
'^^ v""""" wavelengths
^ of
the yellow green, at a wavelength of
about 5550 Angstroms, and the sensi- i
tivity at the blue and red ends of the

|
spectrum is very low by comparison, g sol^
This means that approximately 9 u
units of red energy at a wavelength of *
Z
6500 Angstroms are needed to pro- -
duce the same visual effect, or bright- < 40
ness, as one unit of yellow green. It
is obvious that the eye sensitivity
curve must always be taken into ac-
count in evaluating visible energy in 4000 5000 6000
terms of sensation. ANGSTROMS
In the practical application of lighting for seeing, strong

spectral colors
are never employed, and tests indicate no appreciable
advantage for
ordinary visual tasks in the use of sodium or mercury vapor
lamps or
other colored light sources. The psychological effect of
color, however,
may be more pronounced with some individuals than with others, and
designers must sometimes regard personal color preferences
in selecting
light sources, even though no difference in seeing abiUty
a J can be expected
I
to result.
1—
—
Purkinje Effect The standard {photopic} eye sensitivity curve is
—
based on "cone vision" that is, ordinary daylight levels of illumination
in which the cones are the visual mechanism involved. At very low levels
of illumination, where the brightnesses are of the order of 0,001 footlambert
or less, the cones no longer function,
and the rods take over the entire
seeing process. In rod, or scotopic^
% vision a new sensitivity curve be-
g80-
SCO!-OPIC
ION
DS) Y \ f
v.- PHOT OPIC\'ISION
I
\
»
(r ONES, comes effective, of the same shape as
the photopic curve, but displaced
480 Angstroms toward the blue end
r" I
1
r
1 of the spectrum. This shift, which is
\
/ t \ known as the Purkinje effect, places
the maximum sensitivity of the eye
J
/ \ \ V
\
at 5070 rather than at 5550 Ang-
/,
401:x> 50 00
stroms.
60 00 7C^DO
ANGSTROMS The result is that in dim light, al-
though vision is entirely colorless,
the eye becomes relatively very sensitive to energy at the blue end of the
spectrum, and almost blind to red. Thus if a beam of red light and a beam
of blue light, of equal intensity at photopic levels, are reduced in the same
ratio to the region of scotopic vision, the blue light will appear very much
brighter than the red. The implications of the Purkinje effect are important
in lighting installations involving very low illumination levels, and failure
to recognize them may lead to serious errors in the measurement of low
brightness and candlepower values.
Visual Field—The normal visual

field extends approximately 180° in
the horizontal plane and 130'' in
the vertical plane, 60° above the
horizontal and 70° below. The fovea,
where most seeing and all discrimiua-
tion of fine details are done, subtends
an angle of less than one degree at
the center. The limits of what may
be called the central field the visual —
task and its background vary with —
the task. The surroundings are usu-
ally considered as extending from
the outer limit of the central field
to a circle approximately 30° from
the optical axis. At 30°, visual acu-
2™* ity is only about due per cent of
its value at the fovea. Vision is very
indistinct in the outer portions of
the field beyond this angle, although changes in brightness or movement
can be readily detected.
Structural Eye Defects —The four most common causes of defective

vision are:
Astigmatism (the inability to bring horizontal lines and vertical lines

into focus at the same time). The focal length of the astigmatic eye is
different in two planes at right angles to one another. This condition
results from irregularities in the curvature of the cornea and the lens.
1—4
THE EYE AND VISION
Myopia (nearsightedness). The

focal length of the myopic eye is too
short, and parallel light rays focus
in front of the retina, rather than
sharply on it. The nearsighted person
sees near objects clearly, but distant
ones appear blurred.
Bypermetropia (farsightedness).
Here the focal length of the eye is
too great, and the focal point for
parallel rays is behind the retina.
The farsighted person cannot see
close objects clearly.
Presbyopia (loss of accommodat-

ing power of the lens). In middle and
old age the lens becomes progressive-
ly less elastic, and the process of ac-
commodation for near vision is more
and more difficult. The result is a
condition similar to farsightedness.
All four of these visual defects can

usually be corrected by properly
fitted glasses.
FARStGHTEO
—
Flicker The eye does not respond instantly to a light stimulus, nor
does the sensation of vision cease immediately when the stimulus is re-
moved. When the eye is exposed to a source of rapidly varying intensity
this persistence of vision may keep the flicker from being detected, as
is the case in motion picture observation. All light sources operated on
alternating current exhibit some degree of cyclic variation in light output.
Ordinarily the variation is so rapid and so slight that normal persistence
of vision prevents any sensation of flicker. In incandescent lamps it is
seldom noticeable except on 25 -cycle service.
Mercury vapor lamps and fluorescent lamps operated on 60-cycle service

may, if not properly corrected, produce a flicker which causes the observer
to see multiple images of any moving object. This phenomenon, known as
stroboscoplc effect^ and the means of minimizing it are further discussed
in Chapter Three.
OBJECTIVE FACTORS IN THE SEEING PROCESS

Investigation has shown that seeing depends upon four primary variables
associated with the visual object: its size, its brightness, the brightness
contrast between it and its immediate background, and the time available
for seeing it.
1—5
—
Size The size of the object is the most generally recognized and ac-
cepted factor in seeing. The larger an object in terms of visual angle
(the angle subtended by the object at the eye) the more readily it can be
seen. The familiar eye test chart
illustrates this principle. The
person who brings a small object
close to his eye in order to see it
more clearly is unconsciously

making use of the size factor by
increasing the visual angle.
Visual acuity^ expressed as the

reciprocal of the visual angle in
minutes, is a measure of the
smallest detail that can be seen.
Since visual acuity increases
markedly with increase in illu-
mination, light is sometimes said to act as a "magnifier," making visible
small details that could not be seen with less light.
Brightness —One of the primary factors in visibility is brightnms.

The brightness of an object depends both upon the intensity of the light
striking it, and the proportion of that light reflected in the direction
of the eye. A
white surface will
have a much higher brightness
than a black surface receiving
the same illumination. How-
ever, by adding enough Hght
to a dark surface it is possible
to make it as bright as a white
one* The darker an object or a
visual task, the greater the il-
lumination necessary for equal

brightness and, under like cir-
cumstances, for equal visibility.
Contrast —As important for seeing as general brightness-level is the

between the visual object and its immediate
contrast in brightness or color
background. The difference in
the visual effort required to read
the two halves of the chart at
the left is a simple demonstra-
tion of the effectiveness of con-
trast. High levels of illumina-
tion partly compensate for low
brightness contrasts, and are of
great assistance where poor
contrast conditions cannot be
avoided.
1—6
THE EYE AND VISION
—
Time Seeing is not an in-
A
TIME OF PERFORMING
SPECIFIC VISUAL TASK
stantaneous process; it requires
time. Here again the camera
may be used for illustration: A
picture can be taken in very-
dim light if the exposure is long
enough, but for a fast exposure
a great deal of light is necessary. [
The eye can see very small de-
tails under low levels of illumi-
nation, if sufficient time is al- \\
lowed and eyestrain
But more
is ignored.
light is required for
quick seeing.
V
The accompanying curve il-
way in which the
lustrates the
speed of performance of a speci-
fic visual task increases with in-
creased illumination. Since 10 20 50
human muscular activity has a FOOTCANDLES
definite limit, it is logical to
find the curve leveling off as
that limit is approached. How-
ever, the attainment of maximum speed does not preclude the possibility
that the benefits of greater illumination may continue to be realized,
beyond that point, in the form of less nervous energy required to perform
the task.
The time factor is particularly important where the visual object is

in motion. High lighting levels actually Tnake moving objects appear
to move more slowly, and greatly increase their visibility.
Size, brightness, contrast, and time are mutually interrelated and inter-
dependent. Within limits a deficiency in one can be made up by an ad-
justment in one or more of the others. In most cases, size is a fixed
factor of the visual task, with brightness, contrast, and time subject to
some degree of modification. Of these, brightness and contrast are usually
most directly under the control of the illuminating engineer. Properly
employed, they can be of tremendous aid in overcoming unfavorable con-
ditions of small size and limited time for seeing.
SUMMARY
The human eye has evolved through countless ages when it was used
almost entirely out of doors, in bright daylight, and for simple, long-
range seeing. Today man lives and works largely indoors, and uses his
eyes, too often under entirely inadequate artificial illumination, for long
hours at close tasks involving constant accommodation. Statistical
studies of various occupational groups indicate a definite correlation be-
tween the visual demands of the work and the percentage of workers with
defective vision. College students, draftsmen, and bookkeepers, for ex-
ample, show a much higher incidence of eye defects than farmers and sail-
ors. Good lighting can do much to improve the conditions under which
1—7
eyes must work, and to relieve

,^' the eyestrain involved in the
140
^/ performance of difficult visual
tasks. Research reveals that the
u
pl20
•
k" advantages of high illumination
levels are even more apparent
with old eyes and defective
>-
H / '"vour4G EYE 3 eyes than with young, normal,
^ inn ^f""
9
Z i
/ /" eyes.
1/
Only the simple, basic prin-
U SO
< of the operation of the
ciples
u
eye and the seeing process have
^ 60 / been enumerated in this chapter.
//
Most visual tasks are highly
complex, involving not only
1
5 40
O 1 these fundamental factors but
many others, all of them inter-
20
related. The situation is further
complicated by physiological
and psychological factors which
20 40 60 80 100 condition the observer's re-
AMOUNT OF LIGHT -FOOTCANDLES sponse to any light stimulus,
and which vary, not only from
one individual to another, but for the same individual at different times.
1—8
CHAPTER TWO
LIGHT—CHARACTERISTICS AXR
MEASUREMENTS
THE RADIATION SPECTRUM

Light 18 that form of radiant energy which is capable of producing the
sensation of sight.
electromagnetic
Visible energy is an exceedingly small portion of the
spectrum, a tremendous range of radiant energy which travels
through
are
space in the form of electromagnetic waves. All of these radiations
similar in nature and in the speed at which they travel (186,300
miles per
second). They differ only in wavelength and frequency, and in the
ways
The distance between crests of successive

waves, shown here as L, is wavelength. Since
wavelength times frequency equals velocity,
which is constant, frequency is inversely pro-
portional to wavelength.
in which they manifest themselves. The present known spectrum ranges

from cosmic rays with a wavelength of 1 x lO-i** cm, and a frequency of
miles
3 X 10-5 cycles per second, to 60-cycle alternating-current v/aves 3100
long. The human eye is tuned to respond only to the energy within the
limits of the visible spectrum, a narrow band of wavelengths between
3800
Angstroms and 7600 Angstroms. (The Angstrom* is a wavelength unit
equal to one ten-millionth of a millimeter, or approximately four-billionths
of an inch.) Energy in this region, evaluated in terms of the eye sensitivity
curve (see Chapter One), is light.
Color
The determined by its wavelength. Light at the short-
color of light is
wave end of the spectrum, from 3800 to about 4500 Angstroms,
visible
produces the sensation of violet; the longest visible waves, from about
6400 to 7600 Angstroms, appear as red. Between these limits lie the
wavelengths which the eye distinguishes as blue (4500-4900 Angstroms),
green (4900-5600), yellow (5600-5900), and orange f 5 900-6400)—the
colors of the rainbow.
The spectrum of a light source may be continuous, including all the
visible wavelengths, or it may be a line or a band spectrum, containing
only one or a few separated groups of wavelengths. A tungsten filament
has a continuous spectrum, a mercury arc a line spectrum. An equal-
—
energy spectrum that is, all the visible wavelengths in equal quantities-
produces the sensation of white light. Noon sunlight approximates an
equal -energy spectrum,
* The micron^ equal to one-millionth of a meter, is another unit often used to express
wavelength. One micron is 1 i 10* Angstroms.
2—1
Color Temperature
Color temperature is a term sometimes used to describe the color of
the light from a source by comparing it with the color of a blackbody, a
theoretical "complete radiator" which absorbs all radiation that falls on it,
and in turn radiates a maximum amount of energy in all parts of the
spectrum, A blackbody, like any other incandescent body, changes color
as its temperature is raised. The hght from a White fluorescent lamp
is similar in color to the light from a blackbody at a temperature
of ap-
proximately 3500'' Kelvin*, and the lamp is accordingly said to have a
color temperature of 3500°K. The light from a Daylight fluorescent
lamp is bluer, and the blackbody must be raised to 650O°K to match
it. Hence the Daylight lamp has a color temperature of 6500°K.
Color temperature is not a measure of the actual temperature of an
object. It defines color only. Some light sources, such as a sodium
vapor lamp, or a Green or Pink fluorescent lamp, will not match the
color of a blackbody at any temperature, and therefore no color temper-
atures can be assigned to them.
• Kelvin is a temperature scale which has its aero point at -273** Centigrade.
TERMINOLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT DEFINITION
Luminous Intensity I Candle The standard unit of luminous

(Candlepower) (c) intensity in a given direction is
the International Candle. An
Light density in a speci. The lumi- ordinary wax candle has a lumi-
(ied direction. nous intensi- nous intensity in a horizontal
ty of a source direction of approximately one
expressed in candle.
caudles is its
The International Candle is the
Candlepower hasic quantity in all measure-
(cp) ments of light. Candlepower is
always a property of a source of
light, and gives information re-
garding luminous flux at its
origin.
Luminous Flux
F Lumen A lumen is the light flux falling
Time rate of flow of light. dm) on a surface one square foot in
area, every point on which is
Light is actuaHy a form one foot from a uniform point
of radiant energy in mo- source of one candle. (Such a
lion. In common prac- Eûrface is a fine- foot -square sec-
tice, however, the time tion of a sphere of one-foot
element is neglected, and radius, with a one-candle source
liiminons flux is consid* at its center.)
ered as a definite quan-
tity. The lumen differ^ from the
candle in that it is a measure of
light flux irrespective of dirtction.
2—2
LIGHT— CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENTS
Light travels in straight lines^

unless it is modified or re -directed COLOR TEMPERATURES
Degrees Kelvin
by means of a reflecting, refracting, (Approximate Values)
or diffusing medium.
Blue Sky 10.000 to 30,000
Light waves pass through one Overcast Sky 7000
another without alteration of Daylight Fluorescent
Lamp
either —for example, a beam of red Noon Sunlight
6500
5250
light will pass directly through a
500- Watt Daylight
beam of blue light unchanged in Incandescent Lamp 4000
direction or color. White Fluoresrent
Lamp 3500
Light is invisible in passing Photoflood Lamp 3415

General Service
through space unless some medium Incandescent Lamps 2500 to 3050
(such as dust) scatters it in the di- Candle Flame 1800
rection of the eye.
FUNDAMENTAL METHOD OF PRINCIPAL USE

EQUATIONS MEASUREMENT
CP=Footcandles x D* Candlepower measurements are Candlepower is used not only
{D= Distance in feet primarily a laboratory procedure to indicate the luminous in-
from source to il- requiring special instruments. tensity of a source in one
luminated surface) Rough estimates of the candle- particular direction; candle-
See Illumination. power of a source or fixture can power measurements arc of-
MscP=i^: be made in the field by (1) hold- ten taken at various angles
ing a light meter at a distance around a source or a fixture,
(Mean spherical candle- of at least five times the greatest and the results plotted to
power is the average dimension of the source; (2) give a candlepower distribu-
candlepower of a source aiming the cell of the meter tion curve. Such a curve
in all directions.) directly at the source; and (3) shows luminous intensity in
multiplying the footcandle read- any direction, and from it
ing by the square of the distance illumination calculations can
in feet. (See Fundamental Equa- be made. (See section on
tions.) There must of course be Distribution Curves, and
no other light in the room, and Chapter Six, Point-By -Point
it may be necessary to make Method.)
allowance for light reflected
from walls and ceilings.
Lumens incident on a Lumen measurements of light The lumen is used primarily

surface =Footcandle8 x sources are a laboratory pro- to express the total output
Area (sq. ft,) cedure requiring special equip- of a light source. It can
Lumens emitted or re- ment. The lumens falling upon also be used to indicate
flected by a surface = a surface may, however, be esti- amount of light absorbed,
Footlamberts x Area mated with the aid of an ordinary transmitted, or reflected.
(sq. ft.) light meter. First obtain foot- The Lumen Method (see
Lumens =MSCPx candle readings at various points Chapter Six) of calculating
12.57 on the surface in order to arrive
(Since a sphere of one- at an average value; then multi- age footcandle values by the
foot radius has a surface ply the average footcandles by use of relatively simple
area of 47r (12.57) the area of the surface in square formulas.
square feet, a uniform feet. (See Fundamental Equa-
point source of one tions.)
candle must produce
12.57 lumens. The
same relationship ex-
ists between the mean
spherical candlepower
of any source and its
total lumen output.)
2—3
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT DEFINITION
Illutninution
E Footcandle A footcandle is the illumination at a
Deiisky uf liiiiiiiioiis flux (ft-c) point (A) on a surface which ia one
on a 8 II r face. foot from and perpendicular to a
uniform point source of one candle.
Liiitiiiioiie flux may he

called llie ca»sr, and illu-
mi II a lion the tfftct or
result.
POifJT SOURCE
-^ ___ — -_-o'^
—„„_i
1- ,
.
ITT —
• -1
From the defliiition of a lumen it

is obvious that cuie luiueii uni'
formly disliihuted over one square
foot of surface produces an illumi-
nation of one footcandle.
Brightness Brightness is expressed in two ways:

in candles per unit area, or in lumens
per unit area.
LuminouB inteiisily in a
given direction per unit B Candle per A surface emitting or reflecting light
in a given direction at the rate of
of (iirojected) area. square inch
(c/in.^)
one candle per square inch of pro-
jected area has a brightness in that
A surface or an oI>jccl direction of onv candlt per square
b»8 brightness hy reason inch.
of light emitted, reflect- or or A surface which has a brightness
ed, or tra II emitted. equal to the uniform brightness of a
Brightness ordinarily
is perfectly dilTuaing surface emitting
independent of distance or reflecting one lunieu per square
of ohservation. B' Footlainbert foot has a brightness of one fuot-
(ft-L) lambert. The foollambert is also the
average brightness of any surface
emitting or reflecting light at the
rate of one lumen per square foot.
A lambert is the brightness of a sur-

face emitting or reflecting one lumen
per square centimeter; a milUlam-
hert is one- thousandth of a lambert.
2—4
^

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS METHOD OF PRINCIPAL
MEASUREMENT USE
Inverse Square Law Various mo-dcis of direct- Footcandle readings

Illumination decreases inversely as reading light-sensitive cell arc used to indicate
the square of the distance. footcandle meters and visu- the illumination at a
ifiFT-C al photometers are avail- specific point, or the
able. A discussion of these average illumination
instruments and their use on a surface. The in-
•
*^°^v - --TV- - - —r ^
^m:zh: is found in the following
section entitled Field Meas-
verse square law is
the basis of calcula-
H T— urements, tion in the Point-By-
Point Method of
I-
lighting design.
When light rays are perpendicular to
the surface, the inverse square law
as stated above applies:
The inverse square
law applies strictly
^ only to a point source.
SOURCE P
D" With most types of
1 E •= Footcandles
interior lighting fix-
tures, however, it is
safe to assume that
I =Candlepower
D = Distance in feet the law operates with
sufficient accuracy
for all practical pur-
poses if the distance
When light rays are not perpendic- at which the meas-
ular to the surface:
urements are taken
is at least five times
the greatest dimen-
I X Cosige sion of the light
D' source. For special
considerationsinvolv-
ing linear sources
and parallel beams of
light, see Chapter Six.
I X Sine e
E,
Footcandles incident on a surface

Lumens
Area (sq. ft.)
Ft-L=FootcandIes x Reflection fac- Methods of making bright- Relatively high

tor of surface ness measurements and the brightnesses, such as
meters used for the purpose those of light sources,
Lumens (incident) x are described later in this are usually expressed
Reflection factor Chapter under Field Meas- in terms of candles
Ft.L =
urements. per square inch.
Area (sq. ft.) of surface
Since the average
1 Candle per sq. in. = 452 Foot- brightness of a sur-
la mberts face in footlamberts
can be calculated hy
multiplying the il-
lumination in foot-
If the surface under consideration
candles by the re-
departs widely from the properties
flection factor (see
of a perfect diffuser, the lumens
Fundamental Equa-
emitted or reflected cannot safely be
tions), the footlam-
calculated on the basis of a single
bert is a very con-
brightness reading taken from any
venient unit in which
one angle. to express the bright-
nesses of illuminated
I Lambert =929 Footlamberts surfaces.
= 2.034
Candles per sq.in.
1 Millilambert =0.929 Footlamberts
= 0.002 Candles per
sq. in.
2—5
TYPE OF ILLUSTRATION METHOD OF
CONTROL UNIT MEASUREMENT
Reflection Reflection Factor Place light meter
The ratio of the light cell against surface.
When B ray of light reflected from a sur-
striking a Burface is face to that incident Withdraw meter
turned back, it is Y/////A///:////7///////////777i
upon it. from surface slowly
said to i>e reflected. SPECULAfl REFLECTION
until constant read-
The reflection factor
of ing is obtained (2
a given
surface
to 6 inches). (A)
Reflection may be of may vary consider-
several types, the ably according to
the Place meter against
must m III o n of
co direction
nature of the inci-
and
surface with cell
wh i arc specular
c ii facing out (B) and
(regular), diffuse^ dent light. Specular
reflection increases note reading.
upread, and mixed.
with angle of inci- Reflection factor =
dence, almost total Reading (A)
reflection being ob-
tainable at grazing Reading (B)
angles. With colored
surfaces the reflec-
tion factor may be
quite different for
different colors of
MIXED RiriECTlON
light.
Transmission Transmission Factor Place material to

The ratio of the light be tested over cell
Light rays passing o f light m e t e r.
through transparent transmitted by a
material to that inci- Note reading (A).
or translucent mate-
rials are said to be dent upon it.
Transmission de-
Remove material.
transmitted. Note reading (B).
pends to some extent
upon the direction
and quality of the Transmission factf>r
The degree of diffu- _ Reading (A)
sion of the transmit- light.
ted light depends up- "Reading (B)
on the type and den-
sity of the material.
OlfFUSING aASS
Refraction Index of Refraction

A light ray bent by
passing obliquely The ratio of the speed By special labora-
from one transparent of light in free space tory apparatus
medium to another to the speed of light only.
in which its velocity in the medium in
is^ different (as from question.
air into glass) is said
lo be refracted.
Polarization
Light in which the waves vibrate in one plane only is said to be polarized. The vibrations
which make the wave motion in a ray of light are at right angles to the direction in which
the light is traveling, and in a beam of ordinary light these vibrations take place in all
possible directions in that plane. By passing light through a material with a crystalline
structure such that it transmits only waves vibrating in a certain direction, it is possible
to produce polarized light, all of whose vibrations are parallel.
POLARIZER
POLAl
^
ANALYZER i^-
- ANALrZER j^-
2—6
INSTRUMENT MATERIALS USE
In specular^ or rtgular, re-

Per Cent flection (mirrors, highlj^
Reflecting Light polished metals) the angle
Surface Reflected
:^ 2 to 6' of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection (see
Magnesium Carbo»
nate
Illustration: Angle X =
97-98 Angle Y).
Polished Silver In diffuse re-
90 (matte surfaces like
flection
White Plaster 85-90 white blotting paper, fresh
Mirrored Glass 80-90
Alzak Aluminum.. . .80-85
snow) the maximum inten-
sity is perpendicular to the
White Blotting surface, regardless of the
Paper 80-85 angle of the incident beam.
Porcelain Enamel. .77-82
.
Sprtad reflection, ae in
White Paint 75-85 sanded glass, is intermedi*
Polished Chromium. 65
ate between specular and
Polished Aluminum 60-70 .
diffuse. Diffusing surfaces

Polished Nickel 65 with a glazed superficial
Aluminum Paint. .50-75 , .
coat, like porcelain enamel,

Black Paint 3-5 exhibit mixed reflection, a
combination of specular and
diffuse.
Per Cent In regular transmission

Light (clear glass and plastics)
Type of Class Trans- the direction of the inci-
mitted dent light is not changed.
Diffusing media, such as
Clear 80-90 dense opal glass, scatter
Frosted 75-85 the transmitted light so
Figured or that its maximum intensity
Ribbed Crystal 70-85 is normal to the surface.
Light -Density As in reflection, between
Diffusing .55-70 the two extremes of regular
Heavy-Density transmission and perfectly
Diffusing 10-45 diffuse transmission are to
be found all degrees of
diffusion.
Index of Refraction _
The principle of refraction
is utilized to control the
for Various Materials
direction of light by means
Water of prismatic or ribbed glass
1.33
plates, or in lens systems.
Alcohol 1.36
It has wide application in
Turpentine 1.47
Crown Glass certain types of general
1 .53
lighting systems, as well as
Flint Glass 1.67
in signal lighting and street
Diamond 2,47
lighting.
Two polarizing screens are Crystals of Iceland spar, The principle of polariza-
ordinarily used in a system calcite, and tourmaline; Pol- tionis used in certain kinds
that involves polarization. aroid, (a cellophane -like of laboratory equipment,
The first, called the polarizer^ material available commer- and in testing for stress
produces the polarization, cially). Reflection from and strain in transparent
and the second, called the specular or polished surfaces materials; in producing
analyzer^ selects or rejects partially polarises light. third-dimension effects In
the polarized light, according motion in sun
pictures;
to the position in which it is glasses and
automobile
placed. isors to reduce reflected
glare from road surfaces
and water; in photographic
Biters. Experimental work
on the control of automo-
bile headlight glare by
means of polarizing mate-
rial is under way.
2—7
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Footcandle Measurements
Illumination measurements are most commonly made with one of the
several types of footcandle meters embodying light-sensitive barrier -layer
cells. This type of cell consists essentially of a film of light-sensitive
material mounted on a metal base
plate and covered by a very thin
TRANSLUCENT .
translucent layer of metal sputtered

ELECTRODE-
on its outer surface. Light striking
the cell surface causes the semi -con-
ducting light-sensitive material to
emit electrons, which are picked up
BASE PLATE by a metal collector in contact with
the translucent front electrode, A
potential difference is thus set up be-
tween the collector and the base plate,
MICROAMMETER and when a microammeter is con-
nected between them it measures the
current generated by the cell. Since the current is proportional to the
intensity of the incident light, the meter can be calibrated to read directly
in footcandles. In some instruments the meter is enclosed in the same
case with the cell, in others merely connected to it electrically.
Although light-sensitive-cell meters are simple and highly convenient
to use, most of them are not designed to be precision instruments. The
possibility of inaccuracies of scale and of ammeter indication is always
present, although careful handling and frequent calibration will help to
minimize errors of this nature. Furthermore, all light-sensitive cells have
certain inherent characteristics which the user must understand if he is
to obtain the best possible results:
1. Color Sensitivity, Because most cells do not have spectral response

curves like that of the human eye, meters without color correction read
accurately only the kind of illumination with which they were calibrated,
which is ordinarily light from a filament lamp at a color temperature of
2700°K. Readings of illumination of other spectral distributions may be
corrected by applying the proper multiplying factor as supplied by the
manufacturer for a particular type of cell when used with a specific light
SPECTRAL RESPONSE
TYPICAL LiCHT-SENSITiVE CELL Approximate Correction Factors for
Unfiltered Lisht-Senaitive Cells
liluminant
Iiicamlertcent
FluorcBccnt
DayliKht
g1.00
.90
% 1.00
.92
4500 While 1.00 1.02
White 1.00 1.12
Soft White 1. 00 .95
G reen 1.20 1.33
Blue .53 .52
Pink .93 1.03
Gold 1.20 1.30
Red .66 .60
3.000 4000 5000 eooo Mercury Vapor 1.15 1.20
ANGSTROMS
2—8
1 —
source. The use of a filter which corrects the cell response to a reasonably i|
close approximation of the standard eye sensitivity curve is a more satis-
factory and accurate procedure. Some types of meters come equipped
with filters which make possible the reading of any color of light with very
little error.
Effect of Angle of Incidence, Light striking the cell face obliquely

2.
is by the glass cover plate, and does not reach the sensitive
partly reflected
cefl surface. The rim of the case surrounding the cell also partly shades
it for light incident at wide angles, both of these effects increasing with
angle of incidence. Since the meters are usually calibrated with light
normal to the surface, light from oblique angles or diffuse illumination will
give readings lower than the true values. The error may vary from a few
per cent with a direct or semi -direct installation where only a small portion
of the light is reflected from waUs and ceilings, to 10 to 15% with indirect
lighting, and as much as 25% where the light comes from side windows
only. Certain special meters are provided with diffusing cover plates de-
signed to eliminate this error. Direct light from a single source reaching
the cell at an oblique angle can of course be measured by holding the cell
perpendicular to the direction of the light and multiplying the reading by
the cosine of the angle of incidence.
5. Fatigue, All light-sensitive cells exhibit a certain amount of fatigue

that is, a tendency for the meter indication to drop off slowly over a
period of minutes, until a constant reading is reached. This effect is most
noticeable at high footcandle values, particularly if the cell has just previ-
ously been in the dark for some time, or exposed to a much lower level
of illumination. Before any measurements are recorded, therefore, the
meter should be given as long an adaptation period as may be necessary,
at the footcandle level to be measured.
Visual Photometers
Portable visual photometers, in which the brightness of a calibrated
test plate placed at the point of measurement is compared visually with a
standardized reference lamp, are also used for illumination measurements
in the field. The Macbeth illuminometer, the most commonly used instru-
ment of this tjrpe, has a photometer ^^^
head and viewing eyepiece at one end
of a light-tight tube which contains a
small lamp mounted on a movable MACBETH ILUUMlNOMETEft
rod. When the instrument is sighted
at the white test plate, the optical
system of the photometer bead brings
to the eye of the observer a circular
central field illuminated by light re-
flected from the plate, surrounded by
a wide ring illuminated by the refer-
ence lamp in the tube. Measure-
LIGHT FROM 1
ments are made by moving the TEST R_ATE|1

reference lamp back and forth to
find the point where the two fields
?oLldTrld'S'rren uken
The scale
W a scale on the outside of the tube^
so arranged that the indications decrease
is
»»vcrsely as the
square of the distance Ltween the reference lamp

>«d
i^« '"'^^^Cinserted
which can be inserted
ance with the inverse square law. CaUbrated filters,
either field, make it
on either side of the head to reduce the brightness of
2—9
possible to read a wide range of illumination values. Visual photometers,

although not so convenient as the cell-type meters, are less susceptible to
certain types of error, and when properly used by experienced observers
are capable of producing more accurate results.
Brightness Meters
Brightness is usually measured visually, by matching a comparison
field inside the meter to the test surface. The Macbeth illuminometer,
calibrated in footlamberts or candles per square inch and sighted directly
at the test surface, can be used for the measurement of brightness. Small,
self-contained instruments designed specifically as brightness meters oper-
ate on the same general principle. The brightness of the comparison field
in these meters is adjusted by various methods, such as changing the dis-
tance of the comparison lamp or varying the current through it, or the
use of a graduated neutral filter. By means of a series of neutral filters
the range is extended to include the brightnesses of most reflecting and
translucent surfaces, and some light sources.
Rough approximations of the brightness values of diffuse reflecting and

transmitting surfaces may be obtained with some cell-type footcandle
meters. For a reflecting material, the cell is placed against the test surface
and then drawn away slowly until a constant reading is obtained (a
distance of 2 to 6 inches). The meter indication at that point, multiplied
by a factor of 1.25 to correct for light striking the cell at oblique angles, is
the approximate brightness in footlamberts. The footlambert brightness
of a transmitting surface is similarly measured by placing the cell against
the surface and multiplying the reading by 1.25.
Use of Instruments in the Field

Any lighting meas:irement is determined by the conditions prevailing
at the time it is made. For this reason it is always important to observe
and record the operating voltage, the cleanliness of the lighting fixtures
and of walls and ceilings acting as secondary reflectors, and the length of
time the lamps have been burned. This last factor is particularly important
with fluorescent and other types of discharge lamps, whose light output
changes rapidly during the first few hours of burning. A new fluorescent
or mercury vapor installation should burn for at least 100 hours before
measurements are made. Electric discharge sources should also be given
a warm-up period of at least half an hour, to permit the lamps and all
parts of the fixtures to attain a temperature equilibrium before readings
are taken.
In making illumination measurements with either the visual or the cell

type of meter, the operator must take every precaution against casting
shadows on the cell or test plate, or reflecting additional light to it from
his clothing. Similarly a surface being measured for brightness must be
protected as far as possible from extraneous shadows or reflections.
For footcandle measurements the test surface should be placed as close

as possible to the working plane, whether horizontal, vertical, or oblique.
Where no definite working area is established, it is customary to take
readings on a horizontal plane 30 inches above the floor. It is obvious that
a single footcandle determination applies only to the point where it is
made, and that for average values over any area a number of readings
must be taken. The Illuminating Engineering Society has established
2—10
T.TaHT—CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENTS
footcandles in large reguar
standard procedures for determining average
Reading locations are specified for several types of lighting installa-
areas.
tions, and formulas are provided by T*°^°^'''''4^"PP'°"Zn,rîvefv
comparatively
illumination over the wtole area can be calculated from a
few measurements.
DISTRIBUTION CURVES
light
Lighting equipment is designed to distribute ^^^T^^jpf .,^f7«'
This distribution
depending upon the purpose for which it is to be used.
graphically or numerically hj several
of Hght can be represented either
distribution curve.
methods, the most common of which is the candlepower
candlepower
A candlepower distribution curve is the result of takingluH^âire. and
measurements at various angles around a light source or
plotting them in graph form, usually on
polar coordinates. The distance
indicates the candlepower of
of any point on the curve from the center
the source in that direction.
given surface
The illumination received from a single light source on any the source.
data on
can be calculated from candlepower distribution distance
Where the relationship between source size and source-to-surface involves
is such that inverse square
conditions apply, the calculation merely
at the required angle,
reading from the distribution curve the candlepower
dividing by the square of the distance in feet,
and multiplying by the
not perpendicular to the
proper trigonometric function if the surface is
(See section on Illumi-
direction of the light rays coming from the source.
nation in preceding table. Additional
information is given in Chapter
Six under Point-By-Point Method.)
Where the size of the source pro-
hibits the direct use of the inverse square
law, a somewhat more involved
calculation process is required.
Where the candlepower distribution is symmetrical about an axis, the

from an
light output of the source in terms of lumens can be obtained
average candlepower distribution curve. The
curve is divided into equal
zones, usually of ten degrees each, and the
candlepower at the mid-point
the zone and multiplied by a
of each one is taken as the average value for
zonal factor which converts it directly to the
number of lumens them
center of the curve is much
zone. Because the candlepower toward the
source than the
more effective in determining the total light output of the
on the relative
candlepower at either end, the zonal lumen factors are based
T.IIMEN CONSTANTS
For Ten-Degree Annular Zones
Mid- Mid-
Zone Zone Zone Lumen
Angle Angle Constant
0°-10° 5° 170°-180° 175° 0.095

10° -20° 15° 160°-170° 165° 0.283
20°-30° 25° 150°-160° 155° 0.463
30°-40° 35° 140°- 150° 145° 0.628
40°-50° 45° 130°-140° 135° 0.774
50°-60° 55° 120°.130° 125° 0.897
60°-70° 65° 110°.120° 115° 0.993
70°-80° 75° 100°-110° 105° 1.058 O' (tf2rf
80°-90° 85° 90°-100° 95° 1.091
2—11
areas of the angular zones on the surface of an imaginary sphere circum-

scribed about the source. The sum of the zonal lumen factors from 0° to
180° is 47r or 12.57. Thus a source emitting one caudle uniformly in all
directions would prove to produce a total of 12.57 lumens, as stated in
the Terminology and Measurements table earlier in the chapter.
^,120' 160^ 120° Because of these angular relationships, the
area within a distribution curve is by no
means a measure of the total light output of
the source. Two units which produce exactly
the same number of lumens may distribute
the light quite differently, and have candle-
power curves of entirely different shapes and
areas.
For a general lighting luminaire, the dis-
tribution of the light between the lower and
upper hemispheres is the basis on which the
equipment is classified as direct, semi-direct,
general diffuse, etc. (see Chapter Four). For
20° Cf 20° this purpose the sums of the lumens below 90°
TWO DISTRIBUTION CURVES and above 90" are expressed as percentages of
OF EQUAL LUMEN OUTPUT the sum of the total lumens from 0° to 180°.
Luminaire efficiency is the ratio, expressed in
per cent, of the total lumens emitted by the luminaire to the total lumens
generated by the bare lamp.
A candlepower distribution curve for a typical enclosing globe is illus-
AVERAGE VERTICAL CANDLEPOWER DISTRIBUTION trated, with the bare lamp
TYPICAL WHITE GLASS ENCLOSING GLOBE curve for purposes of com-
200-WATT INSIDE FROSTED LAMP - 37QO LUMENS
parison. The candlepower
'luminaire DISTRIBUTION EXATA
of the luminaire for each
|
MID- ZONE CANDLE- mid-zone angle from 0° to

ANGLE POWER LUMENS 180° is listed in the table
0- 407
5" 407 39 and plotted on the graph,
15° 393
23"- 375
1
174
1 1
and the lumens calculated

35* 350 220 for each zone by applica-
45» 323 250
^" ?82 253 tion of the zonal lumen
65° 250 248
75'
factors are also shown.
225 238
85" 208 227 This particular enclosing
90" 200
TOTAL O'-gO' 1760 1
globe, equipped with a
95" 197 215 200-watt lamp, produces
105' 197 208
115° 199 198 1760 lumens below the
125" 208 187 horizontal (0°-90°) and
135° 224 173
145° 244 153 1349 lumens above. There-
155° 256 19
165° 255
1
72
fore in the lower hemi-
175° 249 24
400j
sphere the luminaire emits
180° 249
TOTAL 90°- 190° 1349 CANDLE 47.5% (1760/3700) of the
TOTAL 0°-ie0° 3)09 FIOWER lumens produced by the
LUMINAIRE EFFICIENCY -84% bare lamp, and in the
(3109/3700)
upper hemisphere 36.5%
(1349/3700). The sum
of these two percentages, or the ratio of the total
lumens produced by the fixture to the lumen output of the bare lamp
(3109/3700), gives a luminaire efficiency of 84%. The manner in which
the luminaire distributes its light between the two hemispheres is deter-
mined by dividing the sums of the lumens below 90° and above 90° by
the total luminaire lumens: 1760/3109=57%, 1349/3109=43%. Thus
2—12
LIGHT—CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENTS
this luminaire directs 57% of its light below the horizontal, and 43% above.
The candlepower
distribution of units which are not symmetrical about
an axis cannot be so simply represented. For fluorescent fixtures at least
two curves, one in the plane parallel to the long axis of the lamp and one
normal to it, are shown, and sometimes more. With some types of equip-
ment, as for example many street lighting luminaires, horizontal candle-
power distribution is important, and measurements are made in lateral
CANDLEPOWER DISTRIBUTION HORIZONTAL CANDLEPOWER DISTRIBUTION

DIRECT-INDIREICT FLUORESCENT LUMINAIRE IN 70" VERTICAL COME
ASYMMETRIC STREET LIGHTING LUMINAIRE
ISO" 180° 150° 150° 150°
ISO"
120*
/xA»' \ \ J / >^v^NORMAL TO
120'
"O/v^^xw^ U//yritPmM Fl TO
^^>C/^\ LAMP AXIS
1
y
90"
Vj:;^5° TO LAMP AXIS
^j^^^^^<4ooa^^^c/--^ r~~~^^
60°
/^'^jT
/ /^^J^|î>!r\
\ v)EKn/^
\A/X X / 6tf
V / CANDLEPOWER. \
planes. Where the degree of asymmetry is not too great, as inmost fluores-
cent fixtures, a fairly representative average candlepower distribution
curve can be obtained, and efficiency can be computed from it. The
efficiency of a highly asymmetric unit can be calculated from a sufficient
number of candlepower curves, but the procedure is more complicated.
Candlepower distribution data on
beam-producing equipment such as CANDLEPOWER DISTRIBUTION
TYPICAL FLOODLIGHT UNIT
spotlights and floodlights are com- SPECULAR REFLECTOR - SPREAD LENS
monly plotted on rectilinear rather

than polar coordinates, angular dis- *'l V'n
tance from the center of the beam t
1
1 1
being indicated along the base line 1
and candlepower by the ordinatcs. Ic rizo mtal

If the distribution is symmetrical
about a central axis, one curve rep- 1
^ :rtic-ALi
resents the beam. An asymmetric 1
beam requires at least one vertical

and one horizontal traverse, and \
t
sometimes more, for a complete de- \
scription.
An irregular beam pattern is often

mi
*
1
y A
V \,
\
te
-30 -20 -to +10 +20 +30 +40

best represented by means of an DEGREES from BEAM AXIS
isocandfe diagram. Here a large num-
ber of candlepower readings are plotted against degrees from the beam axis,
both horizontal and vertical, and lines are drawn connecting equal candle-
power values, as isobars or isotherms are drawn on a weather map. Iso-
candle diagrams involving wide-angle spreads are sometimes plotted on a
web representing one side of a sphere, where the areas of the zones are
shown more accurately than on rectilinear coordinates.
2—13
] 1
An isolux or isofootcamUe diagram is a group of curves drawn through

points receiving the same amount of illumination on the working surface.
Isolux curves for several different mounting heights are sometimes com-
bined in one diagram by expressing the distances on the working plane as
.isocandle diagram ISOLUX DIAGRAM

'narrow beam floodlight TYPICAL STREET LIGHTING LUMINAIRE
-12 -8 -4 +4 +3 -^12 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

DEGREES FROM BEAM AXIS DISTANCE ALONG STREET -FEET
multiples of the mounting height. Correct footcandles for other mounting

heights may then be obtained by multiplying the values given on the
curves by the ratio of the square of the present mounting height to the
square of the new mounting height. The isolux diagram illustrated is for
a single lighting unit, but similar curves for installations can be readily
computed by summing the footcandles received at any given point from
each luminaire contributing illumination to that location.
Each different mounting height, or distance between luminaire and
working plane, produces a different isolux diagram. An isocandle diagram,
on the other band, is a fixed characteristic of the luminaire, independent
of distance or mounting height. Iso-
FOOTCANDLE DISTRIBUTION DATA candle diagrams are perhaps most
200 - WATT R L M DOME REFLECTOR
-
commonly used for the representa-
'
M DUN TING HE GHT tion of headlight, floodlight, and

V 1
spotlight beams, and isolux dia-

T.
\ grams for street lighting installa-
^ — "t tions, although either can be used

for any type of lighting equipment.
r—
^\ "T
FT
.10
distribution of illumination The
may also be repre-
from a source
-<
^^ •12 F T
sented by plotting, for various
k
^^ source -to-working -plane distances,
4 8
'^
12 16
^
curves of footcandles against dis-
tance from the source center. Where
DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF LUMINAIRE the candlepower distribution is
-
irregular or asymmetric this method

is much less satisfactory than the isolux diagram, and its use is com-
monly confined to equipment whose distribution is approximately sym-
metrical.
2—14
CHAPTER THREE
UCSHT SOURCES
The primary purpose

of a light source is the production of light, and the
with which a lamp fulfills this purpose is expressed in terms of
efficiency
lumens emitted per watt of power consumed. If a source could be developed
that would radiate all the energy it received as monochromatic yellow-green
light in the region of maximum 5550 Angstroms, it
sensitivity of the eye,
would produce approximately 650 lumens for each wâtt of power con-
sumed. A theoretical source of white light of maximum efficiency, emitting
only visible energy without any infrared or ultraviolet, would produce
about 200 lumens per watt. Compared with these figures the best avail-
^
able lamp efficiencies today seem disappointingly low. However, reference
to earlier products of lamp manufacture shows the progress that has been
EFFICIENCIES OF VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCES

Approximate Lumens per Watt
Candle (Luminous Efficiency Equivalent) 0.1

OilLamp (Luminous Efficiency Equivalent) 0.3
Lamp (1879)
Original Incandescent 1.4
60-Watt Carbon Filament Lamp (1905) 4.0
60-Watt Coiled Coil Tungsten Filament Lamp (1947) 13.9
1000-Watt General Service Lamp (1947) 21.5
No. 1 Photoflood Lamp (1947) 34.6
400- Watt A-Hl Mercury Vapor Lamp (Lamp Only) (1947) 40.0
40-Watt White Fluorescent Lamp (Lamp Only) (1947) 58.0
made. The efficiency of the 60-watt lamp, for example, has been increased
almost 350 per cent during the past 40 years by changing from carbon
to tungsten as a filament material, from vacuum to gas -filled construction,
and from straight filament wire to coiled and then coiled coil filaments.
However, the filament lamp has certain characteristics which make it
inherently inefficient as a source of light, and although it is probable that
efficiencies will still be raised slightly by further refinements in manu-
facturing processes, the maximum possible values have already been ap-
proached. For any considerable increase in efficiency it is now necessary
to turn to another type of light source, the electric discharge lamp. Pres-
ent mercury vapor lamps have efficiencies of 40 to 65 lumens per watt,
and sodium vapor lamps 55 lumens per watt, while fluorescent lamps have
already reached figures as high as 58 lumens per watt, with every likeli-
hood of further increases.
3—1
As a result of decreas-
HISTORY OF LAMP COST* ing lamp prices, as weU
as consistently increasing
1907 Carbon Filament Vacuum efficiencies, lamp cost per
$4.62
1910 Straight Tungsten Filament unit of light generated for
Vacuum 2.13 a watt of power consumed
1926 Coiled Tungsten Filament has steadily decreased
Gas-Fillcd .45 throughout the history of
1947 Coiled Coil Tungsten Fila- lamp manufacture. What
ment Gas-Filled .13
the future may bring is
* Cost of 60-Watt General Service Lamps to
impossible to foretell, but
Produce One Million Lumen-Hours of Light.
it is probable that with
the relatively new electric
discharge lamp we stand at the beginning of a new era of increased ef-
ficiencies and lowered lighting costs.
FILAMENT LAMPS
The filament lamp produces light by virtue of a wire or filament heated
to incandescence by the flow of electric current through it.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A LAMP

The three major parts of a filament lamp are the bulb, the base, and the
filament.
Bulb
Since an incandescent filament must operate in either a vacuum or an
atmosphere of inert gas to prevent rapid disintegration due to oxidation,
it is enclosed in a sealed glass
envelope called the bulb. Various
kinds of glass are used, depending
on the type of lamp and its appli-
EXHAUST TUBE cation. Most general lighting serv-
STEM ice lamp bulbs are made from
lime (soft) glass. Special service
STEM PRESS
lamps with bulbs of hard, or heat
resisting, glass are used in appli-
ARBOR
cations where rain or snow coming
,EAD-IN WIRE into contact with the hot bulb
might cause a soft glass bulb to
BUTTON
crack. Hard glass is also neces-
SUPPORT sary for projection lamps, spot-
light lamps, etc., which common-
FILAMENT ly have higher bulb operating
BULB temperatures than general serv-
ice lamps.
sizes
Bulb Size and Shape
and shapes of lamp bulbs are designated by a letter or letters fol-
—The
lowed by a number. The letters indicate the shape of the bulb: S =
Straight Side, F = Flame, G= Round or Globular, T=Tubular, PS = Pear
Shaped, PAR = Parabolic, R=Reflector, A=Arbitrary designation ap-
plied to the bulbs commonly used for general lighting service lamps of 100
3—2
FILAMENT LAMPS
watts or less. The number in a bulb designation indicates the diameter of
the bulb in eighths of an inch. For example, "T-10" indicates a tubular
bulb having a diameter of 10/8 or 1}^ inches.
PAR
Bulb size and shape are determined by the purpose
for which the lamp
is to be used.
Obviously the larger the bulb the greater the area over
which tungsten vaporized from tne filament will be distributed as the
lamp ages and gradually blackens. The thinner this deposit the less light
it absorbs, and the better the light output of the lamp throughout life.
From the standpoint of lighting equipment cost, however, there is a limit
to desirable bulb size, and the size of a general lighting service lamp is
usually a compromise between performance and economic considerations.
In projection lamps and certain other types where minimum size out-
weighs maintenance of light output, bulbs often are smaller than those
for general lighting service lamps of equal wattage ratings.
Bulb Finish and CoZor—The most common bulb finish is the inside
frost, a very light acid etching applied to the inner surface of the bulb.
This process diffuses the light from the filament and leaves the outer sur-
face of the bulb smooth and easily cleaned, without absorbing any appre-
ciable amount of fight. Opal glass bulbs or bulbs with a ceramic white
finish provide greater diffusion at the expense of greater light absorption.
Inside frosted lamps are preferred for most general lighting purposes
where diffusion is desirable, but optical systems designed for accurate
control of light by reflection or refraction require a small light source, and
therefore a clear bulb lamp.
Other finishes applied to some general lighting service lamps are white
bowl and silvered bowl, A white bowl lamp has a translucent white coating
on the inner surface of the bulb bowl, which serves to reduce both direct
and reflected glare from open fixtures. A silvered bowl lamp has an opaque
silver coating applied to the outside of the bowl. The inner surface of this
coating is a highly specular reflector which is not affected by dust or de-
terioration, and therefore remains efficient throughout the life of the lamp.
Silvered bowl lamps are commonly used in certain types of equipment for
totally indirect lighting, and also occasionally in direct fixtures such as
RLM reflectors.
Colored lightobtained from filament lamps by the subtractive method;

is
that is, by means of
a separate filter or a bulb so processed that light of
colors other than that desired is largely absorbed. Colored bulbs used in
lamp manufacture are of three types: natural, inside or outside spray
coated, and ceramic glazed. Natural colored bulbs, wherein chemicals are
added to the ingredients of the glass to produce the desired color, are
regularly available in daylight blue, blue, amber, green, and ruby. Of
these colors, daylight blue is the most widely used. The characteristics
of the daylight blue bulb are such as to reduce the preponderance of red
3—3
and yellow light common to incandescent lamps, with the result that the
light produced more nearly approaches daylight in color. Since this is
accomplished at the expense of increased lamp cost and of some 35% absorp-
tion in light, daylight blue lamps should be used only where the lighting
requirements make it necessary. Natural colored bulbs produce light of
purer colors than coated bulbs, and are often used in preference to the
latter for theatrical and photographic lighting purposes.
Because of their lower cost and general suitability for the purpose,
coated or ceramic glazed lamps are to be preferred where decorative or
display lighting is involved. The colors in most common use are: white
or all frosted, red, blue, grecu, yellow, amber-orange, ivory and flame lint.
Outside spray coalings are not permanent, and should be used only where
protected from the weather. Inside coated or ceramic glazed lamps may
be used with equal satisfaction either in or outdoors.
For temporary use, lamps are sometimes colored by dipping the bulbs
in a special transparent or translucent lacquer. Like outside coated lamps*
they are unsuited for continuous use out of doors.
Base
The base provides a means of connecting the lamp bulb to the socket.
For general lighting purposes, screw-type bases are most commonly used.
Most general lighting service lamps (three hundred watts and below)
have medium screw bases. The higher wattages (three hundred watts
and above) use the mogul screw base. Some of the lower wattage lamps,
particularly the sign, indicator, and decorative types, are made with
candelabra or intermediate
'!'
im screw bases.
Medium pre focus and

mogul pre focus bases are
used where accurate posi-
tioning of the light source
(the lamp fdament) with
respect to an optical system
is required. A medium bi-
H MOOUL B)POST
post or mogul bipost base,
usually used on high watt-
age lamps, consists of two
metal pins or posts imbed-
ded in a glass "cup" forming the end of the lamp bulb. Most screw and
prefocus bases are attached to the bulb by means of a basing cement
especially designed for the purpose. Some of the higher wattage genera
lighting and special service mogul screw base lamps use what is known
as a mechanical base which requires no basing cement. Mechanical bases
involve the use of specially formed glass seals with "dimples" into which
protrusions of an inner base shell fit and are held in place. The regular
outer base shell is screwed onto the threaded inner shell and the two inter-
locked by means of holes punched through both shells.
3—4
'
FILAMENT LAMPS
Filament
The filament is the light -producing element of the lamp, and the primary
considerations in its design are its electrical characteristics. The wattage
of a filament lamp is equal to the
voltage dehvered at the socket times
the amperes flowing through the fila-
ment. By Ohm's Law (I=E/R) the
current (amperes) is determined by
the voltage and the resistance, which
in turn depends on the length and the
diameter of the filament wire. The 32- VOLT 1000 -WATT 120- VOLT 1000- WATT
FILAMENT FILAMENT
higher the wattage of lamps of the
same voltage, the higher the current
and therefore the greater the diameter of the filament wire required
to carry it. The higher the milage of lamps of the same wcUtage, the
lower the current and the smaller the diameter of the filament wire.
The higher the operating temperature of the filament, the greater the
share of the emitted energy that lies in the visible region of the radiation
spectrum. Since most filament lamps radiate as light only about 10 to
12% of the input energy, it is important to design a lamp for as high a
filament temperature as is consistent with satisfactory life. Carbon, which
has a higher melting point than
tungsten and was one of the early
filament materials, has been almost MELTING POINTS
completely replaced by tungsten be-
cause carbon at high temperatures Tungsten 3410°C 6170'>F
evaporates too rapidly, whereas Carbon 3700**C 6692*^
tungsten combines the properties of
high melting point and slow evap-
oration.
the temper-
Since the larger the diameter of the filament wire the higher
evaporation,
ature at which it can be operated without danger of excessive
the same
high-wattage lamps are more efficient than low-wattage lamps of
service lamp,
voltage and life rating. A 100-watt 120-volt general lighting
for elample, produces 57% more light than four
25-watt 120-yolt lamps
consuming the same wattage. It also follows that low-voltage lamps, be-
cause their filament wire diameter is greater, are more efficient than
higher-
voltage lamps of the same wattage.
VOLTAGE VS. EFFICIENCY

1000 -HOUR LIGHTING SERVICE LAMPS
APPROXIMATE FILAMENT 26 •
TEMPERATURES
Watts °C
^
— ""
c>^^ s . 1
40* 2475
H
1^^r^.^^ - ^ """
60*
100*
200*
2500
2575
2620
0.
XliO' ^M
300*
500*
2665
2670
if)
i"*
2t 7 \
1000* 2720
1500* 2765
-J
10
h
No. 1 Photoflood 3160
1- f
* Standard 120-VoU General Light- 1
ing Service Lamps. ^ 4 00 6 oo e 00 vx

1 3 200
WATTS
3—5
WESTINGHQUSE LIGHTING HANDBOOK
The common use today are designated by a letter or

filament forms in
letters indicatingwhether the wire is straight or coiled, a number speci-
fying the general form of the filament, and sometimes another
letter in-
dicatmg arrangement on the supports. S as the first letter of a filament
designation means a straight (uncoiled) filament wire, C a coiled wire,
a coiled coil, and R a flat or ribbon-shaped wire. The numbers
CC
and other
letters assigned to the various filament forms are purely
arbitrary.
,-- *„„„^v.« ^^^ x^v,«^ x^cyi. uj ^^jiiuuiîiuu itiiu convection, lae coils
also tend to heat each otber, and the coiled filament is
mechanically
stronger. Today nearly all types of lamps, both vacuum and
gas-filled,
have coiled filaments. The sinde coil (C) filament is formed by windin*'
the tungsten wire on a mandrel of steel or molybdenum in a continuous
process. The coil with the mandrel still in place is cut into the
desired
lengths and immersed in an acid bath which dissolves the mandrel but
does
not attack the tungsten.
Coiled coil, or double-coiled, filaments which provide increased efficiency

and reduced light-source size are at present
used in 50-, 60-, and 100-watt standard-volt-
age general lighting service lamps, and in
certain types of projection lamps. The
process of making coiled coil filaments is the
same as that for single coil filaments except
that the single coil with the mandrel intact
is wound onto another mandrel which is
later "retracted," or removed mechanically.
The mandrel is then removed from the
first
coiled coil by dissolving.
COILED
FILAMENT In the general lighting service type of lamp
the arrangement of the filament coil and its
. „ , , ,
supports is dictated by the fimiting size of the
, . .
bulb neck through which it must be inserted, and by other manufacturing
considerations. Lamps for special purposes often recpiire
certain filament
tornis. lôr projection, searchlight, spotlight, floodlight
and similar
services where accurate control of light demands a small
source, the fila-
ments are concentrated into as small a space as possible.
In contrast,
for showcase service where a lon^ light source
is needed, the filament may
be extended along almost the full length of the bulb.
3—6
FILAMENT LAMPS
Filling Gas
Incandescent lamps were first made with evacuated
bulbs, the purpose
being merely to keep the filament from burning
up by excluding oxygen.
Later it was discovered that the pressure exerted
on the filament by an
inert gas^ introduced into the bulb retarded
the evaporation of tungsten,
thus making it possible to design lamps for
higher filament temperatures
> eT" ^""^^ ^'"^ ''''^ designated as "type B^' lamps, gas-filled lamps
as
The gas removes some heat from the filament, as a result

of conduction
and convection losses not present in the vacuum
lamp. The larger the
surface of the wire in proportion to its volume
or mass, the greater this
coohng effect becomes, until eventually it nuUifies
the gain achieved by
using the filling gas. Filaments with a current
rating of less than
ampere have a wire diameter so small that the introduction one-third
of gas is a
disadvantage rather than an advantage. For this reason,
standard-voltage
general lighting service lamps of less than 40
watts are of the vacuum It
type B construction, while lamps of 40 watts and
higher are gas-filled.
Nitrogen and argon are the gases most commonly
used in lamp manu-
tacture. Projection lamps use an atmosphere of 100%
nitrogen. Most
of nitrogen and argon, the proportions varying
wH^M^î^" ^""Â r^^*'^^
C^îr^ ^""ilh '^-
Y^^ ^""^
^J"*^*^ '} '' **^^^g^^*i- fiigh-voltage lamps!
approximately 50% argon and 50% nitrogen
fh/hf.hfi'''
the ^tt ^^^î'^'l^
higher wattage standard-voltage types about 88% argon and 12%
mtrogen, and the lower wattage standard-voltage
types Ind all street
series lamps about 98% argon and
2% nitrogen, lome mtrogen is nece«!
sary to prevent arcing across the lead-in wires,
which would oi;cur if pure
argon were used. The greater the inherent tendency
of a lamp to arc, the
higher the percentage of nitrogen in its gas mixture.
Krypton is a relatively rare and expensive gas which has

a higher atomic
weight than either argon or nitrogen, and therefore
causes less energy loss
by conduction and convection. It is
used in small quantities in certain
miniature lamps such as miner's cap
lamps, where the limited capacity of ATOMIC WEIGHTS OF GASES
the battery power supply makes it
essential to obtain the greatest pos- Hydrogen 1.008
sible efficiency. Hydrogen, because of Nitrogen 14.008
its low atomic weight, is used in Argon 39.944
certain very special types of flashing Krypton 83.7
signal lamps where rapid cooling of
the filament is important.
Physical Dimensions
In addition to the diameter of the lamp, which is
given in eighths of an
inch in the bulb designation, two other dimensions
which are important
are the maximum over-all length of the lamp,
and the light centerlength.
The ov^âll length of a lamp is measured from the end of the base to the
far end of the bulB. The published over-all length of a lamp
is a maximum
dimension. In other words, the length of the lamp
will not exceed that
tigure, but may be less. In the design of
equipment it is often necessary to
3—7
Itnow the minimum as well as the maximum over-all length to be expected

in a lamp of a given type. This information, as well as other data on physi-
cal dimensions and tolerances, may be obtained from the lamp manu-
facturer.
The light center lengthy which is most important in equipment where
accurate control of light is required, is measured from the center of the
light source to a designated point on the base which varies with the
type
of base.
LCL - LIGHT CENTER LEInGTH
MOL- MAXIMUM OVER-ALL LENGTH
r^
~JWl
-Awr
MOL
r
LCL
.CL
r
LCL
MEDIUM
w_.
MOGUL
B POST
I BIPOST
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Light Output vs. Life
Both the life of a lamp and its light output are determined by its fila-
ment temperature. The higher the temperature for a given lamp, the
greater the efficiency (lumens emitted per watt
of power consumed) and the shorter the life.
LIGHT OUTPUT
Hence light output and life are interdependent,
LIFE
^ A lamp can be designed for a long life at
the expense of light output, or for high light
output at the expense of life. In practice the
life for which a lamp is designed is an economic
balance between the two factors, determined
LIFE
on the basis of the purpose for which the
\- lamp is to be used.
LIGHT OUTPUT Obviously, the quality or value of a lamp

cannot be judged by its life alone. Lamp
life may be as short as 10 to 50 hours for
projection lamps and 3 hours for photoflood lamps, where high light output
is the dominant requirement, replace-
TYPICAL MORTALITY CURVE
ment is convenient, and life is of
relatively little consequence. Or it
may be as long as 2000 to 3000
N s 200
hours for street lighting lamps, where
the high cost of replacing burned out \
lamps justifies relatively low effici- {
540
encies. For general lighting service
lamps, which are used for long hours cn \
^20 80S
and yet are comparatively easy to
replace, a life of 750 or 1000 hours
V
:^^
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
has become the accepted standard. PER CENT OF RATED LIFE
3—8
FILAMENT LAMPS
Published data on lamp life refer to the average life of a group of lamps
under specified test conditions, and are not intended as a guarantee of
the performance of any individual lamp. As shown by the accompanying
mortality curve, in any large group of lamps some will fail relatively early
in life, whereas others will still be burning long after the end of rated life.
Over or Undervoltage Operation

As a general rule, lamps should be burned at rated voltage. Over-
voltage operation results in higher wattage, higher efficiency, and higher
light output, but shorter lamp life. Undervoltage burning, while increas-
ing lamp life, causes a reduction in wattage, in efficiency, and in light
output. A voltage as little as 5%
below normal results in a loss of light
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES- FILAMENT LAMPS

t- .-Irt 450
P 170
160 s. 400
or
\ 350
\ V ^00 ft'
f
\\ .^
1''^
250
-I
S
I 130 ~N -^"^
^< ^ %'^
m
2
120
N% PEP ;^rl— ::^
--
D
O
110
^ -•-^ <^'
^, r«tf= M 0. 100
o
°^.
CL \NM Tr*- _^_

^
* ^jsr ^ ^^' -^ _
50
Z
„...--
^ r:^
-"
^^
-^^
q:
^-^
92 94 c
6 9a 1 DO 1 32 ! J4 I Jb I ja I
PER CENT OF RATED VOLTS
amounting to more than 16%, with a saving in wattage of only 8%. Since
lamp cost is almost always small compared with the cost of the power
to operate the lamp, the increased lamp life which accompanies reduced
voltage does not begin to compensate economically for the loss in light
output. Maintenance of the proper voltage is therefore an important
factor in obtaining good performance from lamps and lighting installations.
However, there are cases where it is more economical to operate lamps

at higher than rated voltage. The cost of power, the cost of fixtures and
wiring, and the cost of lamps must all be taken into consideration, along
with the increased light output, in estimating the possible advantages of
overvoltage operation. The power cost must be computed on the basis of
the increased wattage at the higher voltage, and the figure for lamp cost
must take into account the shortened life as well as the cost of lamp re-
placement. In some cases the higher light output may make possible a
reduction in the number of lighting units required.
3—9
Where the hours of burning for a season or period are relatively short
and the energy cost is comparatively high, and particularly where the
lamps are replaced in a group before burnout, careful analysis may reveal
a definite saving in operating the lamps at overvoltage. These conditions
are often encountered in certain types of sports lighting, where it is fairly
common practice to use lamps of a lower rated voltage, as for example
110-volt lamps on a 120-volt circuit.
Any calculation of lamp and energy costs emphasizes the fact that the
cost of lamps is nearly always a minor considera-
tion compared to the cost of power. Under ordi-
nary circumstances, the lamps represent less than
10% of the cost of lamps and energy combined. It
is for this reason that the efficiency of a lamp is
more important than its price, and low-efficiency
sources should not be used except in special cases
where long life is a consideration. For this reason
also it is more economical to discard lamps that
have been in service a long time and are seriously
blackened than to continue to operate them to burn-
, . ,
out at their depreciated efficiency. In many cases
It is desirable to replace all the lamps in an installation
at the same time,
before the majority of them have reached the end of their useful life.
This practice is commonly called group replacemeiiL
Lumen Maintenance
As an incandescent lamp burns, the filament gradually evaporates or
sublimates, causing a slow but continuous reduction in wattage and
light output as it decreases in diameter. The normal end of life is reached
when the wire breaks or burns through at its thinnest spot. A further
reduction in light output results from the absorption of light by the
sublimated tungsten, which collects as a black deposit on the inner sur-
face of the bulb. Some projection and hi post base general service lamps
are provided with screens or grids located above the filament to collect
the blackening as it is carried upward by the gas currents within the bulb,
and prevent it from being deposited on the bulb walls. Use of a collector
screen materially improves the lumen maintenance of a lamp, and makes
it possible to employ a smaller bulb than would otherwise be feasible.
Some high-wattage high-efficiency

lamps are made with a small
-- amount of loose tungsten powder
TYPK
,
-UME
.
DEP RECl ^Tlo^J CU RVE

- in the bulb which can be shaken
around to clean the blackening
from the inner surface of the glass
by a scouring action.
Lamp manufacturers' data pub-
lished on standard lamps include,
^20
in addition to initial efficiency, the
efficiency at 70% of rated life.
20 40 60 60 100 120 140 160 130 Inasmuch as the light deprecia-
PER CENT OF RATED LIFE
tion curve is essentially a straight
line, a line drawn through the
initial efficiency at zero life and the efficiency at 70% life may be used
to determine the lumens per watt of a given lamp at any point in life.
3—10
FILAMENT LAMPS
Burning Position
With some few exceptions general lighting service lamps may be burned
in any position. However, the lumen maintenance of type C lamps is
best when they are burned base up. This is because the tungsten black-
ening is conducted upward by the gas and is always deposited above the
filament. When the lamp is
burned base up, the blackening
collects in the area of thebulb
adjacent to the base, where the
light is already partially inter-
cepted by the base, socket, and
luminaire husk. If the lamp is
burned base down, the blacken-
ing collects in the bowl of the
biilb, where it causes a much
freater reduction in light output,
.amps burned in a horizontal
position are affected similarly.
Certain types of lamps, partic-
ularly projection, spotlight, flood-
Ught and some street series lamps,
are not designed for universal
burning and should always be
used in the position designated by the manufacturer's published
data. The reason for this may be the construction of the filament,
which would be likely to sag or short-circuit if burned in a position other
than that for which it is designed. Or operation in an incorrect position
sometimes places the filament directly under a glass part which might be
softened by the heat. If a lamp containing a collector grid is burned in
any other position than with the grid directly above the filament, the
special construction will not be effective in controlling blackening.
Base and Bulb Temperatures

Operation of lamps under conditions which cause excessive bulb and
base temperatures may result in melting of the bulb, softening of the base
cement and loosening of the base, or in extreme cases damage to the
socket and adjacent wiring. Most fixtures are properly designed to dis-
sipate the heat generated by the lamps, but severe conditions such as
might be induced by overvoltage operation, or the use of lamps of higher
wattage than the manufacturer's rating, may give rise to difficulty. If
metal parts of shades, reflectors, or fixtures are allowed to come in contact
with the bulb of a gas -filled lamp, the local cooling effect may result in
glass cracks which will cause lamp failure (sometimes violent).
For best lamp performance the maximum safe operating temperature

of a soft or lime glass bulb is in the
neighborhood of 300°C. Hard glass MAXIMUM SAFE
bulbs of filament lamps may operate at OPERATING TEMPERATURES
temperatures as high as 435'* to 475°G, (Approximate Figures)
depending upon the exact type of glass Soft Glass Bulb 300°C
used. The temperature of cemented Hard Glass Bulb 435°C~475°C
bases should not exceed 175°C for con- Cemented Base 175°C
tinuous operation. Mechanical bases Mechanical Base 225°G
will withstand temperatures approxi- Bipost Base 285°C
mately 50° higher.
3—11
Gas-filled lamps, because of the convection currents within the bulb,

have higher bulb temperatures than vacuum lamps. Therefore vacuum
lamps are preferable for use in exposed outdoor locations, where snow or
rain may strike the hot bulb. Gas-filled lamps exposed to the elements
should have bard or heat resisting glass bulbs.
Vibration and Shock

Tungsten wire heated to incandescence becomes somewhat soft and
pliable, and filament coils may be distorted or broken if the lamp is sub-
{'ected to shock or vibration while burning. Vibration, especially of the
ow-amplitnde high-frequency variety, is an insidious enemy of satis-
factory lamp performance, and should be guarded against wherever pos-
sible. There are available a number
of commercial sockets and fixtures
designed to protect the lamps by
absorbing vibration.
Where vibration cannot be elimi-
nated by these means, special vibra-
tion service lamps, provided M'ith
extra filament supports, should be
PI used. The construction of vibration
service lamps is such that they
will give most satisfactory per-
It formance if burned in a vertical
position, either base up or base
VtBRATlON SERVICE ROUCH SERVICE down. They should never be used
nLAME:NT FILAMENT
where they are likely to receive ex-
treme shocks.
For use on extension cords, and in any service where excessive
shocks may be encountered, there are available rough service
lamps with a type of
special
LUMEN OUTI»UTS shock-resisting filament con-
VIBRATIOiV AND ROUGH SERVICE struction. Rough service lamps
120-VOLT LAMPS are designed to operate in any
burning position, and may be
Watts Serv Lumens used in place of vibration service
50 General 660 lamps where it is necessary to
50 Vibration 550 burn lamps horizontally. Both
50 Rough 455
vibration and rough service
100 General 1630 lamps
100 Vibration 1300
sacrifice some efficiency
100 Rough 1200 to strength of construction, and
are more expensive than stand-
ard lamps; they should, there-
fore, be used only where required by service conditions.
TYPES OF LAMPS
General Lighting Service Lamps
The familiar general lighting service lamps, from the 15 -watt A-15 to
the 1500-watt PS-52, designed for multiple burning on 115-, 120-, or 125-
volt circuits, are the most commonly used filament-type lamps. All
3—12
FILAMENT LAMPS
standard general service lamps are equipped with screw bases. The larger
wattages are manufactured in either clear or inside frosted bulbs. Below
150 watts, inside frosted lamps are standard. Certain modifications, such
as hard glass bulbs for the larger, and clear bulbs for the smaller, lamps
are available on special order.
TECHNICAL DATA ON REPRESENTATIVE 120-VOLT STANDARD

FILAMENT LAMPS |
GENERAL LIGHTING SERVICE LAMPS |
Rated Approx. Lumens per Watt

Watts Bulh Base Filament Average Initial
Construction Life Lumens
(Hours) Initial 70% Life
25 A-19 Medium C-9 1000 260 10.5 9.0

40 A-19 Medium C.9 1000 470 11.7 10.7
50 A-19 Medium CC-6 1000 665 13.3 12.5
60 A.19 Medium CC-6 looo 835 13.9 13.2
75 A.21 Medium C-9 750 1120 14.9 13.5
100 A-21 Medium CC-6 750 1630 16.3 15.3
100 1 f 1410 14.1
3-Contact
200 \
G-30
Mogul 2 C-2R 1000 3350 16.7
300 J 4760 15.8
150 PS.25 Medium C-9 750 2600 17.3 15.6
200 PS-30 Medium C-9 750 3700 18.5 16.4
300 PS-30 Medium G.9 750 5900 19.7 17.3
300 PS-35 Mogul C-9 1000 5650 18.8 16.7
500 PS-40 Mogul C-7A 1000 9950 19.9 17.0
750 PS-52 Mogul C-7A 1000 15500 20.6 17.6
1000 PS.52 Mogul C-7A 1000 21500 21.5 17.4
1500 PS-52 Mogul C.7A 1000 33000 22.0 15.6
LUMILINE LAMPS
Rated Approx. Initial
Watts Bulb Length Base Filament Average IniUal Lumens
(Inches) Construction Life Lumens per Watt
(Hours)
30 T-8 IIH Disc C-8 1500 245 8.2

40 T-8 iiH Diic C-8 1500 345 8.7
60 T.8 n% Disc C-8 1500 550 9.2
PROJECTOR AND REFLECTOR LAMPS

Initial
Rated Max. Approx.
Filament Average Beam Initial Descrip-
Watts Bulb Base Construction Life Zone tion
(Hours) Candle-
power Lumens
Proje ctor
150 PAR. 38 Med. Skt. CC-6 1000 10500 990C0-15'>) Spot

150 PAR.38 Med, Skt. CC-6 1000 2500 1150(0-30°) Flood
Refle ctor
150 R-40 Medium C-ll 1000 7000 700(0-15°) Spot

300 R-40 Medium CC-2V Horiz. 1000 16000 1460(0-15°) Spot
150 R.40 Medium C-ll 1000 1200 700(0-30°) Flood
300 R-40 Medium CC-2V Horiz. 1000 3000 1620(0-30°) Flood
3—13
High and Low Voltage Lamps

Lamps similar to the general lighting service line are available for
operation on 230 and 250 volts. The low efficiency of these lamps as
compared to like lamps of standard-voltage rating has already been men-
tioned. Other disadvantages resulting from the smaller filament wire
diameter of high-vollage lamps are reduced mechanical strength, and
larger over-all light-source size, which makes them less satisfactory
for
use in floodlight and projection equipment. The only gain achieved by
the industrial use of these higher voltages is the reduction in ampere load
which results from doubling the voltage, and the consequent saving in
wiring cost. Lamps for operation on 30- and 60- volt circuits are also
available for use in train lighting and in country home service.
Series Burning Lamps

Most lamps are designed to operate on a multiple circuit. Some, how-
ever, such as most of the lamps used for street and street railway car
lighting, are designed for operation on a series circuit. Street series lamps
are commonly rated in lumens and amperes instead of watts and volts,
as are multiple lamps. All of the lamps in a series circuit should be of the
same current (ampere) rating. The wattage, light output, and life of
series lamps are materially affected by variations in operating current,
and close regulation of current to design values is a major factor in satis-
factory lamp performance.
CHARACTERIST IC CURVES - FILAMENT LAMPS
150
350
^ 140
\ V- 300
\
en 130 \ ^^
z
~
120
\ V/. ^
^^
x^
3
s
t
1 110
M k :^,
^t^- "^
nNK] J- .-^ i
§ 100
^> ^ ^ ^ n luuy
Q
J^/^
^
TJ^ j:,"^ -^ .^"^
1-
2 60
t^ --^
»' ^-^
^^
^" "^
— 50 ^
—
-'
^ 70
-^
9i 9I yj» 9"3 ICK) IC 1 IC ?. ir ^ ir>4. If¥i
PER CENT OF RATED AMPERES
For continuity of operation, some provision must

be made in a series
circmt so that tê fadure of one lamp does not
break the circuit and ex!
tmguish all the lamps. Some street railway lamps
have a cut-out device
incorporated ,n the lamp itself, so that a burned
out lamp is shorted ou?
of the circmt. Where such lamps are
operated in series on a constant-
voltage circuit, prompt replacement of burnouts
is desirable to protect
the other lamps m
the circmt which must absorb the voltage
originally
consumed by the burned out lamp. This type of circuit
is recommended
3—14
FILAMENT LAMPS
only for 20 or more lampa, because where the number of lamps is too small
excessive overvoltage is impressed on the remaining lamps when one fails.
In street lighting circuits operated on constant-current transformers, the
current is maintained at a fixed value regardless of the load on the line, so
that failure of one lamp places no extra burden on the others. In this
case a cut-out mechanism which bypasses a burned out lamp is part of
the luminaire socket.
The lumen maintenance of series lamps operated at constant current is
better than that of multiple lamps, for the reason that the wattage of a
lamp held at constant voltage gradually decreases throughout life, whereas
the wattage of a lamp held at constant current increases. This is because
the resistance of the filament wire increases as its diameter decreases with
evaporation. At constant voltage increased resistance means a decrease in
amperes (I = E/R) and accordingly in watts. At constant current in-
creased resistance results in increased voltage (E = IR), and a correspond-
ing increase in watts which materially offsets the reduction in light output
due to blackening.
Projector and Reflector Lamps

Projector and reflector lamps combine in one unit a light source and a
highly efficient reflector consisting of a thin layer of vaporized aluminum
applied to the inner surface of the bulb. The bulb walls are so shaped
as to produce a concentrated beam of light whose width is controlled by
the lens in the projector type, and by the frosting of the end of the bulb
in the reflector type.
Reflector (R-40) lamps are made with blown bulbs of soft glass, and
should not be exposed to rain or snow, or burned in any equipment where
metal parts come in contact with the bulb. The PAR-38 bulb of the
projector lamp, on the other hand, is made of molded heat resisting glass
and can be used safely outdoors. Both lamps are available in the spot
type, for applications where a narrow beam is necessary, or in the flood
type where a wider beam is desirable.
The same principle of a sealed -in internal reflecting surface is used in
the "Sealed Beam' automobile headlamp, and in several other types of
PAR -bulb lamps used as spotlights, signal lamps, and airplane headlight
lamps. In all of these, filaments exactly positioned in reflectors of very
accurate contour give precise beam control.
Showcase and Lumiline Lamps

Low-wattage tubular-bulb lamps are used for showcase lighting and
other applications where small bulb diameter is required. Some of these
are designed to be used in reflectors,
and others are provided with an in- SHOWCASE LAMPS
ternal reflecting surface extending
over approximately half the bulb
area, which concentrates the light
to form a beam. The Lumiline
lamp is a type of tubular
special
light source which has a filament
extending the length of the lamp LUMILINE LAMP
and connected at each end to a
disc base which requires a special 1
3—15
type of lamp holder. Lumiline lamps are considerably less efficieat than
conventional general lighting service lamps, but are useful where a linear
source is necessary.
Spotlight, Floodlight and Projection Lamps

Characteristic features of all lamps designed for spotlight, floodlight,
and projection applications are compact filaments accurately positioned
with respect to the base, for purposes of light control; relatively short
lives, for high efficiency and brightness; comparatively small bulbs;
and
restricted burning position. Since spotlight lamps must produce nar-
rower, more intense beams than floodlight lamps, they have smaller fila-
ments and shorter lives. In projection lamps the light source is still more
concentrated and life is further reduced, with accompanying increased
efficiency.
The objective in designing projection lamps is to fill the aperture of the
projection system with a light source of high brightness and maximum
uniformity. This is accomplished by arranging the filament coils in a
single or double vertical plane, accurately located with respect to the
optical system by a bayonet, prefocus, or bipost base. The biplane (C-13D)
filament, with coils arranged in two parallel rows so placed that the coila
of one row fill in the spaces between those of the other, has much greater
uniformity and higher average brightness than the single-row monoplane
(G-13) filament. Many projection lamps have such small bulbs and operate
at such high temperatures that they cannot be burned without continuous
forced ventilation to cool the bulb, and some have designed lives as short
as ten hours. Lamps for use in certain types of projectors have an opaque
black coating on the top of the bulb to prevent the emission of stray fight.
Infrared Lamps
Infrared lamps are essentially the same as lamps designed for illumi-
nation purposes, the principal difference between them being that of
filament temperature. Since the production of light is not an objective,
infrared lamps are designed to operate at a very low temperature, result-
ing in the production of much less light and more infrared than lamps for
lighting purposes. Actually, of course, the difl'erence between light and
infrared radiation is merely a matter of wavelength, and both of them
produce heat when they are absorbed. If the absorbing surface is non-
selective, the amount of heat produced per watt of incident energy is the
same regardless of the wavelength. Thus ordinary lamps could be used
successfully for heating and drying purposes. However, the infrared
lamp has definite advantages in the reduction of glare because of its low
light output (about 5 lumens per watt) and the long life resulting from
its low filament temperature. Theoretically, on the basis of filament
evaporation alone, the life of infrared lamps is many thousands of hours,
but because of the possibility of failure from shock, vibration and other
causes, the rated life is given merely as "in excess of 5000 hours."
Infrared lamps used in the home and for therapeutic purposes are
commonly of the convenient self-contained 2 50- watt R-40 bulb type
with internal reflector, similar in size and appearance to the 150- and
300-watt reflector spot and flood lamps. Those used in industrial processes
may be of the 250- or 375-watt reflector type, or they may be of several
different wattages with clear bulbs for use in separate reflectors, usually
gold-plated.
3—16
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS

Mercury vapor lamps belong to the general classification known as
electric dischargelamps, in which light is produced by the passage of an
electric current through a vapor or gas, rather
than through a tungsten
wire. The application of an electrical
potential ionizes the gas, and per-
at opposite ends of
mits current to flow between two electrodes located
the lamp. The electrons which comprise
the current stream, or "arc
discharge," are accelerated to tremendous speeds.
When they collide
the gas or vapor they temporarily alter the atomic
with the atoms of
structure, and light results from the energy
given off as the disturbed
sources have a
atoms return to their normal state. Electric discharge
high-reactance transformer or
negative resistance characteristic, and a
current.
some similar device must he provided to limit the
The three basic elements of any electric discharge lamp are

the gas,
the electrodes, and the bulb. In mercury

vapor lamps the "gas" is vapor-
ized mercury. Since mercury at
room temperature is a hquid, seen as
small drops on the inside wall of an unlighted lamp, a small amount of
more readily ionized argon gas is introduced into mercury vapor lamps
is struck through the lomzation of
to faciUtate starting. The original arc
thisargon gas. Once the arc strikes, its heat begins to vaporize the mercury,
which then gradually becomes a con-
ductor.
The electrodes used in mercury lamps

are either of the activated type, with
barium oxide as the electron-emissive
^LEAD WIRES
material coated on a coil of tungsten
wire, or of the non-activated thorium
7 SUPPORTS
metal type. The impact of the arc ^RESISTOR

heats the emissive material, which sup- MAIN
plies electronsto maintain the arc. -ELECTRODE
The electrodes also act as terminals for STARTING
the arc. -ELECTRODE
Most mercury lamps are constructed -ARC TUBE

with two bulbs, an inner bulb which
contains the arc, and an outer bulb
which shields the arc tube from changes -OUTER BULB
in temperature and in some cases
acts
as a filter to remove certain wave-
lengths of the arc radiation. The arc- MAIN
ELECTRODE
tube is made of quartz in some lampSf
and of hard glass in others. The outer
bulb is hard glass, the exact type de-
pending upon the application for
which the lamp is designed, and the
.400 -WATT A- Ml LAMP
portion of the arc spectrum which it
is desired to transmit. The space be-
tween the two bulbs is evacuated in
inner bulb is glass.
quartz-bulb lamps, and filled with inert gas where the
3—17
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
C-II4
(Sp)
TYPE A-R4 B-H4 E-II4 s-4 A-H5 C-H5
(Fl)
Watts (Lamp Only)® 100 100 100 100 250 250
Outer Bulb T-IO T.16 PAR.38 A-21 T-14 T.14

Outer Bulb Glass 772 5872 772 721 774 172
Nat. Red Alum.

Outer Bulb Finish Clear Purple Reflect. Clear Clear Clear
Arc Tube Material Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz

Arc Length (In.) 1 1 1 1 \H \%
Admed. Admed. Admed. Admed. Mogul Mogul
Base Sc. Sc. Sc. Skt, Sc. Sc. Sc.
Initial Lumens (At 100 Hrs.) 3300 — — 3000 10,000 10,000
Rated Average life

5 Hours per Start 1000 1000 1000 ®1000 1000 3000
10 Hours per Start
Maximum Over-all Length (In.) 5H 5^ ^% 5M 8 8
Light Center Length (In.) ^'A ^J^ — V^ 5 5
Burning Position Any Any Any Any Any Any

Electrode Type Thor. Thor. Thor. Thor. Thor. Thor.
Vapor Pressure (Atmospheres) 8 8 8 8 4.5 4.5
Open-Circuit Volts 250 250 250 250 250 250

Operating Volts 130 130 130 130 135 135
Starting Current (Amperes) 1.3 1.3 1.3 L3 2.9 2,9
Operating Current (Amperes) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 2,1 2.1
Starting Time (Minutes) 3 3 3 3 4 4
Refitriking Time (Minutes) 3 3 4 3 4 4
RECOM MENDED APPLICATIONS |
General Lighting X — — — — X
Floodlighting — _ X — ~ X
Stre<;t Lighting — — - — X
Black Light X X X — X —
Photochemical X — X X X —
Blueprint and Photography X — — — X —
Sun Lamp Service — - — X — —
Searciilight and Projection X — — — — X
® For total wattage add transformer watts which range from 8% to 25% of lamp watts
depending chiefly upon the type of lamp and transformer used.
® The A-H6 waler-cooled and requires an outer water jacket, generally of quartz or 774
is
heat resislmg glass. A similar lamp for air jet cooling is the B-U6 rated at 900 watts.
®The A-H6, A-H9 and B-H9 are single-bulb lamps. The outer bulb is the arc tube.
® Life of the S-4 and RS sun lamps is rated at 1000 applications in normal sun lamp use in
the home, or 1000 hours at 5 hours per start.
3—18
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
A-Hl
RS B-Hl D-Hl E-Hl F-Hl ®A-H6 A-H12 B-H12 A-H9 B-H9
275 400 400 400 400 1000 1000 1000 3000 3000
R.40 T-16 T-20 T.20 T.16 T-2 T.28 T.28 T.9H T-9H
776 772 774 172 772 Quartz 172 774 172 973
I.F.AIum.
Reflect. Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear Clear
Quartz 172 Quartz Quartz 172 ®Quartz Quartz Quartz ®172 ®973
IM 6 2H 2% 6 1 5 5 48 50
Mogul Mogul Mogul Mog.Sc. Mog.Sc. Mog.Sc. S/C S/C
Med. Sc. Sc. Sc. Sc. Mech. Sleeve Mech. Mech. Term. Term.
— 16.000 20,000 20,000 16,000 65,000 60,000 60,000 120,000 120,000
®1000 4000 ®1000 3000 4000 75 2000 2000 4000 3000

6000 ®- 6000 6000 4500
6J^ 13 11 11 13 SH 14 14 54^ 56K
— IH 7 7 7M — 9 9 — —
Any ® Any Any ® Horiz. Any Any Any Any
Thor. Oxide Thor. Thor. Oxide Mercury Thor. Thor. Oxide Thor.
1.1 1.2 2.5 2.5 1.2 110 1.5 1.5 0.4 0.4
— 220 ®220 ®220 220 1200 ®220 ®220 850 850
®110-125 135 135 135 135 840 135 135 535 535
3.2 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 2.6 12 12 9.3 9.3
2.4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 1.4 8.2 8.2 6.1 6.1
2 7 4 4 7 2 Sec. 4 4 7 7
3 7 4 4 7 2 Sec. 6 6 8 1
RECOMMENDED APPLICATIONS
— X — X — — X — X —
— X — X - — X — — —
— X — X X — X — — __
— — X — — X — X — X
— — X — — X — X __ X
— — X — — X — X _ X
X — — — — — — — — —
— — — X — X X —
Rated average life at 5 hours per start for D-111 in any position is 1000 ho urs. At 10 hours
per start the rated average life is 3000 hours in the vertical po sition onl]r.
® The A-Hl and F-Hl are designed for base up burning, the B-lai for has e down burning.
These types must be operated within 10" of vertical.
® For normal indoor use. Higher open-circuit voltages are desira ble for deltendable starting
at lower temperatures.
® For 50-60 cycle a-c operation only. Operates directly from i egular lig hting circuit, no
transformer required.
a— 19
LAMP TYPES
Designations
The identifying designations of mercury vapor lamps are quite different
from th^se of incandescent filament lamps. All designations contain
the
letter H (for Hg, mercury), and all types of the same wattage, which
will operate on the same transformer, are given
the same if-numeral
designation. All "HI" lamps, for example, are 400-watt lamps
requirinff
what IS called an "Hi" transformer, all "H4" lamps are 100-watt lamps
operating on H4 transformers, etc. The numerals are not in
order of
wattage, but were merely assigned to the various lamp types in
the order
Specific types of lamps of a given wattage are
?i .r"^/f^ ,**P™^°*'
identifaed by the letter preceding the H-numeral designation: A-Hl, B-Hl,
etc. The letter designations are also assigned arbitrarily, and have no
intrinsic meaning.
Radiation Characteristics
The mercury arc produces a line spectrum having strong lines in the
ultraviolet andvisible regions, and some in the infrared. Mercury
vapor
lamps vary greatly in design according to the region of the spectrum
that
It IS desired to use. Lamps used primarily for lighting purposes are de-
signed to produce as much energy as possible in the four important
lines
within the visible spectrum: 4047, 4358, 5461, and 5770-90
Angstroms.
Iôr creating fluorescence in dyes and pigments the lines
in the near ultra-
violet are utilized, chiefly those at 3342 and 3650 Angstroms.
Erythemal
(sunburn) and vitamin -D -producing or antirachitic effects are induced
by
shorter-wave ultraviolet radiations centering around the 2967-Angstrom
line and those immediately on either side of it. The
bactericidal region of
the ultraviolet spectrum is of still shorter wavelengths. The
2537-Ang8trom
line 18 the effective wavelength produced by a group
of special mercury
vapor lamps designed for bactericidal use.
Control of the radiation generated by the mercury arc so as to produce

energy in these various regions is accomplished by the choice of
bulb
glasses to act as filters, and to a certain extent by regulation
of the vapor
pressure at which the arc operates. The relative inleusities of the
various
mercury lines change considerably with changes in vapor pressure, the
general effect of increasing pressure being to shift the radiation
toward
the longer wavelengths, so that relatively more energy is generated
in
the visible spectrum and relatively less in the shortwave
ultraviolet. At
high pressures there is a tendency for the lines to widen, and the
gaps
between them to be filled in, until at 100 atmospheres the lines appear
against a background of radiation that is almost continuous
throu^^hout
^
the spectrum.
Bactericidal lamps operate at exceedingly low vapor pressures (about

10 microns) where the efficiency of production of the 2537-Angstrom line
ISvery high. Most other types of mercury lamps are operated at medium
pressures (one to ten atmospheres) where much less 2537-Angstrom energy
but much more longwave ultraviolet and visible are produced.
Reference to the accompanying spectral transmission curves of com-

monly used bulb glasses will show how the purpose for which the lamp is
designed determines the choice of bulb glass for each of the lamps
Hsted
in the table of technical data.
3—2a
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
Since quartz transmits all SPECTRAL TRANSMtSSION OF GLASSES
wavelengths equally, the outer
bulb of a quartz arc-tube must
be of glass that will screen out
the bactericidal and erythemal
ultraviolet, unless it is specifi-
cally wanted. Lamps designed
for general lighting purposes
have outer bulbs of 172 or 772
(Nonex) glass, which transmit
very little energy below 3400
Angstroms, Lamps to be used
as sources of erythemal or
longwave ultraviolet energy
have 774 or 776 (Pyrex) bulbs
which transmit farther down
into the ultraviolet, but still
cut out the extremely short
wavelengths that might be 2600 3200 3600 4000 4400
harmful to the eyes. WAVELENGTH- ANGSTROMS
Quartz vs. Glass Inner Bulb

The HI (400-watt) lamps are available with either quartz or glass arc-
tubes, the choice between them being determined by the use to which
the lamp is to be put. The glass arc-
tube lamp has a longer rated life, /;::?^
but the quartz type has a 25% higher
initial light output and a slightly
better color quality because of the
higher pressure at which its arc oper-
ates. The chief distinctions between
the two types of lamps from the ap-
plication standpoint, however, are the
smaller light-source size and higher
brilliance of the quartz-tube lamp,
making it much more adaptable to
applications where the light is con- f/
trolled by reflector or lens systems,
and its freedom from restrictions as
to burning position. Glass arc-tube
lamps must be burned in a vertical
or nearly vertical position to prevent
the arc from bowing and touching
the wall of the tube, but quartz-tube
QUARTZ ARC TUBE CLASS ARC TUBE
lamps will give satisfactory perform-
400-WATT Ht LAMPS
ance in any position.
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Current-limiting transformers have been designed for each type of mer-
cury lamp to furnish proper lamp voltage and current ballasting through
the inductance of the windings. The electrical characteristics of trans-
formers when used in conjunction with discharge lamps are such as to
produce a low power factor. This situation is commonly corrected by the
3—21
_
addition of capacitance in the form

of a condenser, generally built into
the transformer. Uncorrected trans-
formers have power factors of 50 to
CAPACITOR 60%, whereas the corrected ones
achieve 90% or better. Two-lamp
transformers only slightly larger
than the sinde-lamp type operate one
lamp on a leading current and the
other on a lagging current, producing
an over-all power factor of about
90%. Transformer wattage loss per
TYPICAL CIRCUIT
TYPE HI HIGH REACTANCE TRANSFORMER lamp is in general less with the two-
POWER FACTOR CORRECTED lamp ballast, and stroboscopic efifect
is greatly reduced.
.
All transformers must of course be
designed for the specific voltage and frequency of the supply with which
they are to be used. For dependable starting and good lamp life, mercury
lamps must be operated within rather narrow voltage limits, and the
primary of each transformer is pro-
n \ \
_CHARACTERISTIC
—— r~
CURVES
4 00 -WATT HI LAMPS
i vided with taps for several voltages
within its general range. Most equip-
ment is designed for a frequency of 60
cycles. Operation on lower frequen-
cies down to 25 cycles is possible,
although larger transformers are re-
quired and stroboscopic eftect is
LAMP VOLTS'
;Z"- greater. Since the arc is actually
LAMP
AMPERES'*
LAMP WATTS^
LAMP LUMENS'
^ extinguished each time the current
reverses, at frequencies below 25
cycles the mercury vapor may have
>0 60 70 80 90 100 110 120^130
time between cycles to deionize and
PER CENT OF RATED PRIMARY VOLTS the electrodes to cool sufficiently to
prevent restriking of the arc.
Starting and Restarting
The two-electrode types of mercury vapor lamps, the A-H6 and the
A-H9, require starting voltages of 1200 and 850 volts to ionize the argon
fill gas and permit the arc to strike. In the more common three-electrode
type of lamp an auxiliary starting electrode placed close to the main
electrode nearest the base makes it possible to start the lamp on 250
'
'
volts or less. Here an electrical field
is first set up between the starting
electrode and the adjacent main
electrode, causing an emission of elec-
trons which develops a local glow and
ionizes the starting gas. The arc then
starts between the main electrodes,
and the mercury gradually becomes
vaporized and carries an increasing
portion of the current. During this
6 10 12 process the arc stream changes from
TIME IN MINUTES the diffuse bluish glow characteristic of
3—22
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
the argon arc to the blue green of mercury, increasing greatly in brilliance
and becoming concentrated in the center of the tube. At the instant the
arc strikes the current is high and the voltage is low. Normal operating
values are reached after a warm-up period of several minutes, during
which the current drops and the voltage rises until the arc attains a point
of stabilization in vapor pressure.
An interruption in the power supply, or a sudden voltage drop of more
than 15%, will extinguish the arc. Before the lamp will relight, it must
cool sufficiently to reduce the vapor pressure to a point where the arc will
restrike at the voltage available. Starting time (minutes to full light
output at ordinary room temperatures with no enclosing fixture) and
restriking time (cooling time until the lamp will restart) are given for the
various types of lamps in the technical data table.
Lamp Life and Lumen Maintenance

The average life of general service mercury vapor lamps is relatively
long. Both life and lumen maintenance are affected by the number of
times the lamp is started. Each time LUMEN maintenance:
the arc is struck some of the emission 400-WATT MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
material is sputtered away and de-
posited on the inner surface of the arc-
tube, and this process results eventu-
ally in exhaustion of the emission to: BURNED 10 HOURS PER START
material and blackening of the inner
bulb. Since the light output falls off °5
rather rapidly during the first few gi40
hours of life, the rated initial lumens ^"^
of mercury vapor lamps are estab- UJ< po RATED INITIAL LUMENS _
"determined AT 100 HOURS
fished after 100 hours' burning. The
chart shows typical lumen mainte-
nance performance for 400-watt glass 12 1 3 4 5
HOURS LIFE (THOUSANDS)
1
arc-tube lamps. The curve for the
E-Hl quartz arc -tube lamp at 10 hours per start is similar in shape, with
a value of 78% of initial lumens per watt at 70% of rated life.
Ambient Temperature
The light ouput of the double-bulb type of mercury lamp is little affected
by ambient temperature. Experience has shown that the A-Hl lamp is
satisfactory for temperatures down to -20°F. The single-bulb A-H9
and B-H9 lamps, on the other hand, are rather critically aifected by low
temperatures, particularly if the surrounding air is moving, and are not
considered suitable for use below 32 °F without special protection. Ambient
temperature affects the striking voltage of all discharge lamps to some
extent, and higher starting voltages than those listed in the table for
indoor use are recommended for street and floodlighting installations in
cold climates, particularly where quartz arc-tube lamps are used.
Lamp Temperature
Because mercury vapor lamps are long-lived, operating temperatures
are particularly important. The effect of heat is partly a function of time,
and the longer the life of the lamp the greater the possibility of damage
from high temperatures. Excessive bulb and base temperatures may
cause lamp failure or unsatisfactory performance due to softening of the
glass, damage to the quartz arc-tube by moisture driven out of the outer
bulb, softening of the basing cement or solder, or corrosion of the base,
socket, or lead-in wires. The use of any reflecting equipment that might
3—23
*~ ^^^^^—-=^-^- t r~??^. addition of capacitance in the form

of a condenser, generally built into
the transformer. Uncorrected trans-
formers have power factors of 50 to
CAPACITOR 60%, whereas the corrected ones
i
I
achieve 90% or better. Two-lamp
I transformers only slightly larger
t
I
than the single-lamp type operate one
lamp on a leading current and the
other on a lagging current, producing
an over-all power factor of about
TYPICAL CIRCUIT
90%. Transformer wattage loss per
TYPE HI HIGH REACTANCE TRANSFORMER lamp is in general less with the two-
POWER FACTOR CORRECTED lamp ballast, and stroboscopic effect
is greatly reduced,
J , -
. ,
^
AH transformers must of course be
aesigned for the specific voltage and frequency of the supply with which
ttiey are to
be used. For dependable starting and good lamp life,
lamps must be operated within rather narrow mercury
voltage limits, and the
jiriraary of each transformer is pro-
CH
1 }
^t^S'^'T^f^'STlC CURVES
.400-WATT Hi LAMPS
\—T" vided with taps for several voltages
within its general range. Most equip-
H. ment is designed for a frequency of 60
cj^cles. Operation on lower frequen-
cies down to 25 cycles is possible,
although larger transformers are re-
quired and stroboscopic effect is
greater. Since the arc is actually
extinguished each time the current
reverses, at frequencies below 25
cycles the mercury vapor may have
50 60 70 eo 90 (0 io
time between cycles to deionize and
go I3Q i
PER CENT OF RATED PRIMARY

VOLTS the electrodes to cool sufficiently to
prevent restriking of the arc.
Starting and Restarting
The two-electrode types of mercury vapor lamps, the
A.H6 and the
starting voltages of 1200 and 850 volts to ionize
^^'^\''''^
rii
'
the argon
fall gas and permit the
arc to strike. In the more common three-electrode
type ol lamp an auxiliary starting electrode
placed close to the main
elec trode nearest the base ma kes
it possible to start the lamp on 250
'
' ' ^
volts or less. Here an electrical field
^
'
'
'
is first set up between the starting

electrode and the adjacent main
electrode, causing an emission of elec-
trons which develops a local glow and
^3 ionizes the starting gas. The arc then
starts between the main electrodes,
and the mercury gradually becomes
rSTARTING CHARACTERISTICS
400 - WATT A-Hl LAMP -" vaporized and carries an increasing
I
portion of the current. During this
I I 1 I
4 6 8 10 12 process the arc stream changes from

TIME IN MINUTES the diffuse bluish glow characteristic of
3—22
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
the argon arc to the blue green of mercury, increasing greatly in brilliance
and becoming concentrated in the center of the tube. At the instant the
arc strikes the current is high and the voltage is low. Normal operating
values are reached after a warm-up period of several minutes, during
which the current drops and the voltage rises until the arc attains a point
of stabilization in vapor pressure.
An interruption in the power supply, or a sudden voltage drop of more
than 15%, will extinguish the arc. Before the lamp will relight, it must
cool sufficiently to reduce the vapor pressure to a point where the arc will
restrike at the voltage available. Starting time (minutes to full light
output at ordinary room temperatures with no enclosing fixture) and
restriking time (cooling time until the lamp will restart) are given for the
various types of lamps in the technical data table.
Lamp Life and Lumen Maintenance

The average life of general service mercury vapor lamps is relatively
long. Both life and lumen maintenance are affected by the number of
times the lamp is started. Each time lumen maintenance
the arc is struck some of the emission 400-watt mercury vapor lamps
material is sputtered away and de- j.
posited on the inner surface of the arc- ^

®°
tube, and this process results eventu- ut^
<u BURNED 10 HOURS PER START
ally in exhaustion of the emission
material and blackening of the inner
o^
bulb. Since the light output falls off
rather rapidly during the first few
hours of life, the rated initial lumens
of mercury vapor lamps are estab- RATED INITIAL LUMENS _
"determined at 100 HOURS
lished after 100 hours' burning. The
chart shows typical lumen mainte-
nance performance for 400-watt glass
12 3 4 5
arc-tube lamps. The curve for the
E-Hl quartz arc-tube lamp at 10 hours per start is similar in shape, with
a value of 78% of initial lumens per watt at 70% of rated life.
Ambient Temperature
The light ouput of the double-bulb type of mercury lamp is little affected
by ambient temperature. Experience has shown that the A-Hl lamp is
satisfactory for temperatures down to -20°F. The single-bulb A-H9
and B-H9 lamps, on the other hand, are rather critically affected by low
temperatures, particularly if the surrounding air is moving, and are not
considered suitable for use below 32 °F without special protection. Ambient
temperature affects the striking voltage of all discharge lamps to some
extent, and higher starting voltages than those listed in the table for
indoor use are recommended for street and floodlighting installations in
cold climates, particularly where quartz arc-tube lamps are used.
Lamp Temperature
Because mercury vapor lamps are long-lived, operating temperatures
are particularly important. The effect of beat is partly a function of time,
and the longer the life of the lamp the greater the possibility of damage
from high temperatures. Excessive bulb and base temperatures may
cause lamp failure or unsatisfactory performance due to softening of the
glass, damage to the quartz arc-tube by moisture driven out of the outer
bulb, softening of the basing cement or solder, or corrosion of the base,
socket, or lead-in wires. The use of any reflecting equipment that might
3—23
concentrate heat and light rays on either the inner arc-tube or the outer
bulb must be avoided.
The temperatures listed in the following table do not represent maxi-
mum safe operating temperatures in actual service. They are the tem-
peratures which should not be exceeded in a laboratory test, with a new
luminaire and a new lamp, operating at rated watts, and an ambient
temperature of 25°C. Allowance is made for higher temperatures in service
due to bulb blackening, overvoltage operation, high ambient temperatures,
etc. If a lamp in a given luminaire does not exceed the rated base and bulb
temperatures under laboratory conditions it should be safe in service
under all ordinary circumstances.
LUMINAIRE TEST TEMPERATURE LIMITS FOR MERCURY LAMPS

(Measured at 25°C Ambient)
Lamp Outer Bulb *lla
100-Watt A-H4 400*^C I70°C

B-H4 400°C
C.n4, E-H4 400°C noPC
250-Wati A-H5 400°C IIQPC
C-H5 475°C napc
275-Watt RS 250°C noPc
400- Watt A-Hl, B-Hl 400°C noPC
D.Hl 400°C 170°C
E.Hl 475°C 170°C
F-Hl 425°C 20<yc
1000-Watt A-n6 Special Cooling Required
A-H12 475°G 200<*C
B.H12 400°C 200°C
3000- Watt A-n9 375°C minimum to 550°C maximum throughout length of arc tube.
B-H9 375°C minimum to 550°C maximum throughout length of arc tube.
* A 10 C higher test temperature ia cotiHidered acceptable in itreet lighting and
outdoor floodlighting (ixtures because the ambient temperatures during operation
are generally lower than in other types of service.
Two lamps, the A-H6 and B-H6, have so much wattage condensed into
so small a space that they require forced cooling. The A-H6 operates in
a water jacket with a continuous stream of water flowing through it, and
the B-H6 is designed to be cooled by two high-pressure air jets directed
at the bulb, one opposite each electrode.
APPLICATION INFORMATION
Color
The spectrum of mercury lamps is a very efficient source of light,
line
but deficiency in the red and preponderance of blue and green results
its
in marked
distortion of object colors, and makes its use undesirable where
the appearance of colors is important. Color correction satisfactory for
many purposes may be obtained by adding tungsten fdament lamps in
the same fixture or alternate fixtures, to supply the red lacking in the
mercury spectrum. The incandescent lamps also furnish Ught wliile tlie
mercury lamps are heating up. The minimum amount of incandescent
light necessary to provide noticeable color improvement, particularly in
the appearance of the human skin, is about 15% of the total light, on
the basis of lumens. Beyond a ratio of approximately 60% incandescent
lumens to 40% mercury lumens the additional improvement obtained by
3—24
MERCURY VAPOR LAMPS
adding more incandeBcent lamps is slight, and the over-all efficiency of the
lighting system is seriously reduced. The distinctive color of mercury
light may sometimes be an advantage, as in certain street lighting applica-
tions, or in floodlighting designed to attract attention to roadside stands,
service stations, or displays,
Stroboscopic Eflfect
The arc of a mercury vapor lamp operating on 60-cycle alternating
current completely extinguished 120 times a second. Thus there is a
is
tendency for the eye to see in flashes, with the result that a rapidly moving
object may appear to move in a series of jerks. Stroboscopic effect may
be greatly reduced by operating pairs of lamps on lead-lag two-lamp
transformers, or three lamps on the separate phases of a three-phase
supply. The use of incandescent lamps in combination with mercury
lamps also lessens stroboscopic effect.
Lamp Applications
Mercury lamps are most commonly used for general lighting purposes in
high bay installations covering large areas, as in steel mills, airplane
plants, and foundries, where color discrimination is not important. The
technical data table gives some indication of the many special uses in
addition to general lighting for which mercury lamps are particularly
well adapted. The development of the quartz arc-tube lamp, with its
universal burning position and smaller source size, has made possible
a greatly increased use of mercury lamps in floodlighting and street light-
ing. The high source brightness of mercury lamps gives them limited
applications in certain projection systems where a complete color spectrum
is not necessary.
The ultraviolet portion of the mercury spectrum is effective in a wide
range of photochemical applications such as blueprinting, photocopying,
bleaching, and chlorination. Mercury lamps of medium pressure, espec-
ially those of the quartz type, are highly efficient sources of the near
ultraviolet energy used for the activation of fluorescent and phosphorescent
dyes and pigments and the creation of "black light" effects. The RS and
S-4 sun lamps generate erythemal ultraviolet at effective intensities, the
RS lamp being a self-contained unit requiring no auxiliary equipment,
SODIUM VAPOR LAMPS

Sodium vapor lamps are similar to mercury lamps in general principle,
except that the arc is carried through vaporized sodium, and the starting
gas is neon. The vapor pressure at which the sodium arc operates is low,
and the arc-tube must be enclosed in a vacuum flask to maintain the
proper operating temperature. The starting time to full light output is
15 to 20 minutes, hut the lamp will restart immediately after interruption
of the power supply. The light produced by the sodium arc is almost
monochromatic, consisting merely of a double line in the yellow region
of the spectrum at 5890-96 Angstroms. Because all the energy emitted
is so near the maximum of the eye sensitivity curve, efficiencies as high
j as 55 lumens per watt are obtained. The disadvantage of the limited

* spectrum is that all objects appear as yellow, or shades of yellow, and this
characteristic restricts the use of sodmm lamps to certain types of out-
5 door lighting. In addition, the large size and low brightness of the arc
^ make accurate light control rather difficult. Sodium lamps find their
chief application in street and highway lighting, particularly at inter-
3 sections and other locations where a distinctive color is desirable.
3—25
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
THEORY OF OPERATION
The fluorescent lamp is essentially an electric discharge source. It con-
sists of a tuhular bulb having electrodes sealed into each end and containing
mercury vapor at low pressure with a small amount of argon (for starting).
The inner walls of theLulb are coated with fluorescent powders which give
off light when activated by ultraviolet energy. When the proper voltage is
impressed on the electrodes, a flow of electrons is driven from one electrode
and attracted or pulled to the other. As these electrons speed through the
tube they collide with the mercury atoms, causing a state of excitation
which produces shortwave ultraviolet radiation (2537 Angstroms). The
fluorescent powders, commonly known as phosphors, absorb this invisible
energy and radiate visible light.
vAvvlSIBLE UCHT//^/A
LAMP CONSTRUCTION
Cathodes
Two principal types of electrodes are employed in fluorescent lamps,
the coated coiled coil tungsten wire and the inside-coated cylindrical
metal tube.
The coiled tungsten wire type of electrode is
coated with an emission material of barium and
strontium oxide which when heated gives off
electrons. The process is called thermionic
emission because the electrons are emitted more
as a result of the heat developed than of the
voltage applied. A hot spot is created on the
cathode at the point where the mercury arc
strikes, and a continuous stream of electrons is
g^ -*'-^-'^......,....,,,...^,^*^^^
^-__^
f— '-g^^^^-—
*^^
^ ''^^^-^-'^^^^^^w/
COLD CATHODE
produced. This type of operation is character-
w
istic of what is known as the "hot cathode"
lamp. As originally developed it required a pre-
heating of the cathodes to produce the necessary
electrons to strike the arc. By the use of a
higher impressed voltage it can also be made to start instantly, without
preheating.
The coated iron cylindrical-tube electrode commonly known as the

"cold cathode" also relies on the application of a high voltage to pull elec-
trons from the unheated cathode and provide instant starting. The arc
3—26
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
terminates on the entire cylinder, instead of at a particular point, as on the

coiled wire or hot cathode. Thus the heat is generated over a larger area
and the cathode does not reach as high a temperature at any one place;
hence the name ''cold cathode." Because of the lower temperature and the
lack of thermionic emission a higher voltage is necessary to maintain the
electron supply. The potential drop at a cold cathode is about five times
that at a hot cathode, and consequently the cathode wattage loss is much
greater and the lamp is less efficient. The cold cathode does, however,
have a longer life, especially where the lamp is subjected to frequent
starting, as on flashing circuits.
Phosphors
The fluorescent and phosphorescent materials most commonly used in
paints, dyes and plastics are excited by longwave ultraviolet in the neigh-
borhood of 3650 Angstroms. Fluorescent lamps employ compounds of
another type activated by 2537-Ang8trom ultraviolet, which is the wave-
length most efficiently generated by a low-pressure mercury arc. The
phosphors selected for use in lamps are chosen because they are efficient
converters of this shortwave energy into light, and because they are stable
compounds which maintain their light output at a reasonable level through-
out the Ufe of the lamp.
The color produced depends on the chemical composition of the phos-
phors. The White, 4500 White, Daylight and Soft White lamp colors
are obtained by the mixing
of phosphors in various pro- Color o£
portions. Green, Blue and Phosphor Fluorescence
Pink lamps use single phos- Zinc Silicate Green
phors, while Gold and Red Calcium Tungstate Blue
lamps use a phosphor plus a Cadmium Borate Pink
Zinc Beryllium Silicate YellowiBh White
colored coating applied to Magnesium Tungstate Bluish White
the inner surface of the bulb.
Another phosphor known as 360BL is an efficient source of near ultra-
violet, with its maximum energy output at about 3650 Angstroms. Lamps
made with this phosphor produce very little visible radiation, and are
intended for use only in activating fluorescent and phosphorescent mate-
rials. In other respects 360BL lamps are similar to standard fluorescent
lamps.
Lamp Types
Fluorescent lamps, commonly designated as ^'Type F" lamps, are made
with tubular bulbs varying in diameter from T-5 {^ inch) to T-17 (23^
inches). The standard line of lamps with preheat cathodes vary in length
from 9 inches to 60 inches. Slimline lamps are made in T-6 and T-8 bulbs,
and range up to 96 inches in length. They employ the instant-start type
of hot cathode.
The 40-watt T-12 lamp is
available with either the preheat or the instant-
start cathode.Fluorescent lamps are also made in the form of a circle.
These are known as Circline lamps, and they have the preheat type of
cathode*
3—27
REFERENCE DATA ON FLUORESCENT LA\tI»S

(For Life See Rated Life Table)
Approx.
Operating
®
Open
® ©Rated Initial
®Lainp
Pre- Lumens
Base Cir- heat
cuit Am-
Amps. Volts Veils peres ® 4.'-,00 l>ay-
White White Hght
6.W O'' T-5 Min. Bipin 0.145 47 118 0.18 210 198 186
8-W 12" T-5 Min. Bipin 0.165 55 118 0.21 330 310 295
13-W 21"T-5 Min. Bipin 0.160 95 200 0.20 585 545 520
14-W 15"T-12 Med. Bipin 0.370 41 118 0.55 490 460 435
®15-W 18"T-8 Med. Bipin 0.300 56 118 0.55 615 600 585
15- W
18"T-12 Med. Bipin . 3,30 48 118 0.55 600 570 540
®20-W 24'^ T-12 Med. Bipin 0.360 60 118 0.55 920 860 800
®30-W 36^^ T-8 Med. Bipin 0.340 103 200 0.53 1470 1380 1350
®®40-W 48* T-12 Med. Bipin 0.415 106 200 0.65 2320 2100 1920
100-W 60*' T-17 Mog. Bipiu 1.450 72 150 1.78 4200 4000 3900
Instant-Start
40.W 48* T.12 ®Med. Bipin 0.415 106 450 2320 2100 1920
40-W 60' T-17 ®Mog. Bipin 0.400 no 450 2100
©Slimline
16-Wl fo.ioo 180 450 930 880
25-W 42" T-6 Single-Pin 0.200 150 450 1400 1320
33-Wj l0.300 130 450 1620
24-W f 0.100 285 600 1440 1370
39-W 64* T-6 Single-Pin 0.200 230 600 ••"• 2250 2150 ::;:
51-Wj [0.300 200 600 @ 2600
22.W1 [0.100 250 600 1410 1340 ....
38.W}72*T.8 Single-Pin 0.200 220 600 •* 2350 2250
51.WJ (0.300 200 600 ® 2850
2q-W] [0.100 335 750 1890 1800
Sl-W 96* T.8 Single-Pin
0.200 295 750 3200 3050
69- W J 0.300 265 750 3950
Circline
32-W 12* Diam.
T-10 Four-Pin 0.430 84 150 0.65 1600
® Lamp watts, noni inal over-all leiigtU (on e lamp plus tw o stanc ard Ianloholde rB>. anA
. g a on ^_ . .-
—
, „„..,„^» .Mv..v.»ti.t. i.uMt u(uiuci.i::i: lu ci)ûLiiB oi au inco;.
) Minimum opcn-circmt volte at rated line voltage of ballast.
) Center value,
^
&?. ^î"" 'amps have lumen outputs approximately 25 % less than the correspondiim
White lamps. *
) Lumens when measured at 80°F ambient, and under specified test conditions. The light
output of a new lamp will appreciably exceed the above rated initial values,
which apply
when the lamps have burned 100 hours.
> Regularly available also in Blue, Green, Cold, Pink, and Red.
) Base pius shorted inside base.
Slimline lamps may be operated at any intermediate value between 100
)
and 300 railli-
araperes. The light output increases with the current loading. For example,
the lumen
and wattage values of the 96* T-8 lamp are approximately 16 and 40% higher at 120
and 150 milhamperes, respectively, than at 100 milliamperes.
® A Low Temperature 40-watt T.12 lamp, marked with thd letters **LT " gives reliable
starting down to 0°F.
® The lumen output is about 5% above that of the 4500 White lamp.
Bases
Lamps incorporatinff preheat cathodes require four electrical contacts,
which in the standard line of lamps take the form of a bipin base at either
end. There are three standard types of bipin bases: miniature bipin,
medium bipin, and mogul bipin. In Circline lamps the contacts are brought
together in a four-pin base located between the two cathodes where the
ends of the lamp adjoin.
3--28
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Lamps of the instant-start type require only two contacts, Slimline

lamps having single-pin bases. The
40-watt Instant-Start hot cathode
lamp has the medium bipin base, but
contains an electrical bridging mem-
ber between the pair of contacts at
each end, producing in effect a single
contact for each cathode. Because
of this construction, these lamps can-
not be operated in circuits containing
starters. Cold cathode lamps are also
instant-start lamps and have a single
contact at each end, usually in the
form of a cap base or a Slimline base ^^ «
.^, rr I f»,
1 ,. rOUH-PIN SINGLE-PIN StNGLE-PIN
With a clover leal termmal. Ccold cathode)
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Like discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps must have an auxiU-
all electric
ary, commonly known as a ballast, to limit the current and in most cases
to provide the necessary starting voltage. Each lamp requires a ballast
specifically designed for its characteristics, and for the service voltage on
which it is to be operated. The chief differences among ballasts lie in the
range of open-circuit voltages supplied to the lamp. Lamps with preheat
cathodes require relatively low starting voltages, not over 200 volts, hot
cathode instant-start and most multiple cold cathode lamps from 450 to
750 volts, and cold cathode lamps operated in series, considerably higher
voltages.
Preheat Ballasts
The preheat type of ballast serves three important functions:
1. Preheats the electrodes to make available a large supply of free

electrons.
2. Provides a surge of sufficiently high potential to start theârc.
3. Prevents the arc current from increasing beyond the limit set for a
particular size of lamp.
Preheat ballasts are either simple chokes or chokes plus autotransformers,

depending on the length of the lamp and the supply voltage. When the
starting voltage required is not greater than the supply voltage the ballast
IS a choke which merely limits the current flow.
When the supply voltage
is not sufTicient to start the arc the ballast
includes both a step-up auto-
transformer to provide the necessary starting potential, and a choke to
limit the current.
Starters
The preheat type of lamp requires a temporary starting circuit through
the cathodes. The duration of this flow of current may be controlled
manually, but most installations contain automatic switches. Starting
switches may be of the thermal- or the glow-switch type, the latter being
in much more common use today.
3—29
The glow-type starting Bwitch consists of two electrodes, one of which

isa bimetallic strip, enclosed in a small glass bulb filled with an inert gas
such as neon or argon. When
GLOW- SWITCH STARTER
voltage is applied a small current
flows through the circuit as a re-
sult of a glow discharge between
ril the two electrodes of the switch.
The heating effect of the current
expands the bimetallic element
and causes the electrodes to
touch. The closing of the switch
stops the glow discharge, but
allows a substantial flow of cur-
rent to preheat the lamp elec-
trodes during the short period of
time when there is enough residual
heat in the switch to keep it closed. As the bimetal cools the switch opens,
and the resultant high- voltage surê starts normal lamp operation. If the
lamp arc fails to strike, the cycle is repeated.
The switch does not glow after the lamp arc is established, since it is so
designed that the remaining available electrical potential is insufficicut
to cause a breakdown between its electrodes. Thus it consumes no power,
and when the lamp is turned off is available for immediate restarting.
The conventional starter consists of the glow switch plus a condenser

to suppress radio interference, both enclosed in a small cylindrical con-
tainer which is inserted in a two-
No-BUNK STARTER
coutact bayouet-ivpe socket. Since
the glow switch is designed to oper-
ate between critical voltage limits,
the proper starter must be used for
each type of lamp.
The No-Blink starter contains a

regular glow switch plus an additional
bimetallic element which automati-
cally cuts the lamp out of the circuit
after several unsuccessful attempts to
I -LOW RESISTANCE HEATER 4-BtMETAL STRIP start. Its use prevents annoying
2-HlGH RESISTANCE HEATER 5 -GLOW SWITCH blinking of lamps which have reached
3-LOCK-OUT CONTACT 6 -CONDENSER
the end of life, and protects the bal-
last against continuous flow of the
THERMAL STARTER high preheat current.
The thermal starter consists of a

heater coil which operates a bimetallic
switch, in a small container requiring
a four-contact bayonet-type socket.
The coil must remain in the circuit
to keep the switch open while the
lamp is in operation, and a thermal
starter therefore consumes a small
amount of current. Starters of this
kind are recommended for d-c opera-
tion and for low-temperature starting, where glow switches are less likely
to give satisfactory service.
3—30
6
5
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
REFERENCE DATA ON FLUORESCENT LAMP BALLASTS

APPROXIMATE WATTS LOSS PER LAMP
110-125 Volts (1)220-250 Volts
Starter Single- Lamp Two- Single- La mp Two-

Lamp Switch Lamp Lamp
®Low ©High ©High ®Low ©High ©High
PF PF PF PF PF
6-W 9' T-5 FS-5 2
8.W 12' T.5 FS-5 2.8
6"
13.W21'T-5 FS-4 7
U-W 15' T-12 FS-2 a. 3.6
15.W18''T-8 \
FS.2 4.5 4.5 4.5
15.W18'T.12 /
20-W 24' T.12 FS-2 4.5 4.5 4.5 "9'
30-W 36' T.8 FS-4 10 10 7.25 6^25
®40-W 48' T.12 FS-4 13 15 8.75 12 13 7.25
100-W 60' T.17 FS-6 24 17.5 24 17.5
Instant-Start
40- W48* T.12 \ Instant- 14 .... 12.5
40.W 60' T.17 / Start
Slimline
Instant- fll 10 5.75
^t:W}42*T.6 Start lis. 17 9
/12.5 10 7.5
i9:w}*^^'T-6 122 17 12
|2;W},2'T-8 fl2.5 10 7.5

\22 17 12
11.5 8
itw}^^"^-» {::;: 19.5 14
Grcllne
32.W 12' Diam. Manual
T-IO orGlow 11.5 9 8 .... ....
Switch
*The wattage losses shown are fur standard case type ballasts designed for ope ration on
60-cyclc service. The long, narrow type of ballag t usually has a slightly highei wattage
loss. For exact Ggures, manufacturers* catalogues should be consulted.
luformation on auxiliary equipment for use with direct current is include d in the
sectionon Direct-Current Operation.
© Low power factor ballasts have power factc»r8 ranging from about 45 to 60 %; high power
factor ballasts have power factors of 90 % and over.
© Ballasts for the 199 to 216.voU range have approximately the same wattage loss,
© Two 14-watt lamps may be operated in series with a 60.volt 0.5-ampere S-11 resist-
ance ballast lamp. A manual starter is required* and the ballast loss is 7.5 watts per
lamp. This circuit is suitable for either alternating current (power factor 95 to 100%)
or direct current.
® Three-lamp high power factor ballasts for 40-watt lamps are available for the 110 to
125.volt range (wattage loss 8 watts per lamp), and the 220 to 2S0>volt range (wattage
loss 7.66 watts per lamp).
Multi-Lamp Ballasts
Hot cathode lamps may be operated on single- or multi-lamp ballasts.
Uncorrected single-lamp ballasts, whether simple choke coils or autotrans-
formers, have low power factors of about 45 to 60%. High power factor
single-lamp auxiliaries are available, or separate capacitors may be used
with low power factor equipment.
3—31
SINGLE -LAMP SIMPLE CHOKE BALLAST SINGLE- LAMP AUTOTRANSFORMER BALLAST
LOW POWER FACTOR POWER FACTOR CORRECTED
^ ^ S;
CAPAClTORs! x££0TnnmrmTrr4-
In a two-lamp ballast each lamp has a separate reactor, with a capacitor

connected in series with one of the reactors to produce a leading current
in one lamp. Such a ballast has the advantage of providing high
power
factor (between 90 and 100%) and
TWO-LAMP PREHEAT CIRCUIT
decreased stroboscopic effect, with
reduced auxiliary wattage loss and
lower ballast cost per lamp. Since the
currents of the two lamps are approxi-
mately 115** out of phase, the fluctu-
ations in light output do not occur
simultaneously, and stroboscopic
effect is considerably reduced.
Multi-lamp ballasts for 15- to 40-

watt standard lamps require an in-
ductive compensator in order to pro-
vide the proper preheat current for
the lead lamp. This compensator is
connected in series with the starting
switch of the lead lamp, and func-
tions only when the lamp is starting,
being cut out of the circuit when the
, ., .
starting switch opens. Starting com-
pensators are bmlt mto most multi-lamp ballasts for these
lamp sizes.
Where they are not a part of the ballast they should be added to the circuit
to facilitate starting and to insure normal life for
the lead lamp. They are
not required with 100-watt, Instant-Start, or Slimline lamps.
Instant- Start Ballasts

Instant-Start and Slimline ballasts perform only two of the three
func-
tions servedhj preheat ballasts: they provide the necessary potential to
TWO-LAMP SLIMLINE ORCUIT TWO-LAMP INSTANT-START CIRCUIT
Mr
3—32
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
start the lamp, and they Umit the arc current. Because of the higher
voltages involved, these ballasts are larger than those for starter opera-
tion, and the hallast losses are somewhat greater. Slimline ballasts are
fenerally designed for a lamp current of 100, 200, or
300 milliamperes.
.ike the preheat type of ballast, they are available for single-
and for
two -lamp operation.
Frequency
The current-limiting characteristics of a ballast depend directly on the
frequency of the power supply, and for this reason ballasts must be used
on the frequency for which they were designed. When a single-lamp ballast
is used on a frequency lower than design, the inductive
reactance is reduced
and excessive current flows through the lamp. Shorter lamp life and over-
heated auxiliaries result. With a two-lamp ballast the current in the lagging
leg is similarly increased, but at the same time the current in the leading
leg is reduced, due to its capacitive reactance, with resultant adverse
effects on lamp life and light output. Operation on hieher than rated fre-
quencies will have opposite effects on the currents in the circuits.
Operation at low frequencies, such as 25 cycles, requires a larger ballast
« / which is less eflicient, and in addition results in more pronounced strobo-
I scopic effect. Higher frequencies, such as 400 cycles, have been used
^ '
tisfactorily on airplanes with special auxiliaries designed for the appli-
satisfactorily
cation.
Lamp Life
The of a fluorescent lamp is affected not only by the voltage and
life
current supplied to it, but also by the number of times it is started.
Electron emission material is "sputtered off" from the electrodes continu-
ously during the operation of the lamp, and in particularly large quantities
each time the lamp starts. Since the normal end of life is reached when
RATED AVERAGE LIFE OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS IN HOURS

Burning Hours per Start
Lamp
3 6 12
6.W 9" T.5 2500

8.W 12* T.5 2500
13.W 21* T-5 2500
14-W 15" T.12 2500
IS-W 18' T-8 2500 4666 6066
15-W 18* T-12 2500 4000 6000
20-W 24* T-12 2500 4000 6000
30-W 36" T.8 2500 4000 6000
40.W 48* T-12 2500 4000 6000
40-W 48* T-12 Low Temp. 1500
lOO-W 60* T-17 3000 4500 6500
Instant-Start
40-W 48* T.12 2500 4000 6000
40-W 60* T.17 2500
Slimline (AU Types) 2500 4000 6000
Circline
32.W 12' Diam. T-10 . 2500
3—33
the emission material is completely consumed from one of the electrodes,

the greater the number of burning hours per start the longer the life
of
the lamp. When the emission material is exhausted, lamps on a preheat
type of circuit will blink on and off as the electrodes heat but the arc fails
to strike. Lamps designed for instant starting will simply fail to
operate.
Blinking lamps should be removed from the circuit promptly, to protect
both the starter and the ballast from overheating.
The rated average life of a fluorescent lamp in burning hours is based
upon the average life of large representative groups of lamps tested in the
laboratory under controlled conditions. Ordinarily, with suitable auxil-
laries, line voltage, and frequency this average life will be
obtained in
service. When a large group of
lamps is tested it will be found that
failures occur very nearly in accord-
ance with the mortality curve shown
here, the average life being the point
at which approximately 50% of the
lamps have burned out.
In any installation large enough
BO that the laws of random sampling
apply, the average number of fail-
20 40 60 80 too 120 140 160 ures for a given period can be esti-
PER CENT OF AVERAGE LAMP LIFE mated from the formula:
Number of failures per month =
Hours burned per month x Number of lamps
Lamp life
This relationship can be applied only after an installation has been in

service for some time, and the renewal rate has reached an equilibrium.
A theoretical replacement curve calculated for an installation of new lamps
shows a maximum number of renewals as the initial lamps approach the
end of their average life. As replacements gradually become mixed with
1 1
the original group, fewer of the
REPLACEMENT RATE lamps reach the end of life at each
FLUORESCENT LAMPS succeeding multiple of the average
^H,50
life,and the curve flattens out. A
constant renewal rate cannot be ex-
\
1 \
l/
^^ pected until an installation has been
in operation for a number of burning
J hours equal to five or six times the
rated life of the lamps. Because of
u 100 200 300 400

the long life of the fluorescent lamp,
500^**** fluctuatiou in replacement rate
PER CENT OF AVERAGE LAMP LIFE ^^7 coutinuc ovcr a period of several
years.
Lumen Maintenance
The output of a new fluorescent lamp drops off about 10% during
light
the 100 hours of burning. Since the depreciation after this initial
first
drop IS much more gradual, fluorescent lamps are rated at the end of this
period. The published "initial lumens" for a fluorescent lamp is
the value
obtamed after 100 hours' burning. Under favorable operating conditions,
and on the basis of three hours' burning per start, the light output during
life averages approximately 80 to 85% of the
lOO-bour value. The typical
lumen maintenance curve illustrated here represents the average per-
3^.34
,
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
formance of a large number of lamps of one type. Individual lamps vary

somewhat both in lumen maintenance and in length of life, and the longer
the life the greater the drop in light
output. In installations where the
lamps are operated continuously "^V
some lamps may burn as long as <2
10,000 hours, but their depreciated
n
LUMEN "ulAINTENANCE
— — ....
~40 -WATT T-12 WHITE 'F' LAMP
light output will generally make it
uneconomical to use them much
beyond 6000 hours.
The depreciation in light output RATED INITIAL LUMENS
is due chiefly to a gradual deteriora- DETERMINED AT 100 HOURS
tion of the phosphor powders, and a 1 1 1 1 1
blackening of the inside of the tube. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The blackening is produced by
electrode material deposited on the inner surface of the bulb, and is there-
fore more pronounced at the ends of the lamp. The smaller the lamp
diameter and the closer the electrodes to the bulb wall, the greater the
darkening. In the last few hours of lamp life a rather dense deposit de-
velops at the end of the lamp where the electrode is deactivated. This
effect is especially marked if the lamp is allowed to flash on and off before
it is replaced.
Effect of Temperature
Fluorescent lamps are designed to operate at rated values at ordinary
indoor temperatures, and either low or high ambient temperatures will have
some effect on their operating char-
acteristics. Lumen output varies with EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
ON FLUORESCENT LAMPS
the temperature of the bulb wall,
which of course is affected by the
temperature and movement of the
surrounding air. Rated lumen values
are based on measurements made at
80°F ambient temperature in still air
with bnlb-wall temperatures of 100
to 120°F, Light output decreases
about 1% for each one-degree drop
in bulb temperature below this range,
and a like amount for each three-
degree increase up to 200°F. This
variation in lumen output is due
largely to a change in the character
of the arc discharge, which alters the
relative amount of ultraviolet gener-
ated and thereby affects the subse-
quent production of light by the phos-
20 40 60 80
phor. Luminaires are usually designed AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - DEGREES F
to make provision for these tempera-
ture characteristics of the lamp. ,
temperature ây also
In addition to a decrease in light output, low
flash on and off. Ihis
cause lamps operated by glow-switch starters to
effect is the result of a rise in the voltage
across the lamp, which accom-
sufficient y high
panies a decrease in temperature. If the voltage becomes
glow switch, the starter circmt will repeatedly go through
to activate the
the lamp. Thermal start-
its operating cycle, intermittently extinguishing
which are independent of variation in arc voltage, sliould be used for
ers,
3—35
satisfactory operation at low temperatures. Standard lamps, if protected

from drafts and provided with thermal or manual starting switches, and
with line voltages above the optimum voltage for normal temperatures
(118, 208, or 236 volts), can be operated at temperatures as low as 32°F.
Below 32°F, special low-temperature lamps or fixtures embodying heating
elements (filament lamps or heater coils) in addition to the above pre-
cautions are required.
A special Low Temperature 40-watt T-12 lamp which will give reliable
starting down to 0°F is available. This lamp is marked with the letters
"LT" and has a rated of 1500 hours. The standard 100-watt lamp
life
will also start satisfactorily down
to 0°F. However, all fluorescent lamps
must be enclosed to protect them from drafts if a reasonable Hght output
is to be maintained at low temperatures.
Because Slimline lamps and Instant-Start 40-watt T-12 lamps operate

without starters, there is no recycling of starter switches at low tempera-
tures. Also the higher voltages provided by their ballasts reduce the like-
lihood of the lamps being extinguished by cold. Once they are started at
low temperatures, they will stay lighted. However, starterless systems do
not have the advantages of the electrode preheat and the starting voltage
surge provided by the breaking of the starter circuit, and at very low
temperatures the arc may fail to strike.
Effect of Voltage
The voltage at the luminaire should be kept well within the norma
operating range for the ballast. Low voltage, as well as high voltage, re-
duces efficiency and shortens lamp
life. This is in contrast with filament
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS lamps, where low voltage reduces
TWO-LAMP BALLASTS
30 AND 40-WATT LAMPS
efficiency but prolongs life. Low
voltage may also cause instability in
the arc, and starting difficulty.
On voltages above the specified
range, the operating current becomes
excessive and may not only overheat
the ballast but cause premature end-
blackening and early lamp failure.
Voltages below the specified range
may lower the preheat current to a
VA ^
RECOMMENDED
point where the electrodes fail to emit
their proper quota of electrons. Such
a condition ma^ cause the lamps to
70
105 110
t VOLTAGE RANGE
115 118 (20
i
~*\
flash on and off without starting. If
(85 194 203 208 212
125 t30 the lamps do start, the emission mate-
221 230
210 220 230 236 240 250 260 rial may waste away too rapidly, with
LINE VOLTAGE consequent shortening of lamp life*
Effect of Humidity
The electrostatic charge on the outside of a fluorescent lamp
bulb affects
the voltage required to strike the arc. Moist, humid air
surrounding the
lamp affects this surface charge unfavorably, requiring much higher starting
voltages when the instant-start type of ballast is used. When
the relative
humidity exceeds 65% this becomes an important factor, and
its effect
increases rapidly as the humidity approaches 100%.
Sliniline lamps are equipped with a thin "starting stripe"
of silver ink,
extending practically the full length of the outside of the bulb.
This
3—36
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
device makes possible dependable starting at normal voltages, under any

condition of humidity. Instant-Start 40-watt lamps are also available
with a similar starting stripe for high-humidity conditions.
Direct-Current Operation
Although the fluorescent lamp is basically an a-c lamp, it is adaptable
to operation on direct current provided sufficiently high voltage is avail-
able, and the proper auxiliary equipment is used. An external resistance
in series with the lamp controls the current. Because of the lack of a
voltage peak, lamp starting on di-
rect current is more difficult than on CIRCUIT FOR DIRECT-CURRENT OPERATION
alternating current, and special start-
ing devices such as thermal-type or
manual switches, plus starting induct-
ances, are necessary. Although total
light output on direct current is com-
parable to that obtained on alter-
nating current, the greater wattage
loss in the resistance reduces the
over-all lumens per watt efficiency
of the d-c system to about 60% of REsisroft ^ 'nductance.j
that of the a-c system. Lamp life is

also adversely affected by d-c operation, and lamps can be expected to
give only about 80% of their normal life.
The steady flow of direct current in one direction forces the mercury
molecules to one end of the tube, resulting in inadequate generation of the
ultraviolet energy required for the fluorescence of the phosphors at the
other end. Thus after a few hours' operation on direct current one end of
the lamp may become dim. It is recommended that polarity- reversing
switches be installed in d-c circuits so that the direction of the current
flow can be reversed when necessary.
The accompanying table gives data on the d-c operation of fluorescent
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT FOR DIRECT-CURRENT OPERATION
External Resistance Auxiliary

D-C Lamp Required (Olims) Watts Loss per
Lamp Current Lamp (Resistance
(Amperes) plus Inductance)
120 Volts 240 Volts
6.W 9*T-5 0.125 551 9

8.W 12* T-S 0.14 425 9
**14.W IS'' T.12 34
. 204 24
15-W 18' T-8 0.26 210 16
15-W 18* T.12 0.29 206 20
20- W 24* T.12 0.31 149 17
30- W 36* T.8 0.29 444 40
40-W 48* T.12 0.35 335 44
100-W 60* T.17 1.27 124 204
Circline
32.W12'Diain.T-10 0.37 ... 391 57
* These values of resistance must be used In series with the d-c starting inductance (ballast)
to provide the proper lamp current. This resistance is in addition to the internal resist-
ance of the starting inductance. Resistors must be capable of carrying the lamp
current without overheating, and should be within about 10% of the values shown.
** Two 14-watt lamps may be operated in series with a 60.volt 0.5-ampere S-11 resistance
ballast lamp. The auxiliary wattage loss is 7.5 watts per lamp.
3—37
including the amount of resistance which must

,
be used with the
inductance, and the total wattage loss in the auxiliary
equipment. Be-
cause lamps of 30 watts and larger require over
120 volts for starting, they
must be operated on circuits in the 240-volt range or higher.
SlimHne anS
Instant-Start lamps require higher starting voltages
o » than are provided by
k.ki uy
any standard d-c circuit.
if
Color
The spectral energy distribution curve of a fluorescent lamp
shows a
continuous spectrum for the radiation produced
by the phosphor plus
lines representing a small portion of the
radiation from the mercury arc
that IS not absorbed by the phosphor. Actually
the mercury lines are
monochromatic, and very strong in intensity for an
exceedingly narrow
f 'ful
wide, with u^î^'^'^f
the height
^^^^ ^'^ represented by blocks 200 Angstroms
chosen so that the area of the block represents
the
total amount of energy in the spectral line.
The Daylight fluorescent lamp is an approximate duplication
color of average noon dayhght in Vashington,
of the
D. C. This lamp is particu-
larly suitable fordayhght effects, and for color discrimination or
color
comparison processes where the requirements are not
too exacting While
no fluorescent lamp is an exact color match for a
blackbody, the color of
the Dayhght lamp is sufficiently close to that of a blackbody
to be described as having a color temperature of
at 6500°K
6500°K.
SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION FOR FLUORESCENT

LAMPS
fiO
40 n ^
Kr>i \
?0 1^— .^- k
J
'*
\ **
WHITE
an >0t I WHIT E
eo
fin
4n r
\rf^ ^, AC* -""N.
ô
V}
\
v_
N ,"— r \
V
J ol-
r-5000 6000 7000
s.
?n
.^
4000
.i-
5000 6000
\^
7000
WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROMS WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROMS
q Jf^4
3500 K, which
l*^""! -^-^f ^,^^P,*^^« ^ ^^ô^ temperature of approximately
18 slightly above the highest practical
temperature for
tungsten filament lamps. Because of its similarity
to the color of the
hlament lamp to which people have become accustomed,
and because it
"whites," it is widely used for general-
area li^dn
The 4500 White lamp is about halfway between standard White and
3—38
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Daylight, in color and in efficiency. It is better suited than the White

lamp for mixing with natural illumination, and creates a slightly less
"cool" atmosphere than the Daylight SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION CURVES FOR
lamp. The Soft White lamp is con- COLORED FLUORESCENT LAMPS
siderably pinker than the other
"whites." Although 25% less ef-
ficient than the standard White, it
has found many uses where the
§
warmer, more flattering, tones are se
desired, as for example in restaurants
and in residential lighting, ^4
Blue, Green, Gold, Pink, and Red S
fluorescent lamps, iu the standard 15
to 40-watt sizes, produce colored light
at high efficiencies for signs and dec-
orative applications. 5000 6000
WAVELENGTH IN ANGSTROMS
Brightness
Since the Hght of a fluorescent lamp is generated over a large surface
area, its brightness is comparatively low. Thus where fluorescent lamps
are used in direct -lighting luminaires the reflected glare from specular
objects is much less than that produced by the more concentrated filament
BRIGHTNESSES OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS |
Approximate Candles per Square Inch

Lamp
White 4500 White Daylight Soft White
6-W 9'T.5 5.8 5.5 5.2 *
8.W 12' T-5 6.5 6.1 5 8 •
13-W 21* T-S 6.0 5.6 5.3 •
14.W IS*' T.12 3.1 2.9 2.8 2 4
15-W 18'T-8' 4.6 4.5 4 4 3 6
IS-W 18* T.12 3.0 2.9
20-W 24' T-12 3.2 3.0
2 7 2 3 i
2 8 2 4
30-W 36' T-B 5.0 4.7 4.6 4
40-W 48» T-12 3.9 3.6 3 3 2 9
100-W 60' T-17 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.2
lastant-Start
40.W 48' T-12 3.9 3.6 3.3
40-W 60' T.17 2.0
Slimline
16-W 3.8 3.5
25.W 42* T.6 5.8 5.4
33-W J
** 6.6
24.W1 3.8 3.5
39-W 64' T.6 5.8 5.4
Sl-W J
** 6.6 '.'.'.
22 -W 2.3 2.2
38.W 72'T-8 3.9 3.6
51-W J
** 4.7
29-W 1 2.3 2.2
51-W 96' T-8 3.9 3.6
69-W 1
** 4.7
Circline
32-W21'Diam. T-10 4.5
uri((uiuet>sapproximately ^d 7b lower tnau I«r Wuite Imtip.
** Brightness approximately 5% higher than for 4500 White lamp.
3—39
source in the same type of equipment. When it is desired to further reduce

the source brightness, as is necessary for most applications involving
critical seeing, diffusing materials of relatively light density may be satis-
factorily employed.
Stroboscopic EfiFect
Some variation in light output with the cyclic variation of the current
is characteristic of all Tight sources operated on alternating current. The
filament of an incandescent lamp retains enough heat bo that its drop in
light output at the point of zero current flow is not noticeable, except
occasionally when low-wattage lamps are operated on a 25-cycle supply.
With iluorescent lamps the arc is completely extinguished twice during
each cycle, and the carry-over of light is dependent wholly on the phos-
phorescent qualities of the coating. This characteristic of the phosphors
varies considerably. The phosphor used in the Green lamp has the greatest
carry-over, while that used in the Blue lamp has the least.
The stroboscopic effect (the
CYCLIC VARIATION IN LIGHT OUTPUT
tendency to see multiple im-
TWO-LAMP BALLAST THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT ages of an object in motion)
J/\/\ /\ A
-J V V
^ '
which results from rapid fluc-
tuation in light output may
be an important considera-
tion where moving objects
are to be viewed. The
standard two-lamp lead-lag
•/^/K iM\ m
m nj
Wm /\
kMr]r,n
\
//\
/v 1
fn \
AAV',' A A/v\ N'A
f\'\
ballast reduces stroboscopic
effect to a point where for
ordinary applications it is
TWO LAMPS 1 THREE LAMPS negligible. Where still further
^30 ^60 >30 reduction is necessary, opera-
TIME IN SECONDS TIME IN SECONDS tion of three adjacent lamps
or pairs of lamps on separate
phases of a three-phase svstem will result in a freedom from flicker com-
parable to that of most (ilament lamps.
The table shows the relative stroboscopic effect of various light sources
expressed as the ratio of the light output above mean average during a
cycle to the total output at mean average. The stroboscopic effect of a
200 -watt filament lamp is taken as unity.
COMPARATIVE STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT OF VARIOUS LAMPS

Operated on 60-Cycle Supply
Relative
Lamp and Method of Operation Strohoscopic
Effect
200- Walt Incandescent 1

40-Watt Incandeecent 7
—
Green Fluorescent Single-Lamp Ballast 11
—
White Fluorescent Single-Lamp Ballast 19
—
Blue Fluorescent Single-Lamp Ballast 49
—
White Fluorescent Two-Lamp Ballast 9
—
White Fluorescent Three Lamps, Single-Lamp Ballasts on
Separate Phases of a Three-Pfaase Circuit 3
—
White Fluorescent Three Lamps, One on Single -Lamp Ballast,
Remaining Pair on Two-Lamp Ballast 14
3—40
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Coolness
The fluorescent lamp, primarily because of its higher efficiency, produces
light with considerably less accompanying heat than the filament lamp.
This is because the total heat developed by any light source is in direct
proportion to its energy consumption (one watthour of power consumed
produces 3.414 BTU's of heat), and because fluorescent lamps at 40 to 60
lumens per watt emit two to three times as much light as filament lamps
of the same wattage, while generating the same amount of heat.
A further difference between the two types of lamps is the form which
the heat takes. Not only docs the fluorescent lamp produce less total
heat for a given amount of fight, but less than half of the heat it does
produce is in the form of radiant
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
energy {radiated heat plus light),
whereas about three-quarters of the
heat from a filament lamp is radiant
energy. Thus for equal light output
the radiant or sensible heat generated TOTAL RADIANT
ENERGY GIVING
by fluorescent lamps is approximately RISE TO
SENSATION
THE ^S
one-fifth of that produced by filament OF HEAT
lamps. Conducted and convected
heat, which accounts for the balance
of the total energy, is chiefly dissi-
pated upward, and contributes much
less tothe sensation of heat derived
from the lighting installation.
Where total heat is a consideration,
as for instance in the computation of
air-conditioning load, the quantity
that is important is of course total lamp wattage, rather than radiant heat.
It is also necessary to add to the lamp wattage the watts consumed by any
ballasts located within the area in question.
Radio Interference
The mercury arc of a fluorescent lamp causes a sparking action on the
lamp electrodes which sets up a series of low-power radio waves. These
waves are picked up by radio receiving sets, and may cause interference
in the form of a buzzing sound. The noise is generally heard oidy between
stations on the dial, but it may also be noticeable over the entire broad-
cast band. Interference from fluores-
cent lamps can readily be identified TYPES OF RADIO INTERFERENCE
FROM FLUORESCENT LAMPS
by tuning the set to a point where the
interference is most pronounced, and
then turning off the lamps. If the
noise persists, it is of course from
some source other than the lamps.
There are three ways in which
radiation from fluorescent lamps may
reach the radio and interfere with
reception: LINE RADIATION
1. Direct radiation from the lamp

to the radio aerial circuit.
2. Line radiation from the electric
supply to the aerial circuit. LINE FEEDBACK
3-41
3. Line feedback from the lamp through the power Hue to the radio.
Most radio interference from fluorescent lamps is eliminated by the
small condenser ordinarily mounted in the starter-switch container,
btarterless systems require that the condenser be mounted
in the ballast.
Manual startmg switches should also be provided with suitable condensers
such as are regularly supplied in glow-switch starters. These
condensers
should have the following minimum values:
14, 15, 20, 30, and 40-watt lamps— 0.005 microfarads
—
100-watt lamps ^0.010 microfarads.
If further measures prove to be necessary, radio -interference
filters which
are commercially available will give excellent results
when properly in-
stalled. The simplest of these is a three-section delta-connected capacitor
which grounded to the fixture and connected across the supply lines as
IS
they enter the fixture. In most cases these filters will reduce radio
interfer-
ence caused by fluorescent lamps to a level not detectable by
the ear. A
falter should be installed on each fixture,
and as close to the lamps as pos-
sible.
Direct radiation from the lamp diminishes rapidly as the radio

aerial is
separated from the lamp. If the radio and aerial are at least
9 feet from
the lamp, interference by direct radiation is negligible.
In rural areas, and in places where radio station signal strength is
weak.
It may be necessary to take the following additional precautions for best
results:
1. Connect the aerial to the radio by means of a shielded lead-in wire

with the shield grounded, or install a "doublet" type aerial with
twisted-pair leads.
2. Provide a good radio-frequency ground for the radio.
3. Place the aerialitself out of bulb- and Hne-radiation range.
4. Use an outside aerial to provide a strong radio signal.
Noise
With any reactor or transformer, some audible frequencies, or "hum,"
generated by the alternating magnetic force are inevitable. Well-made
fluorescent auxiharies and fixtures are now designed to
reduce hum to a
point where it is rarely objectionable. The degree of baflast noise
accept-
able of course varies with the application. Hum
is seldom noticeable in
factory spaces or other moderately noisy areas, but it may
become annoy-
ing in particularly quiet rooms, or where the ballast is very
close to the
user. Under extreme conditions it may be necessary
to locate auxiliaries
at a remote point, or in soundproof cases. Hum
is additive, and a large
number of units may require special attention where a single one would
cause no difficulty.
Swirl
An occasional fluorescent lamp may exhibit what is called a "swirl,"
which may be described as a moving spiral band of brightness. Swirl is
ordinarily encountered only with new or relatively new lamps, and gener-
ally disappears after a short period of burning.
Sometimes it may be
corrected by turning the lamp off and restarting it after it
has cooled
slightly. The condition may be aggravated somewhat
by inadequate pre-
heat current supplied by the ballast, inadequate preheat time as regulated
by the starter, or lack of a starting compensator in the lead circuit. Swirling
IS also more prevalent in instant-start than
in preheat circuits.
3-42
1
CHAPTER FOUR
IXTROniJCTION TO LIGHTING DESIGN
The design of any lighting installation involves the consideration of

many variables: What is the purpose of the installation is it light for—
decoration? How severe is the
critical seeing, light for selling, or light for
seeing task, and for what length of time is it to he performed? What are
the architectural and decorative requirements, togetuer with the construc-
tional limitations, of the area? What economic considerations are involved?
The answers to questions such as these determine the amount of light that
should be provided, and the best means of providing it. Since individual
tastes and opinions vary, especially in matters of appearance, no one
solution of a lighting problem will be the most desirable under all circum-
stances. However, there are certain basic rules governing adequate
quantity and good quality which should always be observed.
QUANTITY OF LIGHT
One of the most obvious measures of the adequacy of a lighting installa-
tion is the amount of illumination it provides. The tables in Chapter Five
list many of the more common seeing tasks, together with the footcandle
levels which are considered good present-day practice.
Compared with the levels ordi-

narily encountered in nature, the REPRESENTATIVE LEVELS
OF ILLUMINATION 1
values listed in Chapter Five are

low. They are low not because Footcandles
low levels are satisfactory for
critical seeing, but rather because Starlight 0.0002
of present limitations in our abil- Moonlight 0.02
ity to produce higher levels com- Street Lighting 0.6-1.2
fortably and economically. The Daylight
comfort and ease of performing At North Window 50-200
most close visual tasks can be In Shade (Outdoors) 100-1000
materially improved by illumina- Direct Sunlight 5000-10000
tion intensities far above those Office Lighting 30-50
now practically attainable.
Thus footcandle recommendations may reasonably be expected to

increase with the improvement of sources and the ability to use them, and
the tables in Chapter Five obviously do not represent the ultimate in
seeing-comfort. They do, however, serve as a guide to the values which
are practical in the present state of the illumination art. By listing the
footcandles necessary to provide equal seeing-ease, .they also give a rough
indication of the relative severity of various seeing tasks.
The distribution of ilium in at ion, as well as its average footcandle
level, should be determined by the purpose of the installation. In light for
seeing or light for production it is usually desirable to position the lumi-
naires so as to provide reasonably uniform general illumination over the
entire area. The ratio of maximum footcandles under the luminaires to
the minimum between them should never be greater than two to one, and
for best results should be nearer unity. Units with wide distribution
4r—
characteristics can be spaced farther apart, for the same mounting-height,

than those with more concentrated distribution. Maximum spaeing-to-
50 ft-c^X
40
50 ft-c ^-^ 50 f^c
ft-c 40 fl-c
li Mit. il Xln il
mounting-height or ceiling-height ratios for various types of equipment

are suppUed by the manufacturers. It should be noted that these fiiûrea
are maximum values from the standpoint of reasonable uniformity alone,
and that closer spacings are often necessary to produce the desired illu-
mination levels.
Where it is advantageous to concentrate light on specific work areas,
or where light is used for dramatic or decorative effect, uniform illumina-
tion may not be desirable. In most restaurants and night clubs, for
example, contrast produced by variation in illumination heli>s to create
an attractive atmosphere. In certain types of merchandising it is good
practice to direct more light to display and sales areas than to general
traffic areas, and in many other circumstances the most effective
use of
light involves marked departure from a nniform distribution.
The specific plane on which the

illumination is to be provided must
also be considered. The seeing task
may be located on a horizontal plane
at a desk or a machine, on a vertical
or sloping surface, or even on the
under surface of large objects such as
airplane assemblies. It is always de-
sirable to select luminaires which will
best light the specific work area.
QUALITY OF LIGHT
Adequate quantity of light alone does not ensure good illumination.
Good quality is as important as quantity, and usually more difficult to
achieve. The factors involved in lighting quahty are many and complex,
but glare, brightness ratios, diffusion, and color may be listed as among
the most important.
Glare
Glare is any brightness that causes discomfort, interference with vision,
or eye fatigue. While it is difficult to evaluate the various
elements of
glare mathematically, certain specific determining factors
have been
established:
1. The brightness of the source. The higher the source brightness,

the greater the discomfort and the interference with vision,
2- The size of the source, expressed in terms of the angle subtended
at the eye. A large area of low brightness such as a luminous panel, or a
4—2
INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING DESIGN
number of low -brightness luminaires, may be as uncomfortable as a single

small source of higher brightness.
3. The
posit ian of the source. Glare decreases rapidly as the source
is moved away from the line of
vision. A luminaire suspended
in the range of vision is more
glaring than the same luminaire
mounted above the normal view-
ing angle.
4. Brightness contrast. The greater the brightness contrast between

a source of glare and its surroundings, the greater the glare effect.
5. Time. A condition which is not objectionable for au exposure of a
few minutes may become intensely uncomfortable and fatiguing to a person
who must work under it for an eight-hour day.
Thusa consideration of the possible glare effect of a lighting installation

involves not only the intrinsic brightness of the individual fixture or ele-
ment, hut also many characteristics of the room and the conditions of use.
Luminaire brightnesses which are quite comfortable in a small office
where the units arc out of the range of vision may be excessive in larger
rooms where the luminaires farthest away more nearly approach the
normal line of sight. Likewise, luminaires which individually do not have
an objectionably high brightness may, if mounted in large groups, present
a total area great enough to cause discomfort. This occasionally results
when some types of fluorescent luminaires are mounted across the line of
sight in large areas with relatively low ceilings.
Obvious precautions against excessive glare are the shielding of all

lamps within the field of view, the use of light colors on ceiliiigs and walls
to reduce contrast, the mounting of light sources above the normal line
of vision wherever possible, and the restriction of fixture brightness to
reasonable limits. Where illumination for critical seeing is to be provided,
the maximum brightness of conventional luminaires within an angle of
30'* to 45** above the line of sight should be about 400 footlamberts
(0.9
candles per square inch). For larger sources, such as indirectly lighted or
completely luminous ceilings, approximately 170 footlamberts (0.4 candles
>er square inch) may be regarded as the upper limit.
pel These values have
een found to be satisfactory for a general illumination level of about 50
bei
APPROXIMATE BRIGHTNESS VALUES |
Candles per Foot-

Sourc« Square Inch lamberts
Iniide Frosted Lamp (300- Watt) 30 13.560

Clear Lamp (300- Walt) 6000 2.712,000
White Bowl Lamp 15 6,780
Fluorescent Lamps 2.0 to 6.5 904 to 2938
Opal Class Enclosiag Globes 1.5 to 5.5 678 to 2486
Indirect Luminaire (Incandescent Luminous Bowl) 0.5 to 1.0 226 to 452
White Ceiling Above Direct -Indirect
Fluorescent Luminaire 0.5 226
Clear Blue Sk7 2 to 3 904 to 1356
4—3
footcandles, with walls, ceilings and floors of commonly prevailing re-

flecting characteristicB. Lower footcandle levels require lower luminaire
brightnesses, whereas somewhat higher brightnesses may be allowable
with intensities above 50 footcandles.
The preceding paragraphs deal primarily with direct glare^ caused by
light coming directly to the eye from a source, or a bright surface in the
field of view. The image of a light
source (or any object of high bright-
ness) reflected from a specular surface
in the direction of the eye can cause
reflected glare ^ which may be as uu-
comfortahle and annoying as direct
glare. Shiny surfaces such as ma-
chined metal, polished desk tops,
cellophane index tabs, or even glossy
paper, are often sources of reflected
glare. Since specular reflection is
directional, it is frequently possible
to prevent reflected glare by positioning the hght source, the work surface,
or the worker so that the reflected light will be directed away from the
eyes. Reflected glare may also be controlled by means of large -area low-
brightness sources, and by using light colors, with dull, non-glossy re-
flecting finishes, on furniture and working surfaces.
Brightness Ratios
Excessive brightness ratios in the field of view, or brightness contrasts
between adjacent surfaces, even though not severe enough to be called
"glare," may be seriously detrimenlal
to lighting quality. For example, a
high brightness of the task with a
comparatively low brightness of the
surroundings is definitely undesirable,
since it forces continual adjustments
of the eyes from one brightness level
to the other. Brightnesses in the
peripheral field higher than the
brightness of the task tend to attract
the eye away from the task, and arc
therefore also to be avoided.
Extensive studies of the seeing process have shown that the ideal situa-
tion for critical seeing is a background brightness equal to the brightness
of the task. This condition is, of course, seldom achieved, and a task-to-
immediate -surroundings brightness contrast no greater than three to one
is usually acceptable. Ratios no greater than ten to one anywhere in the
visual field are desirable, 30 or 40 to one being commonly considered as the
maximum permissible. These values, like allowable absolute brightnesses,
vary somewhat with illumination level, the maximum permissible ratio
becoming smaller as the contrast sensitivity of the eye increases with higher
footcandle values.
The achievement of comfortable brightness ratios in any given situation
requires a careful study of all the factors involved, including not only the
Hght sources and luminaires hot also the reflecting characteristics of
ceilings, walls, floors, and furnishings, and the illumination on them. For
^f^f.k**-
'' » °««««sary to create a proper balance between
the bright-
fi!f5 ''^'t;T""i"''^ ^"^"""S area and that of other surfaces in the vifual
field, avoiding both excessively
dark backgrounds and distracting
surrounding areas of high bright-
ness. Although special condi- ^^^^J^^^^^TATIYK DESIRABLE
tions require many exceptions REFLECTION FACTORS
to the general rule, the reaection
factors for room surfaces listed in
Ceilings
the accompanying table are those 75-85 %
WalU 50-60%
which have been found to be com-
Desk Tops
monly satisfactory under typical 25-35 %
Floorai 15-30%
conditions, with average present-
day footcandle levels.
Diffusion
Illuimnation which results from hght

coming from manv directions a«
opposed to hght from one directionris said
to be dim,s^^
"^ Blffus^Ti,!
iûmsion is a
function of the number or physical
size of the light sources contributing
to the illumination at a particular
point, and is measured in terms of the
absence of sharp shadows.
The degree of diffusion desirable

depends on the type of work to be
performed. Perfectly diffuse light is
the ideal illumination for many criti-
cal seeing tasks, and in such appHca-
tions as school and office lighting an
""^^^ **" ^'^^ ^ ^^^'^^ «^ diffusion as is con-
sistent With economic andf^'r^
tUTJ^Jfu^^^^ r^^
other Umitations. Vhere polished metal sur-
taces must be viewed, as in a machine shop,
a highly diffuse Hght is
essential to prevent annoying specular reflections. ^
a;™t*°'*7nP^*^*'^**''"^' *?? *^^ "^^^^^ ^^°**' 't i« desirable to provide

e^^^^Pl^' su^^face irregularities which are
flLLT*""^- -^r^'^f
almost invisible under'""^V *T
diffuse light may be clearly revealed in light
at a grazing angle. Some details are most readily directed
seen by melns of ghnt
^^^. '"^"]l ^'•^^^^ which would be absent Inder'
m^?r ^
nin^ST^'/ff^^^^'-r
^ r*"
'""^^'^^.tion Directional light is desirable in producing
"'^^ ^^^^^^*>^ considerations
Trâ^nL^'^-rV^^^
frequently dictate the addition of some directional component
in general
lighting installations, to prevent the uninteresting
and monotonous appear
appear-
ance resulting from completely diffuse lighting.
'* '^^^"s of a multiplicity of light sources, by

J^rî^^'i*""! t^^'r^^ ^y,luminaires,
arge-area low-brightness by indirect or partially indirect
lighting in which the ceiling and walls become secondary
hght-colored matte fiiiishes on ceilings, walls,
sourcL, Tnd by
furniture, and even floors
A reasonable degree of diffusion results from the use of wide spread direct
lighting eqmpment in high-ceihnged areas,
since a large number of units
are effective at any given point. Fluorescent
direct luminaires ordinarily
provide more diffuse ilhnnination than
incandescent direct luminaires,
and large-area hoods or diffusing panels provide
still greater diffusion.
4—5
Color
The color of light has no effect on visual efficiency. For the performance
of ordinary visual tasks, no light source has an advantage over any other
from the standpoint of color. However, in some specialized applicationt
— notably color matching, color discrimination processes, and certain
—
inspection tasks light-source color may be an important factor in illumi-
nation quality. Moreover, other considerations, quite apart from the
ahihty to see easily, often influence the choice of the most suitable light-
source color for a given purpose. This subject is discussed more fully in
the section on Color beginning on page 4-14.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Illumination of good quality and adequate quantity may be obtained
from any one of several types of lighting systems, classified on the basis
of vertical light distribution. The
TYPES OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS selection of the best type of lumi-
naire for any particular applica*
Down- tion depends in part on the physi-
Upward ward cal characteristics of the room,
SyliCem Compo- Compo-
nent nent the type of work to be performed,
and the conditions of maintenance
Indirect 90 -100% - 10% to be encountered.
Semi-Iudirect
General Diffuse \
60 - 90% 10 - 40% —
Indirect Ninety to 100 per
Direct'Indirect /
60% 40 - 60%
cent of the light output of the
Semi-Direct 40%
60 - luminaire is directed toward the
90%
Direct 90 -100%
10% ceiling at angles above the hori-
zontal. Practically all of the light
effective at the working plane is
redirected downward by the ceiling and to a lesser extent by the side
walls. Since the ceiling is in efifect the light source, the illumination pro-
duced is quite diffuse in character. While indirect lighting is not as efficient
as some of the other systems on a
purely quantitative basis, the evea
distribution and absence of shadows
and reflected glare frequently make
it the most desirable type of installa-
tion for offices, schools, and other
similar applications. Because room
finishes play such an important part
in redirecting the light, it is particu-
larly important that they be as light
in color as possible, and carefmly
maintained in good condition. The
ceilings should always have a matte
finish, if reflected images of the light source are to be avoided.
Glass or plastic luminaires in this classiBcation are known as "luminous
indirect," while metal luminaires which transmit no light are totally in-
direct. The translucent type is sometimes more desirable than the totally
indirect because a luminous fixture is less sharply silhouetted against the
relatively bright ceiHng. Indirect illumination may also be provided by
means of architectural coves. Luminaire susnension length, or cove pro-
portions, must be carefully selected to provide uniform ceiling coverage,
where desired, and to prevent excessive ceiling brightness.
Semi-Indirect— Sixty to 90 per cent of the light output of the luminaire

IS directed toward the ceiling at angles above the horizontal,
while the
balance is directed downward. Semi-
indirect lighting has most of the ad-
vantages of the indirect system, but
is slightly more eflficient, and is some-
times preferred to achieve a desirable
brightness ratio between the ceiling
and luminaire in high-level installa-
tions. The diffusing medium em-
ployed in these luminaires is glass
or plastic of a lower density than that
employed in indirect equipment.
General Diffuse or Direct-Indirect— Forty to 60 per cent of the light
i3 directed downward at angles below the horizontal. The major portion
of the illumination produced on ordi-
nary working planes is a result of the
Ught coming directly from the lumi-
naire. There is, however, a substan-
tial portion of the light directed to
the ceiHng and side walls. Where
these are light in color, the upward
light provides a brighter background
against which to view the luminaire,
in addition to supplying a substantial
indirect component which adds ma-
terially to the diffuse character of
the illumination. The difference be-
tween the general diffuse and di-
rect'indirect classifications is in the
amount of light produced in a hori-
zontal direction. The general diffuse
type is exemplified by the enclosing
globe which distributes light nearly
uniformly in all directions, while the
direct-indirect luminaire produces
very little light in a horizontal direc-
tion, due to the density of its side
panels. Glass, plastic or louvered bottoms are commonly used with the
latter type of luminaire to provide lamp shielding.
Semi-Direct— Sixty to 90 per cent of the light is directed downward

at angles below the horizontal. The footcandles effective under this
system
at normal working planes are primar-
ily a result of the light coming directly
from the luminaire. The portion of
the Hght directed to the ceiling results
in a relatively small indirect compo-
nent, the greatest value of which is
that it brightens the ceiling area
around the luminaire, with a resultant
lowering of brightness contrasts.
Equipment of this type is exemplified
by the cylindrical glass-enclosed flu-
orescent Tuminaire or the open-bottom
glass shade for incandescent lamps.
4—7
—
Direct Ninety to 100 per cent of the light is directed downward at
angles below the horizontal. A direct system produces light efl&cientlv
from a quantitative standpoint, since there is no ceiling and very little wall
absorption, Luminaires of this type may be further classified as concen-
trating^ medium, or wide spread. The wide or medium spread equipment
can be used in relatively wide rooms, with the advantage that more
luminaires contribute to the illumi-
nation at any one point, and better
dififusion is achieved. Concentrating
equipment is desirable where the
luminaires are mounted at a consid-
erable height above the working
plane, or where it is necessary to
^
provide illumination within a rela-
tively narrow area. Equipment of
this type should be used for high bay
installations and for lighting the
perimeters of large areas, since little
light is lost against walls and windows.
The most common form of direct -lighting equipment consists of a
reflecting surface above the light soorce, which redirects downward a large
percentage of the light from the bare lamp. In certain luminaires ad<E-
tional control is obtained by a translucent diffusing or control element of
glass or plastic added to the reflector. RLM
and high bay luminaires are
examples of the first type, and Glassteel diffusers, prismatic control equip-
ment, and luminous ceiling panels of the second. There are other varia-
tions in direct-lighting equipment, such as silvered bowl diffusers, which
depend on the luminaire reflecting surface to redirect all of the light down-
ward, and the pinhole spotlight, which embodies a reflector and lens
control system. Reflector and projector lamps may, under certain condi-
tions, be used as direct-lighting luminaires.
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
100%
TlI
I- 80
GO
^51
SEMI- 40
. INDIRECT .
GENERAL 20
DIFFUSE
DIRECT-
- SEM»- - INDIRECT 20
DIRECT
40
60
1 so
ILLUMINATION METHODS
The
illumination produced by any one of the five types of lighting
systems may be further classified according to the distribution of light
throughout an area. Whether the lighting is ^neral, localized general, or
supplementary depends on the location of the equipment, and its distribu-
tion characteristics.
General Lighting
An arrangement of lighting equipment which will produce a

reasonably
uniform level of illumniation throughout an interior is known
as eeneral
hghtmg. Ihe physical dimensions of
the room, the distribution character-
istics of the luminaire, the level of
illumination desired, and the appear-
ance of the finished installation are
factors which determine equipment
location.
Even distribution is most readily

obtained by a symmetrical position-
ing of luminaires. After computing
the number of luminaires necessary
to produce the quantity of light de-
sired (see Chapter Six), a rough
approximation of location should be made so that the total number of
luminaires can be adjusted to be evenly divisible by the number of rows.
The exact distance between fixtures is determined by dividing the length
of the room by the number of lumi-
naires in a row, allowing for one-half
of the distance between the wall and LOCATtON OF LUMINAIRES
the first unit. In a similar manner,
the distance between rows is the
width of the room divided by the
number of rows, with one-half of the
distance left between the side wall
and the first row.
For even distribution of illumina-

tion with most types of luminaires,
these two dimensions should be ap-
proximately equal. In some cases, N= LUMINAIRES PER ROW
R = NUMBER OF ROWS
as when fluorescent luminaires are
used to obtain relatively high levels
of illumination, appearance and ease of wiring dictate the use of continuous
rows of luminaires spaced closed enough together to meet the requirementB
of good distribution.
The spacing-to-mounting-height ratio must be within the limits estab-

lished by the distribution characteristics of the luminaire. Particularly in
the use of high -wattage sources, care must be exercised in the selection
of luminaire capacity, since spacing-to-mounting-height ratios frequently
dictate the use of smaller luminaires than would at first seem acceptable.
The wider the distribution of the luminaire, the greater the permissible
spacing. For this reason indirect luminaires, which make use of the
ceiling as a source, can normally be mounted farther apart than
direct
units.
The constructional features of an area frequently influence luminaire

location. Where the ceiling area is divided into bays by beams or trusses,
it is usually desirable to install luminaires symmetrically
in each bay or
pair of bays.
4—9
TYPICAL LUMINAIRE LAYOUTS FOR GENERAL LIGHTING

o o o o o o
O o
O O O O
O O O o
O Q O O
O O O
O O O O o
ca en cu tra c=i era
CZ3 [=3 C=l C3 tzn 1=1
- INCANDESCENT OR MERCURY 3 -FLUORESCENT
Localized General Lighting

Localized general lighting is the positioning of general -lighting equip*
ment with reference to particular work areas where high intensities are
necessary, with the spill light from the same luminaires usually providing
sufficient illumination for the adja-
cent areas. Luminaires of the direct,
semi-direct, or direct -indirect type
are usually employed for this pur-
pose, since a substantial direct com-
ponent is essential where it is desired
to concentrate most of the light on a
restricted area beneath the luminaire. This method of fixture location can
be used to advantage for lighting the work points of large machines, sales
counters in merchandising operations, and bench locations in factories.
Supplementary Lighting
Supplementary lighting is the provision of a relatively high intensity at
work points by means of direct-lighting equipment used in con-
specific
junction with general or localized general illumination. It is frequently
necessary where especially critical see-
ing tasks are involved, and where it
is not feasible to provide the desired
intensity by either of the other meth-
ods; also where light of a directional
quality is required for certain inspec-
tion operations. Equipment used for
this purpose varies in distribution
characteristics depending on the area
to be covered, the distance from the
equipment location to the work point,
and the footcandles required. Care
must always be exercised to keep a reasonable relationship between the
intensities of the general illumination and the supplementary lighting,
since an excessive brightness ratio between the work point and its sur-
roundings creates an uncomfortable seeing condition.
4—10
CHOICE OF LIGHT SOURCE

The choice of light source —filament, mercury vapor, or fluorescent
depends largely on appearance and economics. In certain applications the
large area of the fluorescent lamp is advantageous from the standpoint
of low brightness and minimum reflected glare. On the other hand, where
accurate control is desired the smaller sources with their higher bright-
nesses are more effective.
The operating characteristics of fluorescent or mercury vapor lamps

must be carefully considered if it is proposed to install them in locations
where they will be turnetl on and off at frequent intervals, or where they
will be subjected to excessive fluctuations in supply voltage, or to tempera-
ture extremes. In cases where existing wiring capacity limits wattage load,
a fluorescent installation is often the only possible solution to the problem
of providing higher illumination levels. Under some circumstances light-
source color and the creation of a pleasing effect may be a determining
factor in favor of one or another type of lamp.
Air-conditioning load may be another consideration, expecially at high

illumination levels. Filament lamps produce approximately five times aa
much total radiant energy, for a given amount of light, as fluorescent
lamps. This radiation is absorbed, by walls, ceiUngs, furnishings, and
room occupants, in the form of heat, which may or may not be an ad-
vantage, depending on room temperatures and other conditions. Usually
it is desirable from the standpoint of comfort to keep the heat produced
by the lighting system to a minimum. Where air condiliomng is involved,
the use of the higher-efficiency sources reduces the capacity of the equip-
ment required, and results in
lower first cost and operating CALCULATION OF AIR CONDITIONING
cost. The air-conditioning load REQUIRED FOR LIGHTING LOAD
resulting from the lighting sys-
tem must be calculated on the 1 Watt = 3,414 BTU
1 Kilowatt = 3414 BTU
basis of the total wattage of the
BTU generated per hour = Lighting
system. For incandescent instal- kilowatts* X 3414
lations this is simply the sum Tons of air condiuuning required =
of the wattages of all the lamps, BTU per hour
but for fluorescent or mercury 12000
installations the wattage of the • Total lamp wattage plus wattage of aux-
ballasts or transformers must be iliary equipment.
added to that of the lamps. The
wattage load of an incandescent installation is about two and one-half
times that of a fluorescent installation providing equal footcandles.
Aside from these special considerations, the choice of a light source is

largely a matter of a cost analysis involving original cost of equipment
and wiring; operating cost including power, maintenance, and lamp replace-
ments; and other related items such as the cost of air conditioning. A
form
for such an analysis is given in Chapter Fifteen.
CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT
Proper candlepower distribution for the particular lighting applica-
tion should be the first consideration in the selection of lighting equipment.
Luminaires should be chosen for distribution characteristics suitable to
the requirements of the given situation.
4—11
The efficiency of a luminaire is one measure of the quality of its ma-

terial and design. Any control applied to the light output of a bare lamp
results in some absorption of light. Ordinarily the greater
the degree of
contrd attained, the greater the light loss. In many installations the use of
low-effaciency equipment is justifiable in order to achieve a
desired effect,
Iherefore it is impractical to compare the efficiencies of dissimilar
types
of equipment. However, luminaires which produce the same
type of con-
trol can be compared on an efficiency basis, and those
with higher efficien-
cies are to be preferred.
Electrical features of luminaires warrant careful consideration in
the
interest of trouble-free, efficient operation. Equipment
built to conform
to underwriters' specifications and certified by laboratory
tests can
usually be relied on to provide the most satisfactory results.
Mechanical construction is important in all types of luminaires, but

requires special attention in those designed for the longer fluorescent
light
sources. It is important that the metal parts be sufficiently stronor
to
maintain the various elements in proper alignment, and to support^'the
comparatively heavy equipment with safety. The accessibility of lamps
and other electrical parts for service and for cleaning is also an important
consideration.
The appearance of the luminaire should be studied with respect to

the architecture and decoration of the area in which it is to be used. The
requirements depend to some extent on whether the lighting equip-
will
ment 18 functional, decorative, or both. In any event, it should harmonize
with the surroundings in architectural style, size, and decorative motif.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A

LIGHTING INSTALLATION
Maintenance
Theillumination produced by any lighting installation depreciates with
the gradual reduction in Hght output of the lamps due to
age and use,
and the lowered efficiency of luminaires and room surfaces caused by an
accumulation of dirt. In the design of any lighting system it is essential
not only to properly evaluate the effect of each of these factors, but
also.
so far as possible, to select and locate equipment for easy
maintenance.
^^'y ^^^^ '"^ *«"g*b of and in light output during
I'fC'
,.f^'^*i^. **^"'*^ff
hfe. Ihe problem of depreciation in light output becomes more pro-
nounced with long-life sources such
I as fluorescent and mercury vapor
lamps, since the light produced near
the end of life may be less than 75%
of the original value. It is frequently
found to be economical to establish
< 40 -WATT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
BURNING 8 HOURS PER START a replacement program in which new
Z 40 lamps are installed before the old
ones have reached the end of life.
t 20 Such a program can best be carried
REPLACING 100% AT EACH PERIOD out by systematically replacing the
-REPLACING 50% AT EACH HALF PERIOD lamps in a specific area after they
20 40 60 80 100 120 have burned a predetermined num-
PER CENT OF RATED LIFE ber of hours. This procedure is
4r— 12
commonly termed "group replacement," and the period selected for lanap
renewal should be somewhat less than the rated Hfe. All of the lamps in
the area may be replaced at one time, or distributed portions of them may
he replaced at separate intervals. The latter method has an advantage in
that it results in less variation in the illumination level effective
in the
area. Still less variation results where lamps are replaced on burn-out only,
once the replacement rate has become constant. The best replacement
method for any particular installation is determined by accessibility of
equipment and cost of individual replacements.
Luminaires do not function efficiently when covered with dirt. Not
only is light lost by being forced to travel through a layer of dust, but
with many types of luminaires the installation is rendered less effective by
a change in the distribution characteristics of the equipment. This is
especially true where specular reflecting surfaces are employed to produce
concentrated beams of light, since an accumulation of dirt on a specular
surface causes it to become diffuse in character.
Where parts may be bard to handle because of weight, size, or inaccessi-
bility,they should be hinged or otherwise secured to the main body of the
luminaire. For purposes of cleaning it is an advantage to be able to remove
the lamps and reflecting equipment readily.
For normal ceiling heights regular stepladders can ordinarily be used

for access to the fixtures. Where ceilings are high or where the floor area
beneath the luminaires is inaccessible, telescoping ladders with extension
platforms may be required. These are frequently necessary for use in
machine shops and large auditoriums.
The most desirable method of servicing equipment mounted high above
the floor is from above the ceiling or from a catwalk. Space is frequently
available above suspended ceilings from which recessed equipment can be
relamped and cleaned. In many high bay industrial areas the lighting
equipment is serviced from catwalks supported by the building trasses.
Luminaires located near the catwalk can be equipped with swing-out type
mountings. Luminaires at a greater distance can be supported from a
messenger cable and pulley arrangement permitting them to be pulled
over to the catwalk for servicing. Where high bay areas are equipped
with a crane, the lighting equipment can be mounted so that it is accessible
from a platform on the bridge of the crane.
Another method of obtaining access to lighting equipment is a discon-
necting or lowering-type hanger which permits the luminaire to be brought
down to the point of servicing by
means of a cable. The cable can be
operated from any easily accessible
location.
Where floodlighting equipment can
be mounted on building parapet
walls, swing-over type mountings
make possible to provide mainte-
it
nance from the roof. Hinged poles
are available which give access to
floodlights without the use of ladders.
Room surfaces contribute to the efficiency of an installation in varying

degrees depending on the type of lighting system. A reduction in the
reflection factor due to dirt has less effect in a direct system than in an
indirect, or partly indirect, one. The necessity for cleaning or refinishing
4—13
room surfaces varies with conditions. In areas where the dirt sticks to
surfaces, walls and ceiUngs should be reconditioned once or twice a year.
Where the dirt condition is less severe, or where air-cleaning systems are
employed, room surfaces may be permitted to go several years between
serv icings.
Voltage
Proper voltage is necessary for the efficient operation of all types of
lamps, and the provision of a voltage within the limits prescribed for the
equipment is one important factor in lighting design, when adding load
VOLTAGE VS LIGHT OUTPUT to old installations, it is especially
(TYPICAL CURVES) important to check the capacity of
the system to be certain that ade-
quate voltage will be maintained.
The characteristic curves of in-
candescent, fluorescent and mercury
vapor lamps indicate the variation in
light output caused by variation in
voltage. Where voltages fall below
certain limits, fluorescent and mer-
96 100 104 108
cury lamps may fail to start, or if
PER CENT OF RATED LINE VOLTS
operating, may be extinguished.
Color
Recognition of the importance of light-source color in the success of a
lighting installation involves an understanding of the basic process by
which color is produced. The color of a light source depends upon the
wavelengths of light which it generates. The apparent color of a reflecting
surface is determined by two things: the spectral reflectance character-
istics of the surface (reflection factor for each wavelength throughout the
visible spectrum), and the spectral composition of the light by which it is
illuminated. A colored object is colored because it reflects light selectively.
SPECTRAL REfLECTAhJCE CURVES
^he spcctral rcflcctauce curve of a
ÊO PIGMENT — red paint, lor example, shows that it
reflects a high percentage of the red
wavelengths, and little or none of
f the blue-green end of the spectrum.
i
Red paint illuniinaled by white
light appears red because it reflects
the red wavelengths which are part
/ of the white light, and absorbs most
of the others. If, however, it is il-
-GR -..
I
/ luminated by light which contains
_^ little or no red, such as that from
mercury vapor lamps, it reflects
very little light, and appears nearly
ANGSTROMS
black.
In other words, the only fixed color attribute of any object is its ability
to modify the spectral quality of the light incident upon it. A white or a
neutral gray body reflects all wavelengths equally. Hence the spectral
quaUty of the light reflected from it is the same as that of the light incident
upon it, and it has no "color."
Color is usually specified in terms of three characteristics, Aae, value^
and chroma. One common method of representing this relationship is by
means of a three-dimensional color solid, in which hue (red, green, blue,
etc.) is indicated by position around the exterior; value by vertical posi-
4—14
being at the top and the darkest at the bottom;

tion, the lightest colors
and chroma by horizontal position between the central, or neutral gray,
axis and the pure spectrum colors
around the circumference. Thus
the hue of a color specifies its
dominant spectral region or umve^
lengthy its value indicates its bright-
ness, and its chroma is a measure of
itspurityJ or how great a proportion
of other wavelengths are mixed with
the dominant wavelength. The value
of a pigment is closely related to its
reflection factor for white light; the
higher the value, the higher the reflec-
tion factor. The three analogous terms
--r.>,.,
by which the color of light is some- ^
times described are hue, brightness, and saturation.

Colors may be mixed by additive or subtractive means. The mixing
of colors of light by projecting them on the same surface is an additive
process. The creation of color by filtering
white light, or by the mixing of pigment
TERMINOLOGY 1 colors, is a subtractive process. Red,
blue, and green, the additive primary-
Pigment Light colors, when mixed in the proper pro-
Hue Hue portions produce white light. The three
Value Brightness subtractive primaries are yellow, blue
Chroma Saturation green, and magenta. Combined sub-
traction of all three makes black, whereas
combined subtraction of pairs yields the
additive primaries. Two colors that combine to give white or a neutral
gray are said to be com- ADDITIVE PRIMARIES SUBTRACTIVE PRIMARIES
plementary colors. The
subtractive primaries are
complements of the addi-
tive primaries. When
black is mixed with a
color, the result is popu-
larly known as a shade of
the original color; mixing
white with a color pro-
duces a tint.
Strongly colored light is, of course, not ordinarily used for seeing purposes
but for its decorative, dramatic,
and attention-compelling qualities. EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION
Colored light is produced from fila- OF COLORED LIGHT
ment lamps by the subtractive Approx. Lumeris per Watt
process, whereas fluorescent lamps Color
produce color directly. As a result, Fluorescent •Filament
colored light is obtainable from — —
fluorescent lamps at much higher
Bhie
Green
20
55 — 26 0.5
—31.5
Yellow 22 — 75 0.5
5 — 10
lumens per watt efHciencies than
from filament lamps. Where con-
Red 3 — 31
5 1 —4
centrated beams of light are desired Based on 100-watt lamp wilh typical
color filters of various kinds: colored hulbs,
for display purposes, color caps are glass roundels and caps, gelatins, dyes and
used in conjunction with incan- lacquers.
4—15
descent spot or floodHghting equipment, or with projector or reflector

lamps. As an indicatiou of the results to be expected, the accompanying
table lists the appearance of several colors of paint when light from
a strong
colored spotlight is added to common types of general illumination.
EFFECT OF COLORED LIGHT ON COLORED OBJECTS

Object Color Red Light Blue LIkHi Green Light Yellow Light
While Lighl Pink ..^û,u Very Lighl Very Light
Green \ellow
Black Reddiah Black Blue Black CreeniBh Black Orange Black
Red Brilliant Red Dark Bluish Red
Yellowish Bright Red
Red
Lighl Blue Keddbh Blue Bright Blue Greenish Blue Ugh IReddish
Blue
Dark Blue Dark Reddish Brilliant Blue Dark Greenish L,.,R^.,^
Purple Blue
Green Olive Green Green Blue Brilliant Green Yellow Green
Yellow Red Orange Lighl Reddish Light Greenish Brilliant Light
Brown Yellow Orange
Brown Brown Red Bluish Brown Dark Olive Brownish
Brown Orange
Since most of the light sources used for general illumination have con-
tinuous spectra, and since most paints and dyes have wide reflectance
curves, reflecting some light throughout the greater part of the spectrum,
any variation in the relative amounts of each of the colors in so-called
"white" light may appreciably alter the appearance of colored objects.
The color quality of a ' white" light source is sometimes described in terms
of color temperature (see Chapter Two). The assignment of a color temper-
ature to a light source means that the light produced is similar in color to
the hght emitted by a blackbody at that temperature. Tungsten has a
spectral energy distribution very closeto that of a blackbody, and therefore
the visible radiation from a filament lamp is nearly identical, not only in
color, but also in relative spectral energy distribution, to blackbody radia-
SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
tion. With fluorescent lamps the
FOR EQUAL FOOTCANDLES situation is somewhat different.
While the White (3500°K), 4500
White, and Daylight (6500°K)
fluorescent lamps are sufficiently
close to a blackbody in color so that
color temperatures can be assigned
to them, in spectral energy distri-
bution they differ in varying degrees
5000
from the corresponding blackbody
6000 7000
ANGSTROMS curves. These variations are the
cause of the accentuation of certain
colors by fluorescent light as compared with the same colors
,
under natural
hght.
The spectral quality of a light source used for color matching or color
discrimination requires special consideration. It is also important
that
the quantity of illumination be constant. Artificial light has
a distinct
advantage over daylight in constancy of both quality and quantity, and
Its color can be adjusted to be satisfactory for most
of these special appli- '^^
cations.
4^16
To matcb exactly under all kinds of light two samples must, of course,
have identical spectral reflectance curves, and it is sometimes advisable
to check a match under several sources of widely differing spectral quality.
For most color matching, however, an attempt is made to reproduce some
phase of daylight. Where the requirements are not too critical, the Day-
fight fluorescentlamp may supply a sufficiently close approximation to
average daylight. Filament lamps with carefully selected blue fdters are
often used where greater accuracy is demanded.
The best light source for detecting small color differences is often one
that is relatively poor in energy in the spectral region where the test
object has its maximum reflectivity, or, in other words, a hght source
complementary in color to the sample. Both color matching and color
discrimination require relatively high levels of illumination.
The most common type of problem involving light-source color con-

cerns the effect of general ill umin ants on the colors of wall paints, decora-
tive fabrics, and furnishings. The colors of objects as they appear under
average daylight are commonly accepted as their "natural colors. Since
no artificial light source exactly duplicates daylight in spectral distribu-
tion, these "natural*" colors will be modified to some extent by any lighting
system, and the change may be great enough to throw out of balance a
carefully planned color harmony.
EFFECT OF VARIOUS ILLUMINANTS ON INTERIOR PAINT COLORS

*
Pkint Munaell ApprOX. Soft White White 4.'»00 Daylight
Color Color Filament Fluorescent Fluorescent White
Factor
Cberry 5.0 R 4/14 ,13 BrilUunl Pinkish Red Pale Orange Yellowish Red Light Red
Red Or«n,;e Red Red
Orcbid 10.0 RP 7/8 .44 Ught Pink Dusky Pink Gray Pink Ughl Pink Good Match
(grayer)
Plum io.e RP 2/2 .04 Deep Orange Reddish Dark Brown U^R»««. Deep Bluish
Purple Purple
CtiMinut 7.S YR S/2 .19 Metlium Pinkish Gray Brown Light Gray
Brown Yellow Brown Brown
P«ch 2.5 YR 8/4 .58 Pinkish Yellow Light Pink ypht Very Ughl Fair Malch
Yellowish Pink Pink (lighter)
Or«ng« 5.0 YR 7/8 ,44 Bright Orange Ughl link Pale Yellow Ughl Yellow Gray Yellow
C.n.ry
Y*Uow
10.0 YR 7/8 M Orange Yellow Li phi Orange
Yellow
Light Yellow Fair Malch
Light 2.5 Y 8/8 .53i Vivid Pinkish Me<lium Light Bright Ughl (;reeni.«h
Yellow Orange Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
SemFa.m 7.5 GY 8/4 .58 Greenish Very Light Weak Gray Light Yellowish (;ood Match
Green Yellow (;rfly Green Green
|wleGt«en 2.5 G 5/4 .21 Vivid Yellow Pale W#ak Yellowish Yellow Green Fair Match
Green Gray (rreen (>reen (lighter)
Li^ht Blue 5.0 BG 7/4 .46 U^hl Ycllowiih UAi Bluish Weak Greenish Blue Gray Fair Malch
Green Gray Blue (lighter)
Medium 5.0 PB 5/10 ^3 Blue Green Weak Gray Puri>Ji)th Bhie Ughl Gray Fair Match
Blue Blue (lighter)
SUvwGray 2.5 Y 8/2 Ji7 Ughl Pinkish Gray lidit Very Ughl Bluish Gray
Yellow Gray (Jray
Samplea under the Rveilluntinants were compared with identical samples under a Macbeth Daylighting Unit (color tempsr-
ature 7000°K). "Good Match" indicates that the color of the sample so designated moat nearly matched the standard under
the Macbeth uniL The footcandle intensity of all iltuminants was appruximalety the same.
Tbe Munaell designations are approximate, and were determined under the Macbeth unit.
* For Standard ICl lUuminant G, represenlalive of average daylight.
4—17
Filament lamps, having more energy in the long wavelengths than day-
light,and less in the short wavelengths, enhance reds, oranges, and yellows,
and subdue blues and greens. However, filament lamps have been in use
for so long that these changes have become generally accepted, and are
commonly taken for granted. The advent of the fluorescent lamp, with
its differentspectral energy distribution, has directed increased attention
to the question of light-source color. Although the various "white" fluores-
cent lamps differ considerably in color (see Fluorescent Lamps, Chapter
Three), most of them tend to accentuate the blues, greens, and yellows,
and to have a graying effect on the reds. Where a color happens to have a
high reflectance in the region of one of the blue or yellow-green mercury
lines present in the fluorescent lamp spectrum, the effect of fluorescent
Ughting is often particularly marked. However, the rapidly increasing
use of fluorescent lamps over a period of years has had a tendency to
accustom people to this new set of color changes, and has done much to
bring about their common acceptance. In some applications the effect
produced by the closer-to-daylight quality of the fluorescent lamp is
definitely preferred.
In choosing wall colors, fabrics, rugs, and other elements of a decorative

scheme, it is important that the selection be made under the same type
of illumination with which the materials will be used. Since intensity of
illumination, as well as spectral quality, influences the appearance of
colors, the footcandle level should also approximate the conditions of
actual use. High intensities tend to "wash out" colors and make them
seem lighter, thus opening the way to erroneous conclusions. Since the
eye sees the same colors quite
differently in different combina-
tions, variations in background
color may be another source of
error in judging colors. The
variation in apparent value of
the same gray, viewed against
two different backgrounds, demon-
strates an effect that is even more
striking in color.
Color is known to have certain psychological effects upon people and
their emotions. Blues and greens produce a feeling of coolness and tend
to create an illusion of space and distance; on the other hand, reds, oranges
and yellows, possibly because they are associated with fire, produce a
feeling of warmth, and are what might be called "approaching colors."
Even a tinge of blue or yellow in white light makes tne light cool" or
"warm." The colors at the red end of the spectrum are said to be exciting
and stimulating, while blues, greens and purples are soothing and depres-
sing, and color can often be used in subtle ways to help create a desired
atmosphere.
-18
CHAPTER FIVE
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
The high levels of illumination produced by natural daylight are desir-

able for many seeing tasks. Before the development of modern light
sources many severe visual tasks had to be performed in daylight hours
because of the low levels of illumination provided by the artificial illumi-
nants then in use. The illumination intensities which were considered to
be good practice in past years were largely determined by the light sources
then available. Present-day practice recognizes that the footcandle levels
now recommended do not represent the ultimate in see-ability. They do,
however, represent practical values which may readily be obtained by
means of existing light sources and equipment.
The relationship between footcandle levels and ability to see is geometric
rather than arithmetic, and the chart below lists approximately equal
steps in footcandle effectiveness.
LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION \ 1000

^1(700- 1500)
v
500
\
\ (300-700)
nI (150-300)
-r
4 (70-150)
.^^^>^
\ „ 1
(»»>
.^
5
\ (7-15)
^^ LtGHTING
(3-7)
The quantitative requirement for good illumination of a specific seeing

task is primarily a function of the difficulty of the task in terms of fine-
ness of detail, brightness or color contrast, and the speed demanded.
Other factors such as the length of time for which the task is to he per-
formed, the surrounding conditions, and the physiological state of the
eyes which have to do the work are also involved.
The footcandle table in this chapter is divided into two parts, general
interior lighting and floodlighting, and industrial applications. The values
of illumination listed are to be provided on the work surface, whether it be
horizontal, vertical, or oblique. Where there is no definite work area, the
plane of reference is assumed to be a horizontal surface 30 inches above
the floor. The table is based not on initial illumination from a new, clean,
installation, but on footcandles maintained in service.
5—1
FOOTCANDLE LEVELS FOR SEEING TASKS

—
Level A 100 Footcandles
For very exacting and prolonged seeing tasks, such as fine bench and
machine work, extra fine hand painting and finishing, and for the dis-
crimination of fine detail of low contrast. For showcases, wall cases and
open counter displays in stores where importance of detail and attention
value are prime factors. (Under various circumstances the footcandles
may range from 30% below to 40% above the value given.)
I-.evel B— 50 Footcandles
For severe and extensive seeing tasks, such as medium and fine machine
work, medium fine assembly and inspection, fine sanding and finishing of
woodwork, drafting and proofreading. For general merchandising areas
in stores. (Range —
minus 30% to plus 40%.)
—
Level C 20 Footcandles
For moderately critical and lengthy seeing tasks, such as rough bench
and machine work, medium assembly and inspection, hand painting and
finishing, for pressing light cloth products and weaving light woolens. For
—
circulation areas in stores. (Range minus 30% to plus 40%.)
—
Level D 10 Footcandles
For visually controlled work in which seeing is important, but more
or less interrupted or casual, and does not involve discrimination of fine
details or low contrasts. For rough manufacturing processes, such as
moulding clay products and cements, glass blowing machines, billet, bloom-
ing and sheet bar mills in steel manufacturing. For stockrooms and active
storage areas for a variety of small articles such as for merchandise stocks.
—
Level E 5 Footcandles
For interiors where crude manual tasks are intermittently carried on,
such as required for grinding clay products and cements, stone crushing,
hand furnaces and boiling tanks in chemical plants, stockrooms and active
storage areas for medium size materials; for the safe assembly or move-
ment of people in auditoriums, through corridors and stairways. For
active work areas out-of-doors —loading docks.
—
Level AA 200 Footcandles
^
For extra fine inspection, such as required in making jewelry and pre-
cision instruments. For featured items and merchandise displays in show
—
windows in secondary business areas of large cities. (Range minus 30%
to plus 40%.)
—
Level AAA 500 Footcandles
For feature merchandise displays in show windows in main business
—
areas of large cities. For color identification in industry. (Ranee minus
30% to plus 40%.)
Level AAAA— 1000 Footcandles
Outdoor levels of illumination. For photography, hospital operating rooms,
and the daytime illumination of show windows. (Range ^ —minus 30% to
plus 40%.)
5—2
——— —
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
GENERAL INTERIOR AND FLOODLIGHTING

Foot candles Footcandle
Maintained Levels
in Service (Refer to
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Armories-
Drill 10 D
Exhibitions 30 C
Art Galleries-
General 10 D
On Paintings 50 B
Auditoriums-
Assembly Only 10 D
Exhibitions 30 G
Automobile-
Manufacturing (See Industrial)
Parking Spaces 2 —
Showrooms (Also See Show Windows) 50 B
Used Car Lots
Front Row of Cars 50 B
Remainder of Area 10 D
Badminton 30 C
Banks^-
Lobby 20 C
Cages and Offices 50 B
Barber Shops and
Beauty Parlors 50 B
Baseball
Seats
During Game 2 —
Before and After Game 5 E
Infield-
Major League 150 A
AA and AAA League 75 A
A and B League 50 B
C and D League 30 C
Semi-Pro League 20 C
Minimum . 15 D
Outfield-
Major League 100 A
AA and AAA League 50 B
A and B League 30 C
C and D League 20 C
Serai-Pro League 15 D
Minimum 10 D
Basketball
Recreational , 10 D
School 30 C
Bathing Beaches 1 —
Billiarils
General 10 D
On Tables 50 B
5—3
Footcandles Footcandle
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Bowling-
General 10 D
On Pins. 50 B
On the Green. 10 D
Boxing-
Seats^
During Bout 2 —
Before and After Bout. , , 5 E
Ring—
Amateur 100 A
Professional 200 AA
Championship 500 AAA
Building-
Construction 10 D
Excavation Work 2 —
Building Exteriors and Monuments
Bright Surroundings
Light Surfaces (80% RF)t 10 D
Medium—Dark Surfaces (40% RF)t 20 C
Dark Surroundings
Light Surfaces (80% RF)t 5 E
Medium—Dark Surfaces (40% RF) f 10 D
Bulletin and Poster Boards-
Bright Surroundings
Light Surfaces 50 B
Dark Surfaces 100 A
Dark Surroundings
Light Surfaces 20 C
Dark Surfaces 50 B
Churches-
Auditoriums 5 E
Sunday School Rooms 20 C
Pulpit or Rostrum 20 C
Art Glass Windows
Light Color 20 C
Medium Color 100 A
Dark Color 200 AA
Clock Golf 10 D
Club and Lodge Rooms^—
Lounge and Reading Rooms 20 C
Auditoriums 10 D
—
Coal Yards Protective 0.2 —
Construction (See Building)
Court Rooms 20 C
Croquet 10 D
Dance Halls 5 E
Depots (See Transportation)
Drafting Rooms-
Prolonged Close Work, Art Drafting and Design-
ing in Detail 50 B
t Approximate reflection fact<w.
5—4
—— —— — —
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Maintained Levels
In Servic* (Refer to
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1^
Dredging 2 —
Drill Fields 5 E
Factories (See Industrial)
Fire Engine Houses 10 D
—
Flags Floodlighted 30 C
Football
Professional 100 A
Class A 50 B
Class B 30 C
Class C 20 C
Minimum 10 D
Garages-—
Storage 10 D
Repair and Washing Dept 50 B
Gasoline Service Stations-^
Yard 10 D
Pump Island and Sales Room 30 C
Lube Room —General 20 C
Work Areas, Repair, and Washing 50 B
Lavatories 10 D
Gymnasium^
Locker and Shower Rooms 10 D
—
Exercising Room Fencing, Boxing, Wrestling,
Basketball, Volley Ball and Soft Ball-
General Exercising, 20 C
Exhibition Games and Matches 30 C
Handball 30 C
Hangars, Airplane^
Storage 10 D
Repair and Maintenance 50 B
Homes
Dining Room, Living Room, Library, Sun Room,
Entrance Hall, Stairways and Landings,
Bedrooms and Bathrooms
General Illumination ,..,..... 5 E
—
Reading Casual Periods 20 C
—
Reading Small Type, Prolonged Periods 40 B
Writing 20 C
Children's Study Tables 40 B
Sewing
Average for Casual Periods . 20 C
Average for Prolonged Periods 40 B
Dark Goods and Fine Needlework 100 A
Mirrors
—
Dressing Table Light on Face 20 C
—
Bathroom Light on Face 40 B
Game Tables
Card Tables 10 D
Ping Pong ., 40 B
5—5
— ————— ——— -

Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Homes— (Continued)
Kitchen
General Illumination 10 D
Work Counter, Range and Sink 40 B
Laundry
Ironer, Ironing Board and Tubs 40 B
Workbench 40 B
Horseshoe Pitching 10 D
Hospitals^
Corridors ^
Laboratories
General Laboratory Work 30 C
Close Work 50 B
Lobby and Reception Room 20 C
Operating Room
General 50 B
Operating Table
Major Operations • 1000 AAAA
Minor Operations • . . 200 AA
Private Rooms and Wards 30 C
Hotels
Lobby 20 C
Dining Room 5 E
Kitchen 20 C
Guest Rooms, Writing Rooms (See Homes)
Corridors 5 E
Ice Hockey
Outdoor 10 D
Indoor 30 C
Industrial Plants (See Industrial)
Laundries (See Industrial)
Library-
Reading Room • 30 C
Stack Room 10 D
Loading Docks • 5 E
Lumber Yards 1
Machine Shops (See Industrial)
Monuments (See Building Exteriors)
Motordromes
Seats 2
Track 20
Museums-^
General. 10 D
Special Displays 50 B
Office Buildings
Bookkeeping, Typing and Accounting 50 B
Conference Rooms —
General Meetings 30 C
Ofl&ce Activities (See Desk Work)
Corridors and Stairways 5 E
5—6
—— — — .
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
OfficeBuildings— (Continued)
Desk Work-
Intermittent Reading and Writing. ...,....., 30 C
Prolonged Close Work, Computing, Studying,
Designing, Reading Blueprints and Plans. . . 50 B
Filing and Index References 30 G
Lobby 20 C
Mail Sorting 30 G
Reception Rooms 20 G
Stenographic Work
Prolonged Reading Shorthand Notes 50 B
Vault 20 G
Piers^
Freight 5 E
5 E
Playgrounds 5 E
Polo 10 D
Post Office-
Lobby 20 G
Sorting, Mailing, Etc 30 G
Storage 10 D
File Room 30 G
Prison Yards 5 E
Professional Offices
Waiting Rooms 20 G
Consultation Rooms 30 G
Examination 100 A
Dental Chairs 200 AA
Protective 0.2 —
Quarries 5 E
Railroad Yards
Receiving 0.2 —
Classification 0.3 —
Residences (See Homes)
Restaurants, Luncb Rooms, Cafeterias
Dining Area 10 D
Food Displays 50 B
Kitchens 20 C
Roque 20 G
Schools^
Auditoriums
Assembly Only , 10 D
Study Ilalls 30 G
Class and Study Rooms, Desk and Blackboards . 30 C
Drawing Room 50 B
Gy mnasi um
General Exercising 20 G
Exhibition Games 30 G
5—7
— — ———— « — '
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
page 5-1)
Schools —(Continued)
Laboratories
General Laboratory Work 30 C
Close Work 50 B
Lecture Rooms
General 20 c
Special Exhibits and Demonstrations 50 B
Manual Training
General 30 C
Close Work ; 100 A
Sewing. ; ; XOO A
Sight-Saving Classes 50 B
Service Space-
Corridors 5 E
—
Elevators Freight and Passenger 10 D
Halls and Stairways 5 E
Storage (See Storage and Stockrooms)
and Washrooms
Toilets 10 D
Shipyards
General 5 E
Ways and Fabrication Areas. . 10 D
Show Windows
High Surrounding Brightness Areas
General Displays 300 AA
Feature Displays 500 AAA
Lower Surrounding Brightness Areas-
General Displays. 100 A
Feature Displays 200 AA
Minimizing Daylight Reflections 1000 AAAA
Skating Rink (Indoor) 10 D
Skating (Outdoor) 2
Smoke Stacks with Advertising Messages 20
Softball
Infield-
Class A 50 B
B
Class 30 C
C
Class .
, 20 C
Minimum 10 D
Outfield-
Class A 30 C
Class B 20 C
Class C 10 D
Minimum 5 E
Squash Racquets 30 C
Storage Yards (Outdoor) 1
Store Interiors (Also See Show Windows)
Circulation Areas 20 C
General Merchandising Areas 50 B
Showcases, Wall Cases and Open Counter
Displays 100 A
Feature Displays 200 AA
Stockrooms 10 D
5—
— —— —
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Footcandlea Footoandl
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Swimmmg Pools 10 D
—
Table Tennis Ping Pong 50 B
Target Shooting (On Target) 50 B
Tennis^
Recreational 20 C
Exhibition Matches 30 B
Theatres and Motion
Picture Houses-
Auditoriums
During Intermission 5 E
During Picture 0.1 —
Foyer 10 D
Lobby 20 C
Toboggan Slides 2
Transportation^
Cars
Bagpage, Day Coach, Dining, Pullman 30 C
Mail —
Bag Racks and Letter Cases 30 C
Storage 5 E
Street Railway, Trolley Bus, Motor Bus and
Subway Cars 30 C
Depots, Terminals and Stations-
Waiting Room 20 C
Ticket Offices
General 20 C
Ticket Rack and Counters 50 B
Rest Rooms, Smoking Room 20 G
Baggage Checking Office 20 G
Storage 5 E
Concourse 5 E
Platforms 5 E
Toilets and Washrooms 10 D
Trap Shooting (Vertical Surface at 150 ft.) 30 C
Volley Ball-
Recreational 10 D
Exhibition Matches 20 C
Water Tanks with Advertising Messages 20 C
Woodworking (See Industrial)
INDUSTRIAL INTERIORS
Airplane Manufacturing-
Stock Parts
Production 50 B
Inspection 100 A
Parts Manufacturing —
Drilling, Riyeting and Screw Fastening 30 B
Spray Booths 30 C
5—9
—— —— —— — .
Footcandles Footeandle
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Value.) page 5-1)
Airplane Manufacturing— (Continued)
Sheet Aluminum Layout and Template Work;
Shapmg and Smoothing of Small Parts for
Fuselage, Wing Sections, Cowling, etc 50
Welding
General Illumination
**'°* .............
20 c
w^°''':f
c uh-Assembly
b
1000 AAAA
Landing Gear, Fuselage, Wing Sections,
Cowling and Other Large Units 30
Final Assembly
Placing of Motors, Propellers, Wing Sections
and Landing Gear,
Inspection of Assembled Ship and Its Equipment
3q C
Machme Tool Repairs 50 B
Assembly-
, jOq A
Medium .\'
C
50 B
Iîne ..." 100 A
Extra Fine .//
Automobile Manufacturing
, . 200 AA
Assembly Line
t rame Assembly.
iqq A
Body Manufacturing
3q C
Parts o
Assembly !.*!!.*!!!.'
Q C
Finishing and Inspecting
30 C
Bakeries " *
200 AA
Book Binding-
20 C
Folding, Assembling, Pasting, etc
Cutting, Punching and Stitching
20 G
Embossing.
/.,.,/, * *
* 30
oq
C
Breweries-
C
Brew House
Boiling, Keg Washing and
5 E
Bottling
Filii'ngV. .'...[[]
'
" 10 D
Building
20 C
Construction
jq
Excavation Work ...."'.*..'..*.*
2
Candy Makings
Box Department 20
Chocolate Department
Husking, Winnowing, Fat Extraction, Crush-
ing and Refining, Feeding.
10
Bean Cleaning and Sorting, Dipping^
Packing, Wrapping
20 C
Cream Making B
Mixing, Cooking and Molding
Gum Drops and
20 C
Jellied Forms ...,..[ 20 C
Hand Decorating ..........!.' 50 B
5—10
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Candy Making
Hard Candy
— (Continued)
Mixing, (!>ooking and Molding 20 C
Die Cutting and Sorting 50 B
Kiss Making and Wrapping 50 B
Canning and Preserving 20 C
Chemical Works
Hand Furnaces, Boiling Tanks, Stationary Driers,
Stationary and Cavity CrystalHzers 5 E
Mechanical Furnaces, Generators, and Stills,
Mechanical Driers, Evaporators, Filtration,
Mechanical CrystalHzers, Bleaching . 10 D
Tanks for Cooking, Extractors, Percolators, Ni-
trators. Electrolytic Cells 20 C
Clay Products and Cements-
Grinding, Filter Presses, Kiln Rooms 5 E
Molding, Pressing, Cleaning and Trimming 20 C
Color, Glazing and Enameling 30 C
Cleaning and Pressing Industry^
Checking and Sorting 20 C
Dry and Wet Cleaning and Steaming 10 D
Inspection and Spotting 200 AA
Pressing
Machine 30 C
Hand 50 B
Receiving and Shipping 10 D
Repair and Alteration 200 AA
Cloth Products-
Cutting, Inspecting, Sewing
Light Goods. 30 B
Medium Goods 100 A
Dark Goods 200 AA
Pressing, Cloth Treating (Oilcloth, etc.)
Light Goods 30 C
Medium Goods 50 B
Dark Goods 100 A
Coal Tipples and Cleaning Plants
Breaking, Screening and Cleaning 10 D
Picking 200 AA
Construction
General. 10 D
Excavation Work 2 —
Dairy Products (See Milk Processing)
Electrical Equipment Manufacturing-
Impregnating 30 B
Insulating and Coil Winding 100 A
Testing 50 B
Machining (See Machine Shops)
Assembling (See Assembly)
Inspecting (See Inspection)
Elevators —
Freight and Passenger 10 D
Engraving 200 AA
5—11
Maintained LoTels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Explosives
Hand Furnaces, Boiling Tanks, Stationary Driers,
Stationary and Gravity Crystallizers 5 E
Mechanical Furnaces, Generators and Stills, Me-
chanical Driers, Evaporators, Filtration, Me-
chanical Crystallizers 10 D
Tanks for (Jooking, Extractors, Percolators,
Nitrators 20 C
Forge Shops 10 D
Foundries-
Changing Floor, Tumbling, Cleaning, Pouring
and Shaking Out 5 E
Rough Molding and Core Making 10 D
Fine Molding and Core Making. 20 G
Cleaning and Grinding Castings 30 C
Inspecting (See Inspection)
Garages
Storage 10 D
Repair Department and Washing 50 B
Glass Works^
Mix and Furnace Rooms, Pressing and Lehr,
Glass Blowing Machines 10 D
Grinding, Cutting Glass to Size, Silvering 30 C
Fine Grmding and Beveling 50 B
Etching, Decorating, Polishing and Inspecting 100 A
Glove Manufacturing-^
Pressing, Knitting, Sorting
Light Goods 20 C
Medium Goods 50 B
Dark Goods. 100 A
Cutting, Stitching, Trimming and Inspecting
Light Goods 30 B
Medium Goods 100 A
Dark Goods 200 AA
Hangars
Storage 10 D
Repair and Maintenance 50 B
Hat Manufacturing
Dyeing Stiffening, Braiding, Cleaning
and Refining
Light. 20 C
Medium 50 B
Dark. 100 A
Forming, Sizing, Pouncing, Flanging, Finishing
and Ironing
Light 30 C
Medium 50 B
Dark. 100 A
Sewing — ,
Light 30 B
Medium 100 A
Dark. 200 AA
5—12
—— — —
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Footcandlea Footcandle
Maintained Levels
In Service (Refer to
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
Ice MakingÊngine and Compressor Room,
Freezing Tank Room 10 D
Inspection-
Rough 20 C
Medium. 50 B
Fine. . , 100 A
Extra Fine 200 AA
Jewelry and Watch Manufacturing 200 AA
Laundries-
Washing 10 D
Flat Work Ironing, Weighing, Listing
and Marking 20 C
Machine and Press Finishing, Sorting 30 G
Fine Hand Ironing 50 B
Leather Manufacturing-
Vats. . 5 E
Cleaning, Tanning and Stretching 10 D
Cutting, Fleshing and Stuffing 20 C
Finishing and Scarfing 30 C
Leather Workings
Pressing, Winding and Glazing
Light 30 C
Medium 50 B
Dark 100 A
Grading, Matching, Cutting, Scarfing, Sewing
Light 30 B
Medium 100 A
Dark 200 AA
Locker Rooms 10 D
Machine Shops^
Rough Bench and Machine Work 20 C
Medium Bench and Machine Work, Ordinary
Automatic Machines, Rough Grinding, Medi-
um Buffing and Polishing *30 B
Fine Bench and Machine Work, Fine Automatic
Machines, Medium Grinding, Fine Buffing
and Polishing 100 A
Extra Fine Bench and Machine Work, Grinding
Fine Work 200 AA
Meat Packing
Slaughtering 10 D
Cleaning, Cutting, Cooking, Grinding, Canning,
Packing 20 C
Milk Processing
Boilers, Bottle Storage, Storage Refrigerators,
Weighing Room 10 D
Can Washers, Cooling Equipment, Pasteurizers,
Receiving, Separators. 20 C
* Large-area light sources of low Burface-hrightiiess and good difTusioii are necessary fur
the inspection of shiny or polished work surfaces or parts.
5—13
— ——— — .
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figura
^"'""^ '""«"^"
Milk Processmg-CContinued)
Bottle Sorting ' 50 g
Bottle Washers *5q g
Cleaning, Fittings and Pipes *50
,[ B
Filling and Inspection
50 B
Gauges, Meters, Thermometers, Scales 30 C
Vats.... 50 B
Milling, Grain Foods-—
Cleaning, Grinding and Rolling.
Baking or Roasting
10 D
Flour Grading
20 G
30 q
Offices-
Bookkeeping, Typing and Accounting 50 B
Conference Room
General Meetings
Office Activities (See Desk
30 G
Work)
Corridors and Stairways.
Desk Work
5 g
Intermittent Reading and Writing
Prolonged Close Work, Computing, Studying,
30 C
Designing, Reading Blueprints and Plans... 50 B
Fihng and Index References 30 B
•••• .; 20 C
J;?^5*X--:
Mail bortmg
Reception Rooms
' 30 C
Stenographic Work
20 C
Prolonged Reading Shorthand Notes 50 B
Vault , 20 G
Packing and Boxing 10 D
Paint Manufacturing
General 20 C
Comparing Mix with Standard !..!... 100 A
Paint Shops —
Dipping, Spraying, Firing, Rubbing, Ordinary
Hand Painting and Finishing 20 C
Fine Hand Painting and Finishing 50 B
Extra Fine Hand Painting and Fmishing (Auto-
mobile Bodies, Piano Cabinets, etc.) 100 A
Paper Box Manufacturing
J;'g*;t
park
20 c
Storage
50 B
5 ^
Paper Manufacturing
Acid Towers, Beaters, Deckers, Digester House,
Knotters, Drying Cylinders, Calendering, Set-
thng Tank House, Soda Room, Sulphur Room
and Pulp Grinding
Bleachers, Paper Cutters, Lavboys, Trimmers,
10 ^
Lappers, Thune Press and \<ôod Chipping.
Hand Counting, Wet End of Paper Machine. ...
. 20 C
30 C
• Large-area light sources of low surface-brightness and good
diffusion are necessary lor
for
5—14
————— —— .
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Maintained Levels
(Not Initial Figure
Values) page 5-1)
—
Paper Manufacturing (Continued)
Paper Machine Reel, Paper Inspection and
Laboratories 50 B
Rewinder 100 A
Storage 5 E
Plating 10 D
Power Plants, Engine Room, Boilers-
Boilers, Coal and Ash Handling, Storage Battery-
Rooms 5 E
Auxiliary Equipment, Oil Switches, Transform-
ers, Engines, Generators, Blowers, Compressors 20 G
Control Room
Switchboards and Meters 30 C
Printing Industries
Type Foundries
Matrix Making, Dressing Type. 100 A
—
Font Assembly Sorting 50 B
Hand Casting 30 G
Machine Casting 20 C
Photography
Dry Plate and Film 2000 AAAA
Wet Plate. 3000 AAAA
Printing on Metal 2000 AAAA
Electrotyping
Molding, Routing, Finishing, Leveling Molds . 100 A
Trimming. , 50 B
Blocking, Tinning 30 G
Electroplating, washing. Backing 20 G
Photoengraving
Etching, Staging 20 C
Blocking 30 G
Proofing 50 B
Tint Laying, Routing, Finishing 100 A
Printing Plants
Presses 30 G
Imposing Stones *100 A
Proofreading 100 A
Protective Industrial 0.2 —
Receiving and Shipping 10 D
Rubber Tire and Tube Manufacturing-
Stock Preparation
Plasticating, Milling and Branbury. 20 G
Calendering. 30 C
Fabric Preparation —Stock Cutting and Bead
Building 30 G
Tube and Tread Tubing Machines 20 G
Tire Building
Solid Tires 20 C
Pneumatic Tires 50 B
* Large-area light sources of low Burface-brightnesa and good diffusion are necessary for
the inspection of shiny or polished work Burfa< es or parts.
5—15
— ———— —
Footcandles
Maintained Footcandle
in Service Levels
Rubber Tire and Tube Manufacturing
Curing Department
— (Continued)
Tube and Casing 50 B

Final Inspection
Tube. 50 B
Casing 100 A
Wrapping. 20 C
Warehouse. 5 E
Rubber Goods, Mecbanical
Stock Preparation
Plasticating, Milling and Branbury 20 C
Calendering. 30 C
Fabric Preparation —Stock Cutting and Hose
Looms 30 C
Extruded Products. , 30 C
Molded Products and Curing 50 B
Inspection 100 A
Boxing. 20 C
Warehouse 5 E
Sheet Meta! Works—
Miscellaneous Machines, Medium Bench Work,
Punches, Presses, Shears, Stamps, Welders,
Spinning 30 C
Tin Plate and Similar Inspection *50 B
Shipyards-
General 5 E
Ways and Fabrication Areas 10 D
Shoe Manufacturing (Leather)
Cutting and Stitching
Cutting Tables. 20 C
Marking, Buttonholing, Skiving, Sorting, Vamp-
ing and Counting
Light Materials 20 C
Dark Materials. 100 A
Stitching
Light Materials. 30 B
Dark Materials 200 AA
Making and Finishing
Nailers, Sole Layers, Welt Beaters and Scarfers,
Trimmers, Welters, Lasters, Edge Setters,
Sluggers, Banders, Wheelers, Treera, Clean-
ing, Spraying, Buffing, Polishing, Emboss-
ing-
Light Materials 20 C
Dark Materials 100 A
Storage, Packing and Shipping 10 D
Shoe Manufacturing (Rubber)
Washing, Coating, Mill Run Compounding. .... 10 D
Varnishmg, Vulcanizing, Calendering, Upper and
Sole Cutting 30 C
Sole Rolling, Lining, Making and Finishing
Processes , 50 B
* Large-area light sources of low surface -brightness and good diffusion are necessary for
5—16
——— — — ——— — .
ILLUMINATION LEVELS
Footcandlea
in Service Levels
Silk and Rayon Manufacturing-
Soaking, Fugitive Tinting, and Conditioning or
Setting of Twist. 10 D
Winding, Twisting, Rewinding and Coning,
Quilling, Slashing 30 G
Warpine Cotton System)
(Silk or
On Creel, on Running^ Ends, on Reel, on
Beam, on Warp at Beaming 50 B
Drawing-In
On Heddles and on Reed 100 A
Weaving
On Heddles and Reeds. 10 D
On Warp Back of Harness . 20 C
On Woven Cloth 30 C
Soap Manufacturing
Kettle Houses, Cutting, Soap Chip and Powder . 10 D
Stamping, Wrapping and Packing, Filling and
Packing Soap Powder 20 C
Stairways, Corridors and Passageways 5 E
Steel and Iron Manufacturing
Billet, Blooming, Sheet Bar, Skelp and Slabbing
Mills .^. 10 D
Boiler Room, Power House, Foundry and Furnace
Rooms 10 D
Hot Sheet and Hot Strip Mills 10 D
Cold Strip, Pipe, Rail, Rod, Tube, Universal
Plate and Wire Drawing 10 D
Merchant and Sheared Plate Mills 20 C
Tin Plate Mills-
Hot Strip Rolling and Tinning Machine De-
Sartment 10 D
d Strip RoUing 20 C
Inspection
Black Plate, Bloom and Billet Chipping 30 C
Tin Plate and Other Bright Surfaces. *50 B
Machine Shops
Rough Bench and Machine Work 20 C
Medium Bench and Machine Work 30 B
Fine Work—Buffing, Polishing** 100 A
Extra Fine Work 200 AA
Blacksmith Shop 10 D
Laboratories (Chemical and Physical) 30 C
Carpenter and Pattern Shop (See Woodworking)
Storage 2
Stone Crushing and Screening
Belt Conveyor Tubes, Main Line Shafting Space,
Chute Rooms, Inside of Bins 5 E
Primary Breaker Room, Auxiliary Breakers
Under Bins 5 E
Screens 10 LI
Storage Battery Manufacturing
Molding of Grids 20 C
• Large-area light sources of low surface -brightness and good diffusion are necessary for
5—17
——— — — —— —
Footcandles
in Service Levels
Storage and Stockrooms—
Rough Bulky Materials 5 E
Medium 10 D
Fine Material Requiring Care 20 G
Structural Steel Fabrication 10 D
Sugar Refining
General 30 C
Color Inspection 100 A
Testing-^
Rough 20 C
Medium 30 B
Extra Fine Instruments, Scales, Etc 100 A
Textile Mills (Cotton)
Opening, Mixing, Picking, Carding and Drawing 10 D
Slubbing, Roving, Spinning, Spooling 20 C
Grading 100 A
Warping on Comb 30 C
Beaming and Slashing on Comb
Grey Goods 20 C
Denims 100 A
Inspection
Gre^rGoods (Hand Turning) 50 B
Denims (Rapidly Moving) 200 AA
Automatic Tymg-In, Weaving 50 B
Drawing-In by Hand 100 A
Tobacco Products
Drying, Stripping, General 10 D
Grading and Sorting 100 A
Toilets and Wash Rooms 10 D
Upholstering
Automobile, Coach, Furniture 30 G
Warehouse 5 £
Welding-
General Illumination 20 C
At Work-Point 1000 AAAA
Wood workin g—
Rough Sawing and Bench Work 20
Sizing, Planing, Rough Sanding, Medium Ma-
chine and Bench work. Gluing, Veneering,
Cooperage 30 C
Fine Bench and Machine Work, Fine Sanding
and Finishing 50 B
Woolen Manufacturings
Carding, Picking, Washing, Combing, Twisting,
Dyeing. 10
Drawing-In, Warping
Light Goods 20 C
Medium Goods 50 B
Dark Goods 100 A
Weaving
Light Goods. 20 G
Medium Goods 50 B
Dark Goods 100 A
Knitting Machines 20 G
5—18
—
CHAPTER SIX
INTEIHOR LIGHTING DESIGN
Introduction
The design of any lighting installation is dependent on many factors,
among which is the provision of the proper quantity of illumination.
This is accomplished by first analyzing the seeing task and its particular
illumination requirements. It then becomes possible to select the most
desirable type of lighting equipment and mathematically design the instal-
lation.
The quantity of light for an area may be calculated in two ways, the
Lumen Method, or the Point-by -Point Method, The first one provides
average footcandle values by the use of a relatively simple formula. Each
of the factors employed in the formula must be properly evaluated in
order to obtain accurate results.
The second or point-by -point method, while more accurate in some cases,
does involve more complex computations. It is ordinarily used only when
a relatively few direct-type lumin aires are employed,
LUMEN METHOD OF CALCULATION

In using the lumen method to solve a general lighting problem, six key
steps should be taken.
Step 1. Determine the required level of illumination.

Handbooks and manuals list many of the more common seeing tasks,
together with the quantity of ilhmiination that should be provided for
each. They usually represent minimum values which are good present-
day practice; the ultimate in seeing -comfort may be many times in excess
of these levels.
Step 2. Select the lighting system and luminaires.

Lighting systems are classified as:
1. Direct
2. Semi-Direct
3. General Diffuse or Direct-Indirect
4. Semi-Indirect
5. Indirect
Generally, offices are best lighted by an indirect, semi -indirect, or direct-
indirect system. Manufacturing areas usually employ a direct system,
and merchandising areas may use any system or combination of systems.
Choice as to just which of the lighting systems and luminaires best suit
a given application will depend upon the seeing tasks to be performed
and the characteristics of the area to be illuminated.
Step 3. Determine the coeiHcient of utilization.

This is merely the ratio of the lumens reaching the working plane to the
total lumens generated by the lamps. It is a factor that takes into ac-
count the efficiency and distribution of the luminaire, its mounting height,
the room proportions, and the reflection factors of walls and ceiling.
6—1
In the determination of the coefficient of utilization it is first necessary
to select the proper room index. Since painted surfaces of walls and
ceiling absorb some light, it can be generally stated that the smaller the
room the greater the percentage of lumens lost. This of course varies
with the distribution characteristics of the particular luminaire. The light
from a direct luminaire is affected less by the size of a room than that
from an indirect type. In determining tne room index from the table it
should be noted that for direct, semi -direct, direct -indirect, and general
diffuse equipment mounting height is to be used, and for semi -indirect and
indirect ceiling height should be used.
With the room index noted, the table of coefficients applicable to the
5articular luminaire should be selected on the basis of similarity of light
istribution and efficiency. The coefficient of utilization can then be
determined for the room index just found and for the room reflection
factors that will be present in the area. The reflection factors used should
represent depreciated room surface conditions, since an accumulation of
dirt on walls and ceihngs reduces the efficiency of any lighting system.
It is important, therefore, in estimating in-service footcandles that the
original reflection factors of walls and ceilings be reduced in accordance
with their anticipated maintenance.
Step 4. Estimate the maintenance factor.

The in-service footcandles which will be produced by any lighting in-
stallation are determined by a careful analysis of the conditions under
which the system will operate. Up
to this point in the problem careful
consideration has been given to the determination of proper values of
illumination, the system and luminaire to be used, the dimensions and
architecture of the area, the reflection factors of walls and ceiling, and the
resulting coefficient of utilization. All of this effort at accuracy is wasted
if a haphazard factor for maintenance is applied to attain the final in-
service footcandle value.
In the operation of any lighting system there are three elements of
maintenance which are variables and which affect the amount of light ob-
tained from the system;
(1) Loss of reflected light through accumulation of dirt on walls and
ceilings;this was considered in selecting the coefficient of util-
ization.
(2) Loss through accumulated dirt on reflecting or transmitting sur-
faces of the luminaire.
(3) Loss in light output of the lamp. At 70 per cent of lamp life a loss
of 15 to 30 per cent may normally be expected. This will vary for
different types of lamps.
In the following tables maintenance factors covering lamps and lumi-
naires have been suggested for three conditions defined as follows:
—
Good Maintenance Faaor Where the atmospheric conditions are good
luminaires are cleaned frequently, and lamps are replaced systematically.
—
Medium Maintenance Factor Where less clean atmospheric con-
ditions exist, luminaire cleaning Is fair, and lamps are replaced only
after burnout.
—
Poor Maintenance Factor Where the atmosphere is quite dirty and
equipment is poorly maintained.
The designer must exercise careful judgment both as to the existing and
anticipated conditions in order to arrive at a practical maintenance factor.
6—2
—
INTERIOR LIGHTING DESIGN
Step 5. Calculate the number of lamps and luminaires required.

The number of luminaires and lamps can be calculated from the follow-
ing formulas:
— Footcandles x Area
TV K fJ
" Lumens per Lamp x Goeflicient of Utilization x
Maintenance Factor
Number of Lamps
-T
umber ofr TLtuminaires = 7
, . •
JN ^ :—— :
l«amps per Liummaire
Step 6. Determine the location of the luminaires.

Luminaire locations depend on the general architecture, size of bays,
type of luminaire, position of previous outlets, etc.
In order to provide even distribution of illumination for an area it is
desirable not to exceed certain limitations of "spacing-to-mounting-
height" ratios. These values are indicated for the various types of lu-
minaires in the "Spacing Not to Exceed" column of the Coefficient of
Utilization tables in this chapter. The spacings shown are maximums,
and closer spacings may be necessary, especially when considering one-
or two-lamp fluorescent luminaire designs. In order to obtain required
levels of illumination with such an arrangement it is sometimes necessary
to install continuous rows of fluorescent Tight sources very close together.
A factor that is frequently overlooked in the consideration of an indirect
incandescent system is ceiling brightness. In an attempt to use a mini-
mum number of units, the designer may endeavor to use maximum spacing
with high-wattage lamps. This can result in annoying glare from the
ceiling, especially if the unit must be close to it. Brightness values for
various light sources and surfaces are given in Chapter Four.
Typical Example
As an example lumen method of calculation, assume a large
of the
general office 60 feet wide by 100 feet long with a 13 -foot ceiling. The
reflection factor of the ceiling is 85% and the walls 60%, with fair main-
tenance for both luminaires and room surfaces.
Step I. From Chapter Five, 50 footcandles are required for critical
officework.
Step 2. Fluorescent luminaires (four 40-watt lamps) of the direct-indirect
type with ribbed-glass bottom can be used for an installation of
this nature.
Step 3. —
From the table on page 6 4, the room index is B. With this
information applied to the table on page 6 14 for this type of—
luminaire, with depreciated reflection factors of 75% for ceiling
and 50% for walls, the coefficient of utilization will be .55.
Step 4, The maintenance factor, also from the table on page 6 14, will —
be .55.
Step 5. Substituting these values in the basic formula from page 6^ 5, —
the light output from a 40-watt White lamp being 2320 lumens,
Number of luminaires
^„^„ ==-=-; r^: = 107
4 X 2320 X .55 x .55
Step 6. With the spacing-to-mounting-height ratio from the table on
—
page 6 14 as a guide, it would seem that five rows each con-
taining 22 luminaires would be a desirable arrangement.
6—3
ROOM INDEX
6-4
BASIC FORMULAS
Total Lumens = pr Footcandles x Area

Coefficient of UtUization x Maintenance Factor
Number of Lamps = Footcandles x Area

Lumens per Lamp x Coefficient of Utiliza-
tion x Maintenance Factor
Luminaires = Footcandles x Area

Lamps per Luminaire
x Lumens per Lamp x
Coefficient of Utilization x Maintenance Factor
Lamp Lumens x Coefficient of Utilization x Main-

Footcandles = tenance Factor
Area
Lamps per Luminaire x Lumens per Lamp x

Coefficient of Utilization x Maintenance
Area per Luminaire = —
Factor
-^
Footcandles
EXPLANATORY NOTES FOR FOLLOWING TABLES

Coefficient of Utilization Table (Pages 6—6 to 6—16)
The distribution curves for each luminaire are plotted on the basis
of
candlepower as 100%, the inner curves representing 75%, 50%,
™^'^*<J?^
and 25% of maximum.
The figures above and below the vertical arrows indicate the percentage
of the total lamp lumens directed above and below the horizontal, their
sum being the efficiency of the luminaire.
The maintenance factors represent the depreciation in light output of
the luminaire due to dirt and the depreciation in light output of the lamp
during its life. The following lamp efficiencies at 70% life were used in
establishing the values for each luminaire:
40-Watt Fluorescent . 76 Incandescent . 85
100- Watt Fluorescent .72 Mercury .84
Precalculated Footcandle Table (Pages 6—17 to 6—23)

This table has been developed to minimize the mathematical calcula-
tions necessary to determine in-service footcandles. It is possible to read
directly the footcandles produced by each 1000 lamp-lumens for the
various coefficients of utilization and maintenance factors. For example,
a 500-watt luminaire installed on 10-foot by 10-foot spacing with a co-
efficient of utilization of .46 and a maintenance factor of .60 produces
—
2.76 footcandles for each 1000 lamp-lumens (page 6 20). Since a 500-watt
lamp emits 9950 lumens, 2.76 must be multiplied by 9.95, which gives a
value of 27.46 footcandles on the working plane. This table can be used
for all types of lamps. The area may be the number of square feet per
lamp, per luminaire, per bay, or for small rooms the number of square
feet per room.
6—5
COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION
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6—16
PRECALCULATED FOOTCANDLE TABLE
ciqr^©
^ iMi 163. 140. 117. 93.3 123. 105. 87.5 70.0 98.0 84.0 70.0 56.0 81.6 70,0 58,3 46.6 70.0 59.9 50.0 40.0 54.4 46.6 38.8 31.1
d "*'
dd
^ 159. 136. 113. 90.6 119. 102. 85.0 68.0 95.2 81.6 68.0 54.4 79.3 68.0 56,6 45.3 68.0 58.2 48.5 38.8 59.5 51.0 42.5 34.0 52.8 45.3 37.7 30.2
^ ggS^ 154. 132. 110. 88.0 116. 99.0 82.5 66.0 92.4 79.2 66.0 52.8 77,0 66.0 55.0 44.0 66.0 56.5 47.1 37.7 57.7 49.5 41.2 33.0 51.3 44.0 36.6 29.3
q an 149. 128. 107. 85.3 112. 96.0 80,0 64.0 89,6 76.8 6.4.0 51.2 74.6 64.0 53,3 42.6 64.0 54.8 45.7 36.5 56.0 48.0 40.0 32.0 49.7 42,6 35.5 28.4
t~^dkn^
3 Ft 00 in CM 145. 124. 103. 82.6 109. 93,0 77.5 62.0 86.8 74.4 62.0 49.6 72.3 62.0 51.6 41.3 62.0 53,1 44.3 35.4 54.2 46.5 38.7 31.0 48.2 41.3 34.4 27.5
s SIS§ 140. 120. 100. 80.0 105. 90.0 75.0 60.0 84.0 72.0 60.0 48.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 60.0 51.4 42.8 34.2 52.5 45.0 37.5 30.0 46.6 40.0 33.3 26.6
•oino CM so©"* sO©ensO or-TfFt t-mcM© Ft soc-i r*

s 135. 116. 96.6 77.3
sssr^s SSS^ 5SS5^ S5;:;s g5â in 00 CM tn

•* en en CM
s dddcM
ojso^^; 131. 112. 93,3 74.6
98 84.0 70.0 56.0 78.4 67.2 56.0 44.8 65.3 56.0 46.6 37.3 56.0 47.9 40.0 32.0 49.0 42.0 35.0 28.0 43.5 37.3 31.1 24.8
s o^ CM-
00 so en
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d 126. 108. 90.0 72.0 94.5 81.0 67.5 54.0 75,6 64.8 54-0 43,2 63.0 54.0 45.0 36.0 54.0 46.2 38.5 30.8 47.2 40.5 33.7 27.0 42.0 36.0 30.0 24.0
! s CMdd
00 in eo o
"<*
121. 104. 86.6 69.3 91.0 78.0 65.0 52.0 72.8 62.4 52.0 41,6 60.6 52.0 43,3 34.6 52.0 44.5 37.1 29.7 45.5 39.0 32.5 26.0 40.4 34.6 28,8 23.1
s r- in CM o 117. 100. 83.3 66.6 87.5 75.0 62.5 50,0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 58.3 50.0 41.6 33.3 50.0 42.8 35.7 28.5 43.7 37.5 31.2 25.0 38.8 33.3 27.7 22.2
1a s 168. 144. 120. 96.0 112. 96.0 80.0 64.0 84.0 72.0 60.0 48.0 67.2 57.6 48.0 38,4 56,0 48.0 40.0 32.0 48.0 41.1 34,3 27.4
©©©© 37.3 32.0 26.6 21.3
^ 161. 138. 115. 92.0 107. 92,0 76.6 61.3 80,5 69.0 57.5 46.0 64.4 55.2 46.0 36.8 53.6 46.0 38.3 30,6 46.0 39.4 32.8 26.2 40.2 34.5 28.7 23.0 35.7 30.6 25.5 20.4
Q
5 154. 132. 110. 88.0 103. 88.0 73.3 58.6 77.0 66.0 55.0 44.0 61.6 52.8 44.0 35.2 51.3 44.0 36.6 29.3 44.0 37.7 31.4 25.1 38.5 33.0 27.5 22.0 34.2 29.3 24.4 19.5
i
g 147. 126. 105. 84.0 98.0 84.0 70.0 56.0 73.5 63.0 52.5 42.0 58.8 50.4 42.0 33.6 49.0 42.0 35.0 28.0 42.0 35.9 30.0 24.0 36.7 31.5 26.2 21.0 32.6 28.0 23.3 18.6
1!
s 140. 120. 100. 80.0 93.3 80.0 66.6 53.3 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 56.0 48.0 40.0 32.0 46.6 40.0 33.3 26.6 40.0 34.2 28.5 22.8 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 31.2 26.6 22.2 17.7
aJ
s 133. 114. 95.0 76.0 88.6 76.0 63.3 50.6 66.5 57.0 47.5 38.0 53.2 45.6 38.0 30.4 44.3 38.0 31.6 25.3 38.0 32.5 27.1 21.7 33.4 28.5 23.7 19.0 29,5 25.3 21.1 16.8
11
126. 108. 90.0 72.0 31.5 27.0 22.5 18.0 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0
!S 84.0 72.0 60.0 48.0 63.0 54.0 45.0 36.0 50.2 43.2 36.0 28.8 42.0 36.0 30.0 24.0 36.0 30.8 25.7 20.5
g Ed
s 119. 102. 85.0 68.0 79.3 68.0 56.6 45.3 59.5 51.0 42.5 34.0 47.6 40.8 34.0 27.2 39.7 34.0 28.3 22.6 34.0 29.1 24.3 19.4 29.7 25.5 21.2 17.0 26.4 22.6 18.8 15.1
j2 .S
8
s 112. 96.0 80.0 64.0 74.6 64.0 53.3 42.6 56.0 48.0 40.0 32.0 44.7 38.4 32.0 25.6 37.1 32.0 26.6 21.3 32.0 27.4 22.8 18.2 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 24.5 21.3 17.7 14.2
a
s s 105. 90.0 75.0 60.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 52.5 45.0 37.5 30.0 42.0 36.0 30,0 24.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 30.0 25.7 21.4 17.1 26.2 22.5 18.7 15.0 23.3 20.0 16.6 13.3
1
^ 98.0 84.0 70.0 56.0 65.3 56.0 46.6 37.3 49.0 42.0 35.0 28.0 39.2 33.6 28.0 22.4 32.7 28.0 23.3 18.6 28.0 23.9 20.0 16.0 24.5 21.0 17.5 14.0 21.8 18.6 15.5 12.4
^ 91.0 78.0 65,0 52.0 60.6 52.0 43.3 34.6 45.5 39.0 32.5 26.0 36.4 31.2 26.0 20.8 30.3 26.0 21.6 17.3 26.0 22.2 18.5 14.8 22.7 19.5 16.2 13.0 20.2 17.3 14.4 11.5
^ 84.0 72.0 60.0 48.0 56.0 48.0 40.0 32.0 42.0 36.0 30.0 24.0 33.6 28.8 24.0 19.2 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 24.0 20.5 17.1 13.7 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 18.6 16.0 13.3 10.6
n 77.0 66.0 55.0 44.0 51.3 44.0 36.6 29.3 38.5 33.0 27.5 22.0 31.0 26.4 22.0 17.6 25.6 22.0 18.3 14.6 22.0 18,8 15,7 12.5 19.2 16.5 13.7 11.0 17.1 14.6 12.2 9.77
n 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 46.6 40.0 33.3 26.6 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 23.3 20,0 16.6 13.3 20.0 17.1 14.3 11.4 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 15.5 13.3 11.1 8.88
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6—17
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^ 49.0 42.0 35.0 28.0 40.8 35.0 29.1 23.3 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 30.6 26.2 21.8 17.5
r-coosm 24.5 21.0 17.5 14.0 22.3 19.0 15.9 12.7 20.4 17.5 14.5 11.6
CM 04 FN FN
47.6 40.8 34.0 27.2 39.6 34.0 28.3 22.6 34.0 29.1 24.2 19.4 29.7 25.5 21.2 17.0 26.4 22.6 18.8 15.1 23.8 20.4 17.0 13.6 21.6 18.5 15.4 12.3 19.8 17.0 14.1 11.3
5?
s
00 t-som pppp 04mt^©
46.2 39.6 33.0 26.4 38.5 33.0 27.5 22.0 33.0 28.2 23.5 18.8
g^^2 25.6 22.0 18.3 14.6 23.1 19.8 16.5 13.2
s:;22S
©.so to FN
3 44.8 38.4 32.0 25.6 37.3 32.0 26.6 21.3 32.0 27.4 22.8 18.2 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 24.8 21.3 17.7 14.2 22.4 19.2 16.0 12.8 20.3 17.4 14.5 11.6
00|OtOO
s 43.4 37.2 31.0 24.8 36.1 31.0 25.8 20.6 31.0 26.5 22.1 17.7 27.1 23.2 19.3 15.5 24.1 20.6 17.2 13.7 21.7 18.6 15.5 12.4 19.7 16.9 14.0 11.2 18.0 15.5 12.9 10.3
s 42.0 36.0 30.0 24.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 30.0 25.7 21.4 17.1 26.2 22.5 18.7 15.0 23.3 20.0 16.6 13.3 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 19.0 16.3 13.6 10.9 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0
poor^m
^ 40.6 34.8 29.0 23.2 33.8 29.0 24.1 19.3
giSS2
25.3 21.7 18.1 14.5 22.5 19.3 16.1 12.8 20.3 17.4 14.5 11.6 18.4 15.8 13.1 10.5 16.9 14.5 12.0 9.66
s 39.2 33.6 28.0 22.4 32.6 28.0 23.3 18.6 28.0 24.0
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16.0 24.5 21.0 17.5 14.0 21.7 18.6 15.5 12.4
p„p„
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s 37.8 32.4 27.0 21.6 31.5 27.0 22.5 18.0 27.0 23.1 19.2 15.4 23.6 20.2 16.8 13.5 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0 18.9 16.2 13.5 10.8 17.1 14.7 12.2 9.82 15.7 13.5 11.2 9.00
I ^ 36.4 31.2 26.0 20.8 30.3 26.0 21.6 17.3 26.0 22.2 18.5 14.8 22.7 19.5 16.2 13.0 20.2 17.3 14.4 11.5 18.2 15.6 13.0 10.4 16.5 14.1 11.8 9.45 15.1 13.0 10.8 8.66
1 p^«M pr,p«, mpmp

^ 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 29.1 25.0 20.8 16.6
S^222 222 S r^meq o 15.9 13.6 11.3 9.09 14.5 12.5 10.4 8.33
ppcop
9.
33.6 28.8 24.0 19.2 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 24.0 20.5 17.1 13.7
JI2S2 S222 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.60 15.2 13.0 10.9 8.72 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00
$, 32.2 27.6 23.0 18.4 26.8 23.0 19.2 15.3 20.1 17.2 14.3 11.5 17.8 15.3 12.7 10.2 16.1 13.8 11.5 9.20 14.6 12.5 10.4 8.36 13.4 11.5 9.58 7.66
?3S22
c4mt^p
i 30.8 26.4 22.0 17,6 25,6 22.0 18.3 14.6 22.0 18.8 15.7 12.5
OS so CO FN 17.1 14.6 12.2 9.77 15.4 13.2 11.0 8.80 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.8 11.0 9.16 7.33
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^ 29.4 25,2 21.0 16.8 21.0 18.0 15.0 12.0
odincod 16.3 14.0 11.6 9.33 14.7 12.6 10.5 8.40 13.3 11.4 9.54 7.63 12.2 10.5 8.75 7.00
j 5 28.0 24.0 20.0 16.0 23.3 20.0 16.6 13.3 20.0 17.1 14.2 11.4
r-ino4© 15.5 13.3 11,1 8.88 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.7 10.9 9.09 7.27
F-^-<00sO
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14.7 12.6 10.5 8.44 13.3 11.4 9.50 7.60 12.1 10.3 8,63 6.90 11,0 9.50 7.91 6.33
n 25.2 21.6 18.0 14.4

FN 00 in 04 00inc4O 15.7 13.5 11.2 9.00 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.6 10.8 9.00 7.20 11.4 9.81 8.18 6.54 10.5 9.00 7.50 6.00
.* m©04co
^ 23.8 20.4 17.0 13.6
dl^^F^ !7.0 14.5 12.1 9.71 14.8 12.7 10.6 8.50 13.2 11.3 9.44 7,55 11.9 10.2 8.50 6.80 10.8 9.27 7.72 6.18 9.92 8.50 7.08 5.66
m o en so
^ 22.4 19.2 16.0 12.8
cd»d tod 16.0 13.7 11.4 9.14 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.4 10.6 8.88 7.11 11.2 9.60 8.00 6.40 10.0 8.72 7.27 5.81 9.34 8.00 6.66 5.33
a
S ©©©o
n S2^2 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 15.0 12.8 10.7 8.57 13.1 11.2 9.37 7.50 11.6 10.0 8.33 6.66 10.5 9.00 7.50 6.00 9.55 8.18 6.81 5.45 8.75 7.50 6.25 5.00
1 pppc4
n OSSO^ FN 16.3 14.0 11.6 9.33 14.0 12.0 9.99 8.00 12.2 10.5 8.75 7.00 10.9 9.33 7.77 6.22 9.80 8.40 7.00 5.60 8.90 7.63 6.36 5.09 8.00 7.00 5.83 4.66
n 18.2 15.6 13.0 10.4 15.1 13.0 10.8 8.66 13.0 11.1 9.28 7.42 11.3 9.75 8.12 6.50 10.1 8.66 7.22 5.77 9.10 7.80 6.50 5.20 8.27 7.09 5.90 4.72 7.60 6.50 5.41 4.33
a 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.60 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.0 10.2 8.57 6.85 10.5 9.00 7.50 6.00 9.35 8.00 6.67 5.33 8.40 7.20 6.00 4.80 7.65 6.54 5.45 4.36 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00
15.4 13.2 11.0 12.8 11.0 9.17 7.33 11.0 9.42 7.85 6.28
SJ 8.80 9.60 8.25 6.87 5.50 8.55 7.33 6.11 4.88 7.70 6.60 5.50 4.40 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 6.40 5.50 4.58 3.66
s 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 11.6 10.0 8.33 6.66 10.0 8.57 7.14 5.71 8.75 7.50 6.25 5.00 7.80 6.66 5.55 4.44 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 6.36 5.45 4.54 3.63 5.75 5.00 4.16 3.33
gSS5 ^SS§ ^SS? gSg5 ^SS5 gss? SSS5 gsss

III
o e^
s « ee
n n S
III
6—18
18.8 16.1 13.4 10.7 17.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 16.3 14.0 11.6 9.33 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 12.2 10.5 8.75 7.00 10.9 9.33 7.77 6.22 9.80 8.40 7.00 5.60 8.90 7.63 6.36 5.09 8.16 7.00 5.83 4.66
18.3 15.7 13.0 10.4 17.0 14.5 12.1 9.71 15.8 13.6 11.3 9.06 13.6 9.71 7.77 11.9 10.2 8.50 6.80 10.5 9.06 7.55 6.04 9.52 8.16 6.80 5.44 8.65 7.42 6.18 4.94 7.93 6.80 5.66 4.53
U.6
17.7 15.2 12.7 10.1 16.5 14.1 11.8 9.42 15.4 13.2 U.O 8.80 13.2 9.43 7.54 11.5 9.90 8.25 6.60 10.2 8.80 7.33 5.86 9.24 7.92 6.60 5.28 8.40 7.20 6.00 4.80 7.70 6.60 5.50 4.40
U.3
©OTf Tf 7.U
17.2 14.7 12.3 9.84 14.9 12.8 10.6 8.53 12.8 10.9 9.14 7.31 11.2 9.60 8.00 6.40 9.95 8.53 5.68 8.96 7.68 6.40 5.12 8.14 6.98 5.82 4.65 7.46 6.40 5.33 4.26
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16.6 14.3 11.9 9.54 15.5 13.3 U.O 8.85 14.4 12.4 10.3 8.26 12.4 10.6 8.85 7.08 10.8 9.30 7.75 6.20 9.64 8.26 6.88 5.51 8.68 7.44 6.20 4.96 7.89 6.76 5.63 4.50 7.23 6.20 5.16 4.13
16.1 13.8 11.5 9.23 15.0 12.8 10.7 8.57 14.0 12.0 lO.O 8.00 12.0 10.3 8.57 6.85 10.5 9.00 7.50 6.00 9.33 8.00 6.66 5.33 8.40 7.20 6.00 4.80 7.63 6.54 5.45 4.36 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00
15.6 13.3 11.1 8.92 14.5 12.4 10.3 8.28 13.5 11.6 9.66 7.73 9.94 8.28 6.62 10.1 8.70 7.25 5.80 9.02 7.73 6.44 5.15 8.12 6.96 5.80 4.64 7.38 6.32 5.27 4.21 6.76 5.80 4.83 3.86
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14.5 12.4 10.3 8.30 13.5 11.5 9.64 7.71 12.6 10.8 9.00 7.20 10.8 9.25 7.71 6.17 9.45 8.10 6.75 5.40 8.40 7.20 6.00 4.80 7.56 6.48 5.40 4.32 6.87 5.89 4.90 3.92 6.30 5.40 4.50 3.60
14.0 12.0 10.0 8.00 13.0 11.1 9.28 7.42 12.1 10.4 8.66 6.93 10.4 8.91 7.42 5.94 9.10 7.80 6.50 5.20 8.08 6.93 5.77 4.62 7.28 6.24 5.20 4.16 6.61 5.67 4.72 3.78 6.96 5.20 4,33 3.46
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11.3 9.69 8.07 6.46 10.5 9.00 7.50 6.00 9.80 8.40 7.00 5.60 8.40 7.20 6.00 4.80 7.30 6.30 5.25 4.20 6.40 5.60 4.66 3.73 5.88 5.04 4.20 3.36 5.30 4.58 3.82 3.05 4.90 4.20 3.50 2.80
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9.67 8.30 6.92 5.54 9.00 7.71 6.42 5.14 8.40 7.20 6.00 4,80 7.20 6.17 5.14 4.11 6.30 5.40 4.50 3.60 5.60 4.80 4.00 3.20 5.02 4.32 3.60 2.88 4.58 3.92 3.27 2.61 4.20 3.60 3.00 2.40
9.16 7.84 6.53 5.23 8.50 7.28 6.07 4.85 7.94 6.80 5,66 4.53 6.80 5.83 4.85 3,88 5.95 5.10 4.25 3.40 5.29 4.53 3.77 3.02 4.76 4.08 3.40 2.72 4.33 3.71 3.09 2.47 3.97 3.40 2.83 2.26
8.62 7.38 6.15 4.92 8.00 6.85 5.71 4.57 7.47 6.40 5.33 4.26 6.40 5.48 4.57 3.65 5.60 4.80 4.00 3.20 4.95 4.26 3.55 2.84 4.47 3.84 3.20 2.56 4.07 3.49 2.90 2.32 3.71 3.20 2.66 2.13
8.07 6.92 5.76 4.61 7.50 6.43 5.35 4.28 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 6.00 5.14 4.28 3.42 5.25 4.50 3.75 3.00 4.65 4.00 3.33 2.66 4.20 3.60 3.00 2.40 3.82 3.27 2.72 2.18 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00
7.55 6.46 5,38 4.30 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 6.54 5.60 4.66 3.73 5.60 4.80 4.00 3.20 4.90 4.20 3.50 2.80 4.35 3.73 3.11 2.48 3.92 3.36 2.80 2.24 3.56 3.05 2.54 2.03 3.27 2.80 2.33 1.86
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CM CO in eg
O*
Ov
(-1
0\ CO
^t~- CO r- ô •*
(^ ©©o ©©©©
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O r^ CO
I-I "^j m o in o in CO r-l o \o ©
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00«
r- oin CO c 00 r~ xo "*
T*
-If F- r-l
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r-
eoee
t»'« inM" ess§ 5Sg5 SSS? -S in * 2SS? 2S§S SSS§ 5SS$
6—23
.
, .

LAMP DATA
Fluorescent
Burning Rated
Watts Bulb Base Color Hours Per Avg. Life Initial
Start (Hours) Lumens
Standiird Lamps
3 2500
40 T-12 Med. Bipin Whitet 6 4000 2320
12 6000
f 3 2500
40 T-12 Med. Bipin Daylight 6 4000 1920
12 6000
[ 3 3000
100 T-17 Mog. Bipin Whitet 6 4500 4200
12 6500
3 3000
100 T-17 Mog. Bipin Daylight 6 4500 3900
12 6500
Slimlitie Lamps Amperes
16 0.1 2500* 880
25 42*T-6 Single-Pin 4500 White 0.2 2500* 1320
33 0.3 2500* 1620
24 f
0.1 2500* 1370
39 64''T-6 Single-Pin 4500 White 0.2 2500* 2150
51 0.3 2500* 2600
22 1 f 0.1 2500* 1340
51 0.3 2500* 2850
29 0.1 2500* 1800
69 0.3 2500* 3950
t The 4500 White lamp is about halfway between White and Daylight in both color and
lumen output. The Soft White lamp produces about 25 % less light than the White.
* Life under speciBed test conditions at 3 burning hours per start. At 6 hours per start it
wiil be 4000 hours and at 12 hours per start 6000 hours.
Approximate Ballast Lpss —Watts per Lamp

110-125 Volt 220-250 Volt
Two- Two-
Single- Lamp La nap Single- Lamp Lamp
Lamp
Low High High Low High High
PF PF PF PF PF PF
Fluorescent
40-W48''T-12 13 15 8.75 12 13 7.25
40- W
48'' T-12 (Inst. Start). * 14 ' 12.5
100-W 60* T-17 ,
'24 '
17.5
*
24 17.5
Slimline
16-W 42* r-6 .1 Amp.). 10 5.75
25- W
42* T-6 .2 Amp.). 17 9
24-W 64* T-6 .1 Amp.). 10 7.5
39- W 64* T-6 .2 Amp.) 17 12
22- W 72* T-8 .1 Amp.). 10 7.5
38- W 72* T-8 .2 Amp.). 17 12
29-W 96* T-8 .1 Amp.), 11.5 8
51-W 96* T-8 .2 Amp.). 12^5 14
Mercury
400- W A-Hl . 40 27.5 25
230 Volu 460 Volts
3000-W A-H9 165 I
140 135 \ 125
6—24
Filament
Rated
Watu Bulb Base FinUh Avg. Life Initial
(Hours) Lumens
Genera Service La mps

L
100 A-21 Med. I.F. 750 1630

150 PS~25 Med. I.F.-CI. 750 2600
200 PS-30 Med. I.F.-Cl. 750 3700
300 PS-30 Med. I.F.-CI. 750 590O
300 PS-35 Mogul I.F.-Cl. 1000 5650
500 PS-40 Mogul I.F.-CI. 1000 9950
750 PS-52 Mogul I.F.-Cl. 1000 15,500
1000 PS-52 Mogul I.F.-Cl. 1000 21.500
1000 T-24 Med. Bipoit LF. 1000 19,500
1500 PS-52 Mogul I.F.-Cl. 1000 33,000
Project or and Refle ctor Lamps

150 PAR-38 Med. Skt. Projector Spot 1000 990 (O-IS*)
150 PAR-38 Med. Skt. Projector Flood 1000 1150 (0-30°)
150 R-40 Med. (Light Inside 1 1000 700 (0-15°)
Frosted
300 R-40 Med. Reflector Spot J 1000 1460 (O-IS**)
150 R-40 Med. [Inside ]

1000 700 (0-30°)
Frosted \
300 R-40 Med. [Reflector Flood J 1000 1620 (0-30°)
Mercury
Burning Rated
Watts Bulb Base Desig- Hours Per Avg. Life Initial
nation Start (Hours) Lumens
400 T-16 Mogul A-Hl 5 4000 16,000
400 T-16 Mogul A-Hl 10 6000 16,000
3000 T-9H S.C. Term. A-n9 5 3000 120,000
POINT-BY-POINT METHOD OF CALCULATION

Contrasted with the lumen method of calculation, which is hased on
the average light flux effective throughout an area, the point-by-point
method is Lasea on the actual amount of light which
will be produced at specific points in the area. This POINT
requires a knowledge of the way in which light is
distributed from sources of various shapes and sizes.
SOURCE
n —
/ \ FT
The following basic relationships exist.
I
100 FT-C t
I. Point Source— Illumination is £nt;ersefy propor- /

tional to the square of the distance (Inverse Square JL
Law).
Anincandescent lamp, alone or in an enclosing \3FT
globe, can usually be treated as a point source.
6—25
2. Line Source of Infinite Length — Illumination

IMFINITE LINE SOURCE is inversely proportional to the distance.
IFT A continuous row of fluorescent fixtures, or

even one fluorescent lamp at short distance, ap-
proaches this condition. At sufiiciently short
distances from any linear source the footcandle
values will be found to vary more nearly inversely
3 FT with the first power, than with the square, of the
distance.
^ NFlNtTE SURFA(
3fY'
3. Surface Source of Infinite
does not cliange with distance.
Area—Illumination
A large luminous panel, or a ceiling lighted by

totally indirect means, approaches this condition,
and within a certain distance range the illumina-
tion will not change greatly with distance.
POINT SOURCE IN
4. Parallel Beam of Light — Illumination does not
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR change with distance.
Atrue point source in a perfect parabolic re-

flector would produce a parallel beam, but since
any actual light source has finite dimensions, a com-
pletely parallel beam is never achieved. The inverse
square law can be used to calculate the illumination
from searchlights, spotlights, and other beam -pro-
ducing devices beyond a certain minimum distance
determined by the diameter and focal length of the
reflector, and the size of the light source. Although the inverse-square
distances for beam -producing equipment are substantially greater than
those considered adequate for diffusing sources, they are still usually with-
in the distance ranges at which these units are used.
The present trend toward linear sources and continuous lines of light
resulting from the increasing use of fluorescent lamps, as well as the grow-
ing popularity of lighted architectural elements, emphasizes the necessity
for understanding the limitations of the inverse square law and recognizing
the conditions under which it cannot correctly be used.
Theoretically, the inverse square law is based on a point light source

radiating uniformly in all directions. Thus where the light source is an
extended one, either a line of light or a large surface area, the point-by-point
method cannot ordinarily be used to calculate the illumination for normal
working distances. It can, however, be applied to any light source, pro-
vided the distance between the source and the illuminated surface is suf-
ficiently great with respect to the size of the source. With diffusing light
sources, five times the greatest dimension of the source is accepted in
general practice as the minimum distance for which illumination can be
calculated with reasonable accuracy.
6—26
'"^'°**' •°** *•"» distribution curve of the source

» ZanrKl.
w available, •,
it is
•
'^'*u,°'
possible to determine either horizontal or
lUummation by using the foUowing formulas: êrncai sMface
vertical surlace
^llh\
.^v
k-^-
I
t
X
t
Horizontal Vertical
= Candlepower x cob 9 Candlepower x

Ft-c ^ sin
Distance squared ^ ^ Distance squared
Since sine 9 = g and cosine 6 = g the formulas may then be written

in the following form:
Ft-c (Horizontal Plane) = S^J^ or CP x cos^ 9

D^ H2
Ft-c (Vertical Plane)^ = 9Eil^ „_ CP x cos^ 9 x sin 9
D3 ^^"^
IP
*^^ calculation of horizontal footcandle

ôM^^K^^*^'*'*^*® intensities the
IhS sS'^pr^*''-'''"^^^*''"''^* "P-
I^ -''^ ''«' foiloJn'l uUX
***" *' ""' *"«'* '" ^''^^ ^""^
Sble'"^"" *'«' "PP<* fig"'« i° the
^'*'*^*
*•"= "eht source determine the
f/Xnot.r'^Vi^*'""
candiepower ''"^'û*'
of the source m
that particular direction.
Step 3. Multiply the candlepower intensity by
the multiplyine factor
which IS the lower figure in the table,
and then divWe tfe resuk
by the candlepower (100 or 100,000) on which that part of the
J^^lcVn^dêratthT^p^rnr--
^-^ "'"'"^'' '^ ''«' "'"-"-'- '"
6-28 and 6-29 may also be used to calculate foot-

cables* on'the^.^f'
1*'"* '° " P'«"« ""^'"^ '« "«•'"«> to a
riane
vertical planewhXh tiT'i^''*;u'
which includes the ?•
hght source and the point. When tho
point IS on a vertical surface whicg
is not normal to t^hev;rt*al
coutammg the source and the point the plane
additional angle muli be'^^n!
6—27
POINT-BY-POINT CALCULATION TABLE
§g ^ *^ 3 **»
§ CO "^ 00 '^.
k% si si isi si li fci si r^
^0 '^s hS tô. ^0 sl So
^ ^ o ^° 2 "^
^ '^ *^
§ »'P gl 00 '-;
3 *^ tSo J20 ?:io t^ So
So "co^ 'sS So
10 S» 2 "** » 2 „ © ,
* en
CO si si si f:o 'k% f3o .:§ go si si t% 30 3=i S=;
S g "^
g sS f:i mo ^0 si £0 si si 3? S<=! ki So si
00 * ^
ki So so kl ?l ss • si il5 So So si si So i;o si h%
o ^ '^ °
01 ps h% pS SO h% in S ss So Si?
Ko So
-^ * \§
direction w si ?s Mo °ss So si So 30 £go si ?n^
lô So Ko So
- O "^
S
3=; |S Oo si So ?; P^ t2
that
s; ss So S50 ^0 "si "*
£^0 So 50
TABLE U
S A
in
1
S3 si ^9 iss «o °p£ si 30 ^1 si si "si "si 5i î ^î
M
source
U CO "^
2 ^ °^ "^ °5
gS 52 5°
=>
ON DS
DS
ua
si si r^*^ °ss k^ sS s-
the
ATI
|i si fes s§ s= s2 «S ^§ ".§ ".=. 5S ".§ 1^ 2
of s2
H
X lO
gS sS sS k^ sS sS m 1 sl ?.^ ".s 1= «2
O g si fci S2 1.^
GUI [lower
F^ * "^ en ^
O
5 S.I 5== •s2 °«3
sS f-2 '^ 5S
5.^ f-2 5,2 ^ô •»2 S>2
CAL candle
O s= s^ in '^^ en . en . s= en .
axis.
uo 1 o 2 °.2 «2
the
X X
u
o39 l^ •pS 1= s^ s^ hn s^ sB 5S ".i ?nO IS en "^ s^ en . en .
for <
vertical
5 0^2 , in '^ *^ ^
plane
^s °^l |S °sS %% h% 3~ *n
1,2 en
f?
. en . enl
ai
i 2 2 ^ 2
ss 5 °«S S^ «rt * Jo in^ ^«,o 35 5 ^ °oS
and
fH » o a "^
2 si en"^ o2
FOOTCANDLE
F>4 00 . ^-^ So" en'. en . CM .
en
light
horizontal
o u ^ * ^ '^ *"
of
mi
h% ps si 3^ s^
°
?«
3
?^ og
^C4 en So
CM
2 CM "^ .
i ^ £?
„
^«
Os ^5 °^5 '^§ en ^ ss «s
the
direction
Q °.5.
h^ : en CM ^ cm''. CM .
on
in
00 s^ ?s °S^ h^. kl k^ ^ oS
eo - CM .
vrj^
c^ *^ hi
i *° ©
between Foolcandles
o ?s si 5 CO S in *" JJ
POINT-BY-POINT
N t> ".^ 1^ s^ 5^ en : hi CM : ki 1^^ ?3
2=i
fid
%i 2S 2I 2
Angle
S N© ^î si si ?! °ss h^. h^ tn5 un

3S
figures—
^ a ^
figures—
10
si °=î
=.5 °^§ h%
k^ y. °;:S 8^ 2i "î 2^ i>S 2§
in 0" 2;
Bottom
'^
si °si "s? hi ki cog ;;;;
IIZ
ir
h^. °^§ 2*^ Men 2* ijS
Top
Om l^^ vs "o^g S "^ f: 2 {^

CO
^5 °4 •^1 °"^ bS 2q b^ 2 sS 2"* vC
„ en
w '4 "3 ^3 OOrt
h^ 2^ °=3 t-5 2" °.| -5 -5 f-i ?-s
C4
*K 5^ 0^1;;
in
„ C.2 ^ in
fH co5 2^ ^
00
55 F2 cT C^
^ in «l in en en en en en CM
CO en NO ^
© bo b"" pi
^ -
o
?^tn
ô
.
PS pa pi og b§ o^
©evi o^ -^ © •
© * © g^
fH CO 10 eo OS
(N CO '-^ 10 vO t- OO ON fH fH fH fH fH fH F^ FH
133J— aaBjjng aAoqy aajnog marj jo ihSish
6—28
POINT-BY-POINT CALCULATION TABLE
6—29
DISTRIBUTION DATA FOR

REFLECTOR AND PROJECTOR LAMPS
CANDLEPOWER CURVES
REFLECTOR LAMP
150 -WATT R-40 I
,0 g
ZONAL LUMENS
REFLECTOR LAMP
300- WATT R-40
ZONE SPOT FLOOO - .1
^
\
V
ZONAL LUMENS
20^tt
o«- 5*
o«- 10»
I5»
SPOT
340
975
FLOOO
270
1460
>0« - 020
0'-:»0» - 1620
\
\\
— )0D^
-1. -^
\.
\
SPOT
10 t5 20 25
DEGREES
FOOTCANDLE CURVES
2 2 2 2
DISTANCE IN FEET DISTANCE IN FEET
6—30
TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
e° Bin e COS e tan coflie co9» e e*^ sin e cos G tan COS10 cos*0
0.0000 1.000 0.0000 1.000 1.000 46 0,719 0.695 1.035 0.483 0.335
1 .0175 1.000 .0175 1.000 1.000 47 ,731 .682 1.072 .465 .317
2 .0349 0.999 .0349 0.999 0.998 48 .743 .669 1.111 .448 .300
3 .0523 .999 .0524 .997 .996 49 .755 .656 1.150 .430 .282
4 .0698 .998 .0699 .995 .993 50 .766 .643 1.192 .413 .266
5 .0872 .996 .0875 .992 .989 51 .777 .629 1 .235 .396 .249
6 .105 .995 .1051 .989 .984 52 .788 .616 1.280 .379 .233
7 .122 .993 .1228 .985 .978 53 .799 .602 1.327 .362 .218
8 .139 .990 .1405 .981 .971 54 .809 .588 1.376 .345 .203
9 .156 .988 .1589 .976 .964 55 .819 .574 1.428 .329 .189
10 .174 .985 .1763 .970 .955 56 .829 .559 1.483 .313 ,175
11 .191 .982 .1944 .964 .946 57 .839 .545 1,540 ,297 .162
12 .208 .978 .2126 .957 .936 58 .848 .530 1.600 .281 .149
13 .225 .974 .2309 .949 .925 59 .857 .515 1.664 .265 .137
14 .242 .970 .2493 ,941 .913 60 .866 .500 1.732 .250 .125
15 .259 .966 .2679 .933 .901 61 .875 .485 1.804 .235 .114
16 .276 .961 .2867 .924 .888 62 .883 .470 1.881 .220 .103
17 .292 .956 .3057 .915 .875 63 .891 ,454 1.963 .206 .0936
18 .309 ,951 .3249 .905 .860 64 .899 .438 2.050 .192 .0842
19 .326 .946 .3443 .894 .845 65 .906 .423 2.144 .179 .0755
20 .342 .940 .3640 .883 .830 66 .914 .407 2.246 .165 .0673
21 .358 .934 .3839 .872 .814 67 .921 .391 2.356 .153 .0597
22 .375 .927 .4040 .860 .797 68 .927 .375 2.475 .140 .0526
23 .391 .921 .4245 .847 .780 69 .934 .358 2.605 .128 .0460
24 .407 .914 .4452 .835 .762 70 .940 .342 2.747 .117 .0400
25 .423 .906 .4663 .821 .744 71 .946 .326 2.904 .106 .0347
26 .438 .899 .4877 .808 .726 72 .951 .309 3.078 .0955 .0295
27 .454 .891 .5095 .794 .707 73 .956 .292 3.271 .0855 .0250
28 .470 .883 .5317 .780 .688 74 ,961 .276 3.487 .0762 .0211
29 .485 .875 .5543 ,765 .669 75 .966 .259 3.732 .0670 .0173
30 .500 .866 .5773 .750 .650 76 .970 .242 4.011 .0585 .0142
31 .515 .857 .6009 .735 .630 77 .974 .225 4.331 .0506 .0114
32 .530 .848 .6249 .719 .610 78 .978 .208 4.705 ,0432 .0090
33 .545 .839 .6494 .703 .590 79 .982 ,191 5 145
. .0364 .0070
34 .559 .829 .6745 .687 .570 80 .985 .174 5.671 .0302 .0052
35 .574 .819 .7002 .671 .550 81 .988 ,156 6.314 .0245 .0038
36 .588 .809 .7265 .655 .530 82 .990 .139 7.115 .0194 .0027
37 .602 .799 ,7535 ,638 .509 83 .993 .122 8.144 .0149 .0018
38 .616 .788 .7813 .621 .489 84 .995 .105 9.514 .0109 .0011
39 .629 .777 .8098 .604 .469 85 .996 .0872 11.430 .0076 .0007
40 .643 .766 .8391 ,587 .450 86 .9976 .0698 14.300 .0048 .0003
41 .656 .755 .8693 ,570 .430 87 .9986 .0523 19.081 .0027 .0001
42 .669 .743 .9004 .552 .410 88 .9994 .0349 28.636 ,0012 .0000
43 .682 .731 .9325 .535 .391 89 .9998 .0175 57.290 .0003 .0000
44 .695 .719 .9656 ,517 .372 90 1.0000 0.0000 Infinite .0000 .0000
45 .707 .707 1.0000 .500 .354
TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
SINE e = "^ COSINE e - -5-
TANGENT 9 COTANGENT 9 - V
tl
c
SECANT e - COSECANT '
6—31
WALL CASE AND VALANCE LIGHTING

Horizontal Distance —H I
Values with Sym- Values without Reflector

-^/l nietricul Reflector
6* 12* 18* 24* 6* 12* 18* 24'
1 6* 21.4 15.7 12.1 9.8 30.6 22.8 16.5 13 5
3 12* 12.0 12.8 12.1 10.2 11.3 14.7 13.6 12 2
18* 7.4 9.6 10.0 9.1 5.2 8.8
Q 10.2 9.6
24* 4.4 6.9 8.8 7.7 2.6 5.0 6.6 7.2
a 30* 2.6 4.8 6.9 6.8 1.4 3.3 4.4 5.2
36* 2.0 3.8 5.2 6.1 1.0 2.2 3.2 4.1
^2" 1.4 2.8 4.1 5.0 0.6 1.4 2.2 3.0
^ 48* 0.8 1.9 2.8 4.1 0.4 1.0 1.6 2.2
54* 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.4 0.4 0.8 1.4 1.6
60* 0.6 1.2 19 2.6 0.3 0.8 1.0
__ 1.4
The above table lists the approximate illumination in footcandles pro-

duced by fluorescent lamps on a vertical surface for each 100 rated lamp
lumens per foot of case length. The specular symmetrical reflector
was so
adjusted that its maximum candlepower was directed at a
point 4,2"
below the lamp. Where no reflector was used the entire inner
surface of
the valance was painted white.
SHOWCASE LIGHTING
The above sketch indicates the approximate initial footcandles per-

pendicular to the source at various angles for each 100 rated lamp lumens
per foot of case length. The figures above the arcs represent
footcandles
obtamed with a fluorescent lamp in a specular showcase reflector. The
figures below the arcs represent footcandles obtained with
standard fila-
ment reflector showcase lamps, and differ from the fluorescent values
because of beam control.
6-^2
CHAPTER SEVEN
INTERIOR WIRING FOR UGHTING
The principal requirements ofany satisfactory wiring installation are

those of safety and adequacy. The National Electrical Code* and various
local codes are written to provide safety; however, adequacy does not
necessarily follow as a direct result of meeting the requirements for safety.
When planning an installation provision should be made for reasonable
future additions to the system and for flexibility in its use.
REQUIREMENTS FOR SAFETY IN WIRING

A wire can carry only a certain amount of electric current without
becoming overheated. This amount will vary, depending upon the cross-
sectional area of the wire, the composition of the insulating material
covering it, and the number of wires enclosed in a tube or conduit. The
principal types of insulation available for building wires and their uses
and limitations are given in the following table.
CLASSIFICATION AND USES OF BUILDING WIRE
Max.
Trade Name Type Operating Special ProvisioiM
Letter Temp.
Code Rubber R 60C General use.

140F
Heat-ResiBtant
RH 75C General use.
Rubber 167F
Moisture-
Resistant RW 60C General use and wet
140F locations.
Rubber
Latex Rubber RU 60C General use.

UOF
General use.
Thermoplaatic T 60C No. 14 to 4/0 inclusive.
140F Open work No. 14 to
2,000,000 CM.
General use and wet
Moisture- locations.
Resistant TW 600 No. 14 to 4/0 inclusive.
Tbermoplastic
UOF Open work No. 14 to
2,000.000 CM.
* All references to the National Electrical Code in this Chapter, including wire sizeit
designations, and capacities, are based on the 1947 revision.
7—1
CLASSIFICATION AND USES OF BUILDING WIRE—Continued
Max.
Trad© Name Operating
Letter Temp. Special Proviaions
ThermopIaBtic 90G
and AebeHtos TA 194F Switchboard wiring only.
VarniBhcd 85C Dry locations only. SmaJIer

Cambric V 185F than No. 6 by special per.
mission.
Asbestos and
Vaniisbed AVA HOC Dry locations only.
Cambric 230F
Asbestos and
Varnished AVL HOC Wet locations.
Cambric 230F
Asbestos and
Varnished AVB 90C
194F Dry locations only.
Cambric
Dry locations only. Not for

Asbestos A 200C general use. In raceways,
392F only for leads to or within
apparatus. Limited to 300 V.
Dry locations only. Open

200C wiring. Not for general use.
Asbestoi AA 392F In raceways, only for leads
to or within apparatus.
Limited to 300 V.
Dry location* only. Not for

AshcsÔi AI 125C general use. In raceways,
257F only for leads to or within
apparatus. Limited to 300 V.

Aabettoi AIA 125G wiring. Not for general use.
257F In raceways, only for leads
to or within apparatus.
85C For underground service con-

Paper ductors, or by special per mis-
185F
sion.

wiring; and in raceways where
Slow. 90C
SB temperatures will exceed those
Burning 194F permitted for rubber-covered
or varnished cambric-covered
conductors.
Slow-Burning 90C Dry

Weatherproof SBW I94F
locations
wiring only.
only. Open
Open wiring by special per-

Weatherproof WP 80C mission where other insula-
I76F tions are not suitable for
existing conditions.
.
7—2
INTERIOR WIRING FOR LIGHTING
ALLOWABLE CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITIES

OF CONDUCTORS IN AMPERES
Not More Than Three Conductors in Raceway or Cable
{Based on Room Temperature of 30°C, 86°F)
Paper
Rubber
TypeR
Type RW plastic Impreg-
Typo RU Asbestos Asbestos nated
(14-6) Type TA Var-Cam Asbestos Asbestos
Size Rubber Type Type Type A
AWG Thermo- Type Var-Cam AVA AI (14-8)
MCM plastic RH TypeV (14-8) Type AA
TypeT \^P£ Type
(14-4/0) Asbestos AIA
Type TW Var-Cnm
(14-4/0)
I^
14 15 15 25 30 30 30
12 20 20 30 35 40 40
10 30 30 40 45 50 55
8 40 45 50 60 65 70
6 55 65 70 80 85 95
4 70 85 90 105 115 120
3 80 100 105 120 130 145
2 95 115 120 135 145 165
1 110 130 140 160 170 190
125 150 155 190 200 225

00 145 175 185 215 230 250
000 165 200 210 245 265 285
0000 195 230 235 275 310 340
250 215 255 270 315 335

300 240 285 300 345 380
350 260 310 325 390 420
400 280 335 360 420 450
500 320 380 405 470 500
600 355 420 455 525 545

700 385 460 490 560 600
750 400 475 500 580 620
800 410 490 S15 600 640
900 435 520 555
1,000 455 545 585 680 730

1,250 495 590 645
1,500 520 625 700 785
1,750 545 650 735
2.000 560 665 775 840
-
Correction Factor* for Room Temp eratures Over SO^C, 80°i
«c op
40 104 .82 .88 .90 .94 .95

45 113 .71 .82 .85 .90 ,92
50 122 .58 .75 .80 .87 .89
55 131 .41 .67 .74 .83 .86
60 140 .58 .67 .79 .83 .91
70 158 .35 .52 .71 .76 .87
75 167 .43 .66 .72 .86
80 176 .30 .61 .69 .84
90 194 .50 .61 .80
100 212 .51 .77
120 248 .69
140 284 .59
7—3
More Than Three Conductors m a Raceway

The preceding table gives the allowable current -carrying capacity for
not more than three conductors in a raceway or cable. If the number of
conductors in a raceway or cable is from 4 to 6, the allowable current-
carrying capacity of each conductor shall be reduced to 80 per cent of
the values in the table. If the number of conductors in a raceway
or
cable is from 7 to 9, the allowable current-carrying capacity of each
conductor shall be reduced to 70 per cent of the values in the table.
CONDUIT SIZE
Rubher.Covered Type« RF-32, R, RH, RW and RU
ThermopIaBtic Types TF, T and TW
(One to Nine Conductors)
Number of Conductors in One Conduit or Tubing

Size
AWG
MCM
18
16
^ K K
K .K
14 K ^
12 H 1^ 1 1 1
10 1 1 IK \
8 H IK IK IK
H 1 1 2
H IK •IK 2 2
H IK 2 2 2H
IK 2 2H 2K 2H
IH 2H 2H 3 3
2H 3 3 3
00 1 2 2H
000 1 2
3 3 3H
0000 2^
3 3 3H 3J4
3 3H 3H 4
250 2H 3 3 3H 4 4J^
300 3 3H 4 4
350 3 3M
33^ 4 4H 1^
400 3 3H
500
3 4 4 4H
3 3 3H 4 4H 5
600 2 3H 3H 4 4H 5 6
700 3H 3H
750 3H 3>i
800 3K 4 4H
900 2 4 4
1000 2 4 4
1250 2H 4H 4H
1500
1750
2000
Where a service run of coaduit or electrical metallic tubing does not exceed 50 feet
in
length and does not contain more than the equivalent of two quarter bends
from end to
cnd» two number 4 insulated and one number 4 bare conductors may be
installed in l-inch
conduit or tubing.
7--4
POWER FACTOR AND LINE CURRENT

The power in any direct -current circuit or in any alternating-
total
current circuit with only resistance loads, such as filament lamps, may be
expressed by the fundamental equation:
Total Watts = Volts x Amperes (1)
In such circuits the total watts are active in doing useful work; that is, in
heating the filament to incandescence.
Electric discharge lamps such as fluorescent lamps and mercury vapor

amps require ballasts to limit the current to rated values. Since these
ballasts are not pure resistance loads, some of the current flowing in the
circuit is not effective in the operation of the ballast or in the production
of light.
In these circuits the product of volts and amperes is not equal to the
active watts as read by a wattmeter because such a meter measures only
the active power used. It is therefore necessary to use a different equation
to express the active watts in such a circuit.
Total Watts (active) = Volts x Amperes x Power Factor
. Total Watts
— (active)
or A mperes
^ = ^^-z = (2)
^ '
Volts X Power Factor
Poiver Factor, therefore, is the ratio of the active power (as read on the
wattmeter) to the product of the volts and amperes (as read on meters
placed in the circuit). This ratio is usually expressed in percentage.
Power Factor=|2t5LZ2t^(22tive) ^
Amperes x Volta ^
From equation (2), it is how the power factor affects the

readily seen
total current in a circuit. When
the power factor is 100%, the current is
at a minimum and the product of the amperes and volts is equal to the
active watts as measured by a wattmeter. If the power factor is 50%, the
current in the circuit is doubled; if it is 80%, the current will be increased
by 25%, etc.
As an iUustration of the effect of power factor, assume that a load of

2400 watts at 100% power factor is connected to a 120 -volt circuit. Under
these conditions the current would be 20 amperes and would require at
least number 12 type R wire. If, however, a 2400 -watt load with 80%
power factor were connected to the same circuit, 25 amperes would be
drawn and number 10 wire would be required. Thus, in determining the
size of wire required, it is necessary to know the power factor as well as
the wattage of the load. Failure to consider the effect of power factor on
the current, especially when the circuits are heavily loaded, may result
in overheated wires, excessive voltage drop, or interruptions caused by
the operation of protective equipment.
7—5
SELECTION OF FEEDER AND BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRE SIZES
1. Determine length of run

Length of run of a feeder circuit (one wire length only) is considered
the distance from the service entrance to the hranch
panelboard. For a
branch circuit, it is the distance from the panelboard to the
outlet at or
nearest the center of the branch circuit load. In cases
where outlets on the
same branch circuit are widely separated, it may be necessary to calculate
the drop for each individual outlet.
2. Calculate the wattage or ampere load

When incandescent lamps are employed, the total wattage of the sources
fed by a particular circuit is the sum of the individual
lamp wattagea.
When the load includes mercury vapor or fluorescent lamps, the
total
wattage is the sum of the lamp wattages plus the sum of the
ballast losses.
In the latter case it is more accurate to determine the load in terms of
amperes (formula 2 on page 7—5) thereby taking into account
the power
factor of the equipment.
3. Determme wire size from following table

The
wire size necessary to provide adequate voltage
at the lamp wiU
vary with the total current in the circuit and the length
of run. The table
on the following page indicates the wire size necessary to
service various
loads with a specific voltage drop.
Wiring sizes should be sufficient to carry the required

current to its
point of utilization with the minimum voltage drop
consistent with eco-
nomical^ operation of the Ughting system. The
allowable drop from an
economic standpoint varies somewhat depending upon the
equipment
being served, but a practical as well as an economic
limit for lighting
installations is a 2% drop from panelboard to
the center of the load.
Feeder circuits should be limited to a maximum drop of
1%.
This a general rule, however, since physical conditions
is
may alter the
design. It
is well to limit the total voltage
drop under full load, where
practical, to 3% of line voltage from the mains to branch circuit
load
centers.
Example
To find the size of wire required for a branch circuit 60 feet long having
a load of 1300 watts and connected to a 115-volt
circuit, turn to the table
on page 7—7; opposite 1380 (the value nearest to
1300) and below a length
of run of 60 feet will be found 10. which is the
wire size required.
7-6
BRANCH CIRCUIT AND FEEDER WIRE SIZES

FOR VARIOUS LENGTHS OF RUN
On short runs, where voltage drop does not affect wire size, the table
shows minimum permissible commercial size Brown & Sharpe gauge
rubber-covered copper wire according to the National Electrical Code.
( Two Per Cent Loss in Voltage on 115-volt, 2-wire circuits.
Based on \ One Per Cent Loss in Voltage on 220-volt, 2-wire circuits.
[ One Per Cent Loss in Voltage on 115/230.volt, 3-wire circuits.
Watt- Length of Run In Feet
age
Load Amp.
115-Volt Load 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 3. 360 400
Circuit
575 5 14 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6
690 6 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6
805 7 14 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 4
920 8 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4
1.035 9 14 u 12 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4
1J50 10 14 14 12 12 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 4
1,380 12 14 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 2
1,610 14 14 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2
1.840 16 12 12 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
2,070 18 12 10 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1
2,300 20 12 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1
2,875 25 10 10 8 8 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1
3,450 30 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0
4.025 35 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0
4.600 40 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0
5.175 45 6 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0
5.750 50 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
6,900 60 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
8,050 70 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
9.200 80 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
10,350 90 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
11.500 100 1 1 1 1 1 1 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
13,800 120 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
NOTE: For good voltage regulation design feeders for a maximum of one per cent volt-
age drop, branch circuits for a maximum o£ two per cent voltage drop.
Where wire larger than 10 is required to eliminate excessive voltage drop on branch
circuits, split the circuits, or move the panel board closer to the load center.
Length of Run is the one-way distance from source of supply to panel or from panel to
outlet. The length of wire required between these points is double this distance for 2-wire
circuits and three times this distance for 3-wire circuits*
7—7
FORMULAS FOR DETERxMINING AMPERES, KW AND KVA
Direct Two-Phase*
To Find Current Single-PhaBe 4-Wire Three-Phase**
Amperes when Hp X 746 Hp X 746 Hp X 746 Hp X 746
Uorsepower is
known E X %Eff E X %Eff X PF 2E I %Eff X PF 1.73E X %Eff X PF
Amperes when Kw X 1000 Kw X 1000 Kw X 1000 Kw X 1000
Kilowatts are
known £ E xPF 2 X E X PF 1.73 X E X PF
Kva X 1000 Kva X 1000 Kva X 1000

Amperes when
Kva are known E 2 X E 1.73 X E
Kilowatts
ExI E X I X PF E X I X 2 X PF E X I X 1.73 X PF
1000 1000 1000 1000
Kva
Exl E xlx2 E X I X 1.73
1000 1000 1000
I = Total Amperes E —Volts %Eff =per cent efficiency PF == Power Factor

Kw»* Kilowatts Kva =( Kilo volt-amperes) Hp =» Horsepower
* For two-phase 3-wire circuits the current in the common conductor is 1.41 times that
in either of the two other conductors.
* In a three-phase 4-wire Y (wye) connected system* the phase-to-phase voltage is equal
to 1.73 times the phase-to-neutral voltage. In a three-phase 4-wire (delta) connected A
system the phase-to-phase voltage is twice the phase-to-neutral voltage.
TYPICAL LIGHTING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

SINGLE -PHASE TWO -PHASE THREE-PHASE
u
H 1
.00000
-1
3- WIRE
£
I
E
)
9 E
IF 1
E
* ! -I.73E
) 1.73 E
Hi
I
00000 4
e
WIRING SUGGESTIONS
Panelboards
1. Branch circuit panelboards should, where possible, be located at or
near the load center.
2. Good practice requires that a spare circuit be added for each five
active circuits to provide for future load.
3. Circuit-breaker panelboards have the advantage of greater con-
venience and simplicity of operation. They also afford switch control of
branch circuits.
Convenience Outlets
In commercial installations it is always desirable to segregate con-
venience outlet branch circuits from the lighting circuits. Spacing and num-
7—8
ber of outlets per circuit will be determined by tbe nature of the electrical
requirements. For example, an electrical appliance store will require many
more convenience outlets and greater capacity than a grocery store. The
minimum number of outlets for the sales area of a store is one outlet per
400 square feet of floor space. For the show windows, one outlet for every 50
square feet of window floor space is the accepted minimum. Ceiling re-
ceptacles should be considered when designing show window wiring.
In general office areas, wall convenience outlets should be spaced not
more than 20 feet apart, and in private offices not more than 10 feet apart.
Outlets in offices are usually placed in the wall or columns above the base-
board except where machines in the center of the room require outlets in
the floor.
Manufacturing areas should have at least one outlet for every 20 linear
feet of wall space or one outlet per bay (approximately 400 sq. ft.); nor-
mally outlets are located for specific machines or operations.
ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF A NEW WIRING

INSTALLATION
In a new building, wiring is sometimes installed before the lighting
layout has been definitely established. It is, of course, desirable to have
specific information as to the total lighting load before designing the wir-
ing, but when the lighting arrangements are not settled, the procedure
below may be followed. This method should be used for rough wiring
estimating only and should not be substituted for actual layout and load
computations.
3 4 5
WATTS PER SQUARE FOOT
(1) Determine the desired level of illumination for the area by reference
to Chapter Five.
(2) On the curve above, follow the horizontal line, beginning at the main-
tained footcandle value selected in (1), until it intersects the curve
corresponding to the fixture type to be installed. Read the watts
per sq. ft. required on the scale directly below the intersection point.
^
This chart is for the average room. For large rooms higher footcandle
—
Talues may be expected for small rooms lower values will result.
7-^
STANDARD WIRING SYMBOLS
CeiliDg WaU GENERAL OUTLETS PANELS, CIRCUITS. AND

o -O Outlet MISCELLANEOUS
® -® Blanked Outlet
( I
Lighting Panel
Drop Cord. Power Panel
^jj^
® -© Electrical Outlet; for use only when
circle used alone might be confused
Branch Circuit; Concealed in Ceiling
or Wall
-©
with columns, pIumhijig8ymboU,etc.
Fan Outlet
- — Branch Circuit; Concealed in Floot
.... Branch Circuit; Exposed
-^ Junction Box.
.«.-» 'Home Run to Panel Board. Indi<
© -^ Lamp Holder, cate numher of Circuits by number
-©ps^^nip Holder with Pull Switch. of arrows.
-© Pull Switch. Feeders.
© -® Outlet for Vapor Discharge Lampi ^ ._P *'Underfloor Duct and Junction Box.
-© Exit Light Outlet »liii|l|!| Battery.
© -© Clock Outlet. (Specify Voltage) @ Generator.
CONVENIENCE OUTLETS
@ Motor.
(7) Instrument
Duplex Convenience Outlet @ Power Transformer.
scale.)
(Or draw to
Convenience Outlet other than Du-

plex. [^^ Controller.
1- Single, 3 " Triplex, eta \* Isolating Switch.
[
Weatherproof Convenience Outlet

Range Outlet AUXIUARy SYSTEMS
Switch and Convenience Outlet f*1 Push. Button.
Radio and Convenience Outlet I ]/ Buzzer.
Special Purpose Outlet (Dea in D> Belt
Spec) Annunciator
(^
© Floor Outlet
f^ Outside Telephone.
K] Interconnecting Telephone.
SWITCH OUTLETS
|<] Telephone Switchboard.
S
Sa
Single Pole Switch.
Douhle Pole Switch.
^ Bell Ringing Transformer.
[d] Electric Door Opener.
S, Three Way Switch. Fire Alarm BelL
[E>
S# Four Way Switch. Fire Alarm Station.
Sb Automatic Door Switcli City Fire Alarm Station.
iXI
Sf Electrolier Switch.
[13 Fire Alarm Central Station.
Sn Key Operated Switch. Automatic Fire Alarm Device;
t^^l
Sp Switch and Pilot Lam[k [w] Watchman's Station.
Sea Circuit Breaker.
Watchman's Central Sution.
Swca Weatherproof Circuit BreakeK Horn.
Smq
Sflc
Momentary Contact SwiicL
Remote Control Switch.
E Nurse's Signal Plug.
Maid's Signal Plug.
Swp Weatherproof Switch,
E] Radio Outlet
Sr Fused Switch.
t^^f Signal Central Station,
Swr Weatherproof Fused Switch 1 I Interconnection Box
•Any circuit withom further designation indicates a two-wire circuit For a greater number of
wirw indicate as foUows:
-^ (3 wires) 7^ (4 wires), etc-
"For double or single systems eliminate one or two Unes. Thk fivmbol is equaUy adaptable
r to
atuoliaiy tyrtem layout*. * --
7—10
CHAPTER EIGHT
STORE, OFFICE, SCHOOL, ANO
PUBLIC BUILOING LIGHTING
LIGHT FOR MERCHANDISING

Lighting in stores must provide something more than footcandles to
fermit inspection of merchandise on display without customer eyestrain,
t should also create an appropriate atmosphere as a part of the store
interior design, and it should serve as a silent salesman in attracting cus-
tomer attention to displays for the purpose of stimulating 'împulse"
buying and directing store traffic. Stores so lighted contribute something
more to better merchandising: they are pleasant and attractive places in
which to work, thereby improving employee morale and selling efficiency.
GENERAL LIGHTING DESIGN NOTES

A single row
of enclosing globes through the center of the usual store
bad shadows on counters and displays. Two rows
(see sketch) will result in
spaced properly over the counters '
are preferred. In small narrow
stores, one row of efficient indirect
>
lighting fixtures may be used if the
store type permits from a mer-
chandising standpoint.
Lighting Can Change the Ap"
parent Dimensions of a store.
Long ceiling panels or coves ex-
tending from the front to the back
of a room add to its apparent
length; recessed or flush mounted
<
ceiling units increase the apparent
ceiling height, as do vertical lumi-
nous architectural elements on
>^
columns and side walls; pendant
indirect troughs, urns, and coves
lower the apparent ceiling height;
and architectural panels or coves
located across a long store will give
the effect of shortening its length.
*'Color Matching** Lighting
for large merchandising areas or for
counters is frequently required in
stores. For large areas. Daylight
fluorescent lamps provide an ap-
proximate approach to outdoor
light and are a practical solution,
although their spectrum lacks
deep red which color matching
sources should have if the match-
ing is very critical. Daylight
8—1
.JM
LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS
FOR THE PRINCIPAL STORE TYPES
Store Merchandising Typical
Types Characteristics Examples Suggested Lighting
Stores with Purchases are made Cigar Store, High levels of general illumi-
Location quickly; "impulse" buy- Refreshment nation throughout the entire
Appeal ing is a factor. Decora- Stand, interior is the basic need. Semi-
tion is usually plain Stationery dircct, semi-indirect, or direct^
with little relationship Store, indirect fixtures are recommend-
to the merchandise on Luncheonette ed. The lighting installations
display. etc. should be efficient; fixtures
should be closely spaced and
easily cleaned and relamped.
Decorative lighting should be
considered secondary from the
selling standpoint.
Stores with Regular and frequent Neighborhood Eflicient, hut inornate direct-
Acceptance jjurchaaes are the rule. Grocer, indirect fixtures should be
Appeal 'Impulse" buying is a Druggist, closely spaced to provide high
big factor in creating Delicatessen, level illumination throughout
sales volume. Clcan- Fish the interior. When ceilings are
linees must be readily Market. low, flush mounted down lights
apparent. Attractive etc. combined with indirect light-
clisiilays of the mer- ing from top of wall shelves may
chandise are essential. be used. Spot lighting of dis-
plays is important. (See Dis-
play Lighting). Colored light-
ing on displays should be used
with restraint.
Stores with Stores of this type usual- Department The general illumination should
Prmstig*
Appeal
ly have been in business
for many years; their
Stores,
Clothing
—
be in the order of 20 30 foot-
candles in the circulating areas,
reputation for quality Shops, and 50 or above in the mer-
and service is well Furniture chandising areas. Down light-
known. They may spe- Stores, ing over counters and displays
cialiee in only one line Rug Mer. is appropriate when comhin/rd
of merchandise or many chants, with general illumination. Pend-
lines; they may be large etc. ant type semi-indirect and
or small. Appearance direct fixtures, indirect pedestal
of the merchandise, the units, and architectural built-
atmosphere of the store, in designs on ceiling or walls
and the comfort of the are recommended for general
customer are important lighting; prismatic lens or
considerations. "Im- louvered down lighting from
pulse" buying must he recessed or ceiling type units
stimulated by display is suitable for high lighting the
design and lighting merchandise. Wall cases, show
novelty. cases, and all free-standing or
special displays should be light-
ed. Colored lighting of displays
should be considered and equip-
ment provided.
Sttires with In this group, the stores Jewelry As in the "Prestige" type, high
Eye Appmai are of the specialty type, Stores level illumination in digplai-
selling unusual and im- Exclusive areas combined with general
ported merchandise at Dress illumination from decorative
prices above the usual Shops fixtures or architectural units
level. "Impulse" buy- Accessory is required. Colors of mer-
ing is reliedupon exten- Shops chandise may be enhanced by
sively- Merchandise Gift clever use of tinted lighting on
must be
displayed in Shops displays. All cases and special
novel ways to catch the Fur displays should be high lighted.
eye. Decoration and Stores Recessed or flush mounted
atmosphere are neces- Specialty ceiling spot lights and other
sary to a high degree. Shops uf special high lighting equipment
various should be considered in the
kinds interest of better appearance.
8—2
STORE, OFFICE, SCHOOL, AND PUBLIC BUILDING LIGHTING
blue incandescent lamps, or general service incandescent lamps equipped

with color screens specially designed to simulate daylight can be used.
Counter-type ''matching" units using the Daylight fluorescent lamp have
provided a convenient and economical solution to this problem, except in
those instances where very critical color matching is necessary.
Brilliant sparkle of stones in Jewelry stores requires a source of light with
a small concentrated filament of high brightness, such as the incandescent
lamp. Displays of stones should, therefore, be illuminated with incandes-
cent sources primarily, but where possible Daylight fluorescent lamps in
addition to the filament lamps will improve the color and add to the effec-
tiveness of the display.
Fading of pigments by artificial light, regardless of the type of light source

(filament or fluorescent lamps) depends upon the time of exposure and the
intensity of the lighting, provided the dye and the atmospheric conditions
are the same in each case.
Fitting Mirror Lighting should light the person and garment under
inspection and not the mirror. Vertical illumination must be high without
glare. Well shielded (louvered or covered with opal glass) vertical luminous
panels or coves on each side of the mirror, combined with overhead light-
ing, are recommended. Typical designs are illustrated in the sketches,
(a), (b). (c).
A-^ ^#^^ x-IqqqK
Vertical luminous panels Light sources concealed Prismatic control lens

combined with indirect hack of mirror indirectly^ directs the light on the
lighting from unit on wall lighting ceiling and wall vertical from a special
over center mirror. space on each side of mir- light box attached to wall
ror. Vertical illtimination above the central mirror.
is high in this design.
(a) (b) (c)
DISPLAY LIGHTING DESIGN NOTES

The functions of display lighting are:
1. To make a display easily and quickly visible.
2. To compel customer attention to the merchandise.
3. To contribute novelty and color.
The importance of these three functions of light in the art and science
of selling is well recognized by leading merchandisers.
8—3
The factors influencing the design of display lighting are as follows:
1. —
Time High levels of illumination are necessary for quick vision
followed by lasting mental impressions of the merchandise on dis-
play. Modern living at high speed reflects in the average customer's
allotment of time for shopping, making high level display lighting
necessary for full selling effectiveness,
2. —
Size Light magnifies detail, and the smaller and more intricate
the display, the higher the illumination level should be to create
interest and attract attention.
3. Contrast —Dark objects displayed against light backgrounds
are several hundred times more easily seen than against a dark
background by virtue of the greater contrast. Lighting equip-
ment must be available to permit the display man to vary ilium*
ination levels to take advantage of contrast in his displays, or to
make up for lack of contrast with greater brightness.
4. Brightness —The eye is definitely attracted by the brightest
objects in —
visual field displays in stores or show windows
its
must, therefore, be high -lighted with respect to their immediate
surroxmdings. Flexible lighting systems permitting variations in
brightness and color should always be provided by the engineer.
5. —
Color Colored backgrounds, colored merchandise, colored light-
ing all have a place in window design. Colored lighting is the most
flexible color medium at the display man's command. It can be
used to create atmosphere, to improve the appearance of merchan-
dise, and to compel attention through novelty and motion. The
lighting,however, must not be so attractive that it draws attention
away from rather than to the merchandise; it must not distort the
true colors of the merchandise in the interest of dramatic effect.
"Black light" designs, moving scenic lighting effects (waves,
floating clouds, etc.) are only possible when surrounding lighting
is of low level approaching actual darkness.
Show Window Lighting

The selection of the proper type of window lighting is determined by
the height and depth of the window and also of the display. The mer-
chandise on display must receive the greatest amount of light, hence
reflectorswhich direct the light rays to the display areas with sufficient
spill lighton the background to remove shadows and give a bright over
all appearance to the windows are required. Super-imposed upon this
general illumination, spotlighting is recommended to give emphasis and
color. Narrow windows will require more concentrating type reflectors
or special prismatic control lenses in order to confine the light to the dis*
play areas more efficiently.
Typical show window lighting equipment and suggested methods of

installation are given in the following sketches:
8—4
TYPICAL SHOW WINDOW LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
INDIVIDUAL REFLECTORS
COVCRCO WITH CLASS

HCFLCCTOII l,AU»$
8—5
I
SHOW WINDOW
1
/ Zone C
m f
1 Values shown in the fluorescent table were deter-
/
1
mined for the 40-watt White lamp.
/
/
Where the length of the window permits the ase
/ Zone B f
of the 100- watt White lamp the footcandle valuer
^^ Zone A should be multiplied by 1.5.
FLUORESCENT
LENGTH OF WINDOW
Window No.
Depth of Zone 4' 1 8' 1 12'
(AU V high) R0W8
FOOTGANDLES
Narrow A 31 40 45
2 B 24 28 33
C 45 55 63
5^ i
A 41 51 58
I 3 B 27 33 38
C 78 95 108
A 56 68 78
4 B 38 47 54
M 2-6" h-
C 110 180 198
Medium A 34 42 47
2 B 26 31 36
C 27 33 38
A 47 58 66
3 B 38 48 54
^ /
7 C 48 59 67
A 62 75 85
L .1
4 B 51 63 71
|-» 4 ^1
C 66 81 92
Wide A 33 39 45
2 B 20 24 27
C 14 18 19
A 47 57 65
3 B 32 38 44
1 '
7 C 22 27 30
A 60 74 84
k-— 7: *J 4 B 44 54 60
C 29 35 41
8—6
DESIGN DATA
LOUVER FACTORS
Multiplying Factor! for Louveri
Window Depth Zone A Zone B Zone C
All footcandle values bsTe be«n calculated
Narrow .90 .85 .88
for fixtures without louTcrt. If louveri are Medium .91 .86 .85
1 Wide .92 .91 ,79
used the values in the tables should be multi- [E4
plied by the corresponding 'louver factor*' Narrow .80 .70 .58

Medium .70 .69 .55
to obtain the correct level. Wide .69 .56 .40
INCANDESCENT
LENGTH OF WINDOW
Window
Depth Lamp Zone
Spacing
(All r high)
FOOTCANDLES
Narrow 188 200 200
12" 64 72 72
70 78 78
145 156 156
16" 51 54 54
54 58 58
114 130 130

M 2-d" K 20" 39 43 43
150 WATf
CONCENTRATING 43 46 46
Medium
12" 118 140 147
66 79 83
135 157 168
16" 105 111
58 62
112 124 135
20" 74
200 WATT
SEMI-CONCENTRATING 41 46 50
Wide 318 384

12" 226
139 168 184
234 298 320

16" 168 210 224
101 129 139
192 234 256

20" 136 166 182
83 101 iiril
a—
SUGGESTED METHODS OF INSTALLING

AND CONCEALING SHOW WINDOW REFLECTORS
FLUORESCENT LAMPS IN
CONCENTRATING
REFLECTORS
CONCEALED BY VALANCE VERTICAL LOUVERS BETWEEN
SPECIAL BOX VALANCE CONTINUOUS TROUGH
ipl
m
1
f\f '
iPi
RECESSED
^J
ALL GLASS CEILING
WITH LOUVERS WITH PLATES WITH REFLECTORS ABOVE
8—8
^
Vertical Coves Shadow Box for Luminous Pilasters

Changing Color Effects
Shoivcase Lighting
Showcases are miniature show windows, and their lighting should be
treated as such. To the general illumination from lamps in small reflectors
at the front upper edge, should be added high lighting from small spot-
Hghts connected to convenient outlets inside and at the back of the case.
Four times the level of the general store illumination should be provided.
When the merchandise on display is dark, even a higher ratio is desirable.
Inconspicuous continuous trough type reflectors are available for either
the T-bulb filament lamp, the lumiline lamp, the fluorescent lamp, or the
showcase reflector lamp. When individual reflectors are used, 25 watt
lamps on 12" to 18" centers are required. Design procedures and tables
for showcase lighting are given in Chapter Six.
SHOWCASE REFLECTORS
MINIATURE
SPOTS
FOR HIGHLIGHTINO
DISPLAYS
SHOWCASE REFLECTOR LAMPS
FLUORESCENT LAMPS ^— —
iiwms ti-
ll
'»\'VV:t< ^^^
8—9
WESTINGIIOUSE LIGHTING HANDBOOK
SHOWCASES
Incandescent Reflector
Lamps with Showc ASE LUMILINE Fluorescent
Reflector Lamps Lamps Lamps
LARGE CITIES Spacing Watts Spacing Walts Spacing Watts Spacing Watts
Brightly Lighted Dis-
irictB 12''-18'' 40-60 12' 18'
40 60*
Secondary Business
Locations 12*-18* 40-60 12' 25 18' 60*
Neighborhood Stores 12''-18* 18' or Sb'
25 12*-18' 25 18' 30 **
Lamps
MEDIUM CITIES mounted
Brightly Lighted Dis- end to end
tricts 12'-18^ 40-60 12" 40 18' 60* m contmuouB
Neighborhood Stores 12*~18* 25 18' 25 18' 30 rows.
SMALL CITIES
AND TOWNS 12'^-18- 25-40 18' 25 18' 30
* 12'— 40 watt Luniiline Lamps mounted end to end will produce the same level of
illuramation as 18 —^60 watt lamps, and may be substituted in the above
tables.
•• The 9'—6 watt and the 12'—8 watt fluorescent lamps may be used in small narrow
cases where space is limited.
Wall Case Lighting

may be illuminated (1) by
These cases
small individual reflectors similar to those
used in show windows, employing 60 watt
lamps on 18'' centers; (2) by the showcase
reflector lamps if the displays are less than 4
Fi«. 1
ft. from the lamps; (3) by continuous rows of
fluorescent lamps; (4) by totally luminous

ceilings; or (5) by the use of prismatic glass
plates recessed in the ceiling. (See sketches).
The size of the case and the height of the
display will determine which method is the
most suitable. For selling effectiveness, at
least four times more light is required in
the case than the general store illumination.
Fis. 2
—
WALL CASES AND DISPLAY SHELVES *• |
fc
Incandescent Reflector
A^
Lamps with Showcase LUMILINE Fluorescent
Reflector Lamps Lamps Lamps
Spacing WattB Spacing WattB Spacing Watts Spacing Watts
12' 100 8* 40
12' 8' 12'orl8*
60 40 Lamps 40 18', 24', 36*
12* 40 12' 40 mounted or or 48' Lamps
end to 60 mounted
12' 60 8' 40
end in
continu>
end to end
in continuous
=aj^1
12' 12' ous rows. rows. /|\^
40 40
***
12' r'25-40 12' 25-40
Data given apply only when lighting equipment is located at

top of case and not for an individual lighting unit at each
^
shelf. In the latter case Lumiline, Showcase Reflector Lamps,
Lightias from
and Fluorescent Lamps should he used in accordance with data
under shelves
given in table for Show Cases.
Display Shelf Lighting

The level of illumination on the
vertical should vary no more than
five to one from the topmost shelf
to the lowest one at the floor. This
requirement is usually met (1) by
a continuous trough providing 60
to 100 watts per running foot for Reflectors should so Direct the Light
that the Illumination on the Lower Shelves
incandescent lamps, or a cou-
Varies Little from the Level of the Top.
tinuous row of fluorescent lamps;
(2) by small individual reflectors
on 8* to 12'' arms so spaced that
the above wattage per running
foot is provided; (3) by specially
designed prismatic lighting fix-
tures attached to the ceiling to
direct a beam of light at an angle
on the shelves; or (4) by special
lighting arrangements attached to
each individual shelf, such as
"edge" lighting or luminous back-
ground lighting.
Individual Reflectors bo Spaced that 40

100 Watts per Foot is Provided.
8—11
:^
noDOflfl
rpy,
J
I ir n\
^
150—200 Watt Fixtures Equipped with Lumilioe or Fluorescent Lamps
Prismatic Lenses
It is frequently possible to design the shelf lighting to provide upward

light as abackground for a silhouette sign or to conceal the lamps back
of a luminous panel on which a sign is inscribed.
yE'Ri^tfEStlB R/^Hlp's! 1//^
a:cca
Combination of Luminous Sign and Combination of Silhouette Sign and

Shelf Lighting Shelf Lighting
Floor and Table Display Lighting

Displays of smaller objects on tables or counters, or larger displays
such as wax figures placed directly on the floor with or without accom-
panying backgrounds should be lighted in such a manner that glare and
deep concealing shadows are eliminated in so far as possible. Glare control
depends upon the location of the equipment with respect to the normal
viewing position and the proper louvering and shielding of the source of
light. Deep shadows are eliminated by directing light on the display from
two locations such that the rays from one source will illuminate the shadows
cast by the other source. Special
equipment designed for good ap-
pearance and easy concealment ia
available to illuminate displays
of this type from the ceiling or
side walls at a distance from the
displays. Frequently, the light
sources can be attached to the dis-
plays, thereby simplifying both the
Free Standing Counter Display shadow and the glare problems.
8—12
Floor Display Illuminated br Special Semi- Recessed Spotlight in Ceil*

Spotlight Fixtures Designed to Direct ing Illuminates Display Against
the Light on the Display with Little Spill the Wall Without Glare to Spec-
to Prevent Glare. Harsh Shadows are tators.
Eliminated by the Light Coming from
Two Directions.
A Wall Canopy Conceals

the Spotlighting of this
Display. Footlights and
Decorative Background
Lighting Add Attraction
Value.
Luminous Background
Provided by Continuous
Row of Fluorescent Lamps.
Counter Display Lighting from

Special Fluorescent Fixture Suit-
able for Small Flat Merchandise.
8—13
LIGHTING FOR OFFICES AND DRAFTING ROOMS
JilS!?'''* ? °®°5« and drafting rooms range from those requiring severe
^°' lon^ periods of time, to tliose wSere sfeing
oZT,^ ) "' 1?" '?,tf."»Pt«d. ••'•''"•'
p&ce workers are confined to no partteSlar

i^
ZTto^ Tffi I
age group. Office buildings are frequently
hemmed in by other buildings
SEEING TASK LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS
Range from
dif ficul t — Direct -indirect* semi-indi^
rect, indirect, or sliielded
poor contrast, troffers are standard rec-
fine detail ommendationg. Symmet-
long periods
of time, — to
rical spacing where possi*
l>le provides high level
ordinary, such well diffused, glareless
as general cor- general illumination.
respondence (See recommended levels
filing.
for offices. Chapter Five).
Ceiling mounted, recessed

or pendant style equip,
ment may be used, de-
pending upon ceiling
height of the room. Ar-
chitectural lighting and
more decorative fixtures
are frequently required
for private offices.
Supplementary lighting on
business machines and Direct - indirect Indirect incandes-
dcsksshouldbe adjustable, fluorescent pend- ceut.
well shielded, and properly ant fixture with
positioned with reference louvers or diffus-
to the work area, to elimi- ing glass cover.
nate reflected glare. De-
signs that provide up-
ward lighting in addition
to light on the working
area are preferred.
iZJ"
Louvered sil-
vered bowl
fixture.
Continuous
rescent ceiling
type fixtures en-
closed with dif-
fusing glass.
8—14
which exclude daylight as a dependable means of illumination. Desk arrange-

ments must be flexible. Eyesight conservation is necessary for full employee
efficiency and speed of work. All of these factors must be considered fully in
designing office and drafting room lighting to produce the best seeing conditions.
EQUIPMENT TYPICAL INSTALLATIONS
Fluorescent troffers
with louvers spaced
—
3 ft. apart average
ft-c in service: 50.
TrofTer with prii-

matic pUtet.
Direct -in direct fluo-

rescent, spacing 6' x
8'. Average ft-c 50.
Ceiling type fluo-

rescent fixture ^(1,
2, or 3 lampt).
Precast plaster trof-
fers with 500-watt
silvered bowl lamps.
Average ft-o 30.
Precast plaster cof-

fers with louvered
Fluorescent fixtures
arranged in rectan-
gular pattern. With
100- watt fluorescent
~^^h^^J,7.
—
-rt^ m rt—*m-^
^
silvered bowl lamps. lamps. Average
ft-c 60.
^^ \l
Cove lighting corn,
bined with special
down lighting at
desk. Prismatic
plates control direc-
tion of light rajrs.
8—15
OFFICE and DRAFTING ROOM LIGHTING (Cont.)
SEEING TASK LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS TYPICAL LIGHTING
Accurate dis- Low brightness large area

crimination of Hght Bources, capable of TROFFERS
fine detail for dchvering 50 ft-c or
prolonged pe- above on the work plane,
riods of time arc required. Indirect
is common in lighting, direct lighting
these rooms. from luminous ceilings,
Contrast be- continuous row semi-in-
tween work Shielding glass of prismatic plates.
dircct lighting properly
and back- positioned with reference
ground is like- to the drafting hoards, or
ly to be poor. shielded trofTer direct light-
Reflected ing properly positioned LARGE AREA SOURCES
glare from pa- are accepted practice in
per and in- drafting rooms. Boards in
struments is a vertical position reduce
aconstant see- the glare and shadow
ing hazard. hazards, and fixtures of
Shadows from small luminous area may
instruments he used provided the high
and hands in- levels required for this
terfere with work are maintained.
work.
Rectangular coffers with shielded

silveredbowl lamps.
INDIRECT FIXTURES
////\\r^^//
\
'I ^
Indirect Semi -indirect

Lumtnaires
CLASSROOM, LABORATORY, AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

ROOM LIGHTING
Eyesight conservation and improved scholarship are the
primary
objectives m
all school lighting design. Younff eyes in the
formative stages
are subjected to severe visual tasks over relatively long
periods of time
in the schoolroom. High level, glareless, well diffused,
natural and arti-
hcial hghtmg are essential if the life-long handicap
of bad vision is not
to occur m
a high percentage of school children.
Daylighting in Schools— Classrooms should be so constructed that

windows are on one side only, with a total window area never less
than
M
Ho .*^[.^^?, floor area— would be a belter ratio. They should extend
to within 6 of the ceding, and never beyond the front
row of desks. Trans-
lucent shades (two per window) fastened with both rollers
at the middle of
the window m such a manner that they may be raised and
lowered from
this location, or Venetian blinds should be installed
to give proper control
of the light entering the room. Desks should be so arranged
that natural
lighting comes from the side and slightly back of the pupUs, The best
exposure for class rooms is northeast or northwest.
8—16
FI uorescen t troffers
arranged diagonallj
wilh respect to hori-
LouTered zontal drafting boards.
Large area low bright-

ness fixtures suspend-
ed or recessed in ceil-
ing directly over draw-
ing boards.
Low brightness
large area fixtures
Indirect lighting from

suspended fixtures pro-
vides large low bright-
ness area above boards.
Deep beams reduce
ceiling area in direct
line of view.
—
Artificial Lighting in Scliools Artificial lighting of classrooms and
other study rooms must supplement daylight so that high level, well
diffused, glareless illumination is available at any hour of the day, any
month of the year. While this need for artificial illumination has been
generally recognized, it has only been recently realized that artificia
lighting should be used in some sections of the room even on normally
bright days due to the rapid decrease of daylight across the classroom
away from the windows. Pupils sitting close to the windows receive as
much as 20 times more light than pupils at the far side of the room away
from the windows unless artificial lighting is employed.
It is no longer sufficient to provide illumination for day classes only
since the modern educational system includes extension classes and com-
munity gatherings at night as well. The lighting installation therefore
should be designed to provide good illumination to meet both day and
night conditions. The following table will serve as a guide in planning
school lighting; for more detailed instructions, refer to the American
—
Standard Practice of School Lighting a publication of the Illuminating
Engineering Society.
8—17
CLASSROOM, LABORATORY, and VOCATIONAL TRAINING ROOM
SEEING TASK LTG. SUGGESTIONS TYPICAL LIGHTING
Discrimina- General Illumination — GENERAL ILLUMINATION

tion of fiue Higli level (see Chapter
details for Five), well diffused, glare-
long periods less illumination from low
of close appli* brightness fixtures is re-
calion.Near quired. Where filament
and distant lamps are employed, semi-
vision i n - indirect or indirect lufiii-
volved. De- n aires are recommended.
fective eye- With fluorescent lamps
sight preva- any of the luminaire types
lent in luglier may he used, provided the
Ix>w-brightneB8 dif- Luminous bowl
grades. Type bare lumps are sliielded
fusing glass enclosed indirect for
size and coq- from normal viewing fila-
fl uorescen t
trast vary angles.
fix tures ment lamps.
for individual, mul-
from good to
tiple or continuous
very poor iu
school text mounUng.
books.
Reflectedglare
from books, Louvered fluo-
d e 8 k B, a n d rescent troffer
blackboards a for direct light-
seeing hazard.
Photo Cell Conrro(— Photo PHOTO CELL CONTROLS

cell control of the lighting
is desirable, especially of
the row of fixtures farthest
from the windows. Photo
cells are usually located Control
on the end wall as far mechanism
as possible from the win- and cell as
dows. One control for a unit.
several rooms with the
same exposm^ is possible.
Blackboards — Auxiliary
lighting of blackboards is
desirable in sight saving
class rooms or ivbere gen-
eral lighting does not ex-
ceed minimum recom-
mended levels. Prismatic
lens control to confine the BLACKBOARD LIGHTING
light to the blacklmard
and to provide high verti-
cal illumination is recom-
mended. For small black-
boards or charts, a reflec-
tor or projector floodlight
lamp with suitable bracket
may be attached to the
ceiling insuch a way that
Prismatic lens fixture recessed
the angle of the beam pre-
in the ceiling.
vents excessive glare in
the eyes <jf tlie teacher
or pupil at the board.
8—18
LIGHTING
Typical light
Ing layout for o
average class-
room.
oj- <;^
^////////////j///////////////////////j////////////rf
LfHivereil ttr dif*
fufliiig glass
hielJetl (liiores-
cent direct-ifi<U-
reel fixture. INDIRECT LIGHTING DATA
Size of Lamp Approx. Ft-c
500 watts 15
750 watts 25
1000 watts 35
Typical layout
for fluorescent
louvered troffers
C)
<2'4-fs — 5'
\\\— 5' \^Th^
recessed f>r flush
Control mechanism with the ceiling.
and cell separated.
///////// /A
-30-
LIGHTING DATA FOR 40-WATT WHITE

FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Spacing of Trofifers Approx. Ft-c
(on centers) (in service)
7' 30
5' 40
3' 60
^
T
Reflector or projector
lamp attached to fix-
Typical
ing
using
light-
layout for
blackboards,
prismatic
I*—
6'-6"—
>|
ture canopy by special lens fixtures.

bracket.
8—19
CLASSROOM, LABORATORY, and VOCATIONAL TRAINING ROOM
SEEING TASK LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS TYPICAL LIGHTING
The seeing requirements

parallel so closely those in
the classroom,general
lighting recommendations
for laboratories arc simi-
lar. Special supplementary
lighting for microscopic
work and reading delicate
instruments should he
provided by small portable
stands and reflectors. Con-
venience outlets should he
provided at all work
tables.
Similar to General Illumination —Re-

those in in- fer to Chapter Nine, "In-
dustrial shop dustrial Lighting", for
and wood design details. Location
working fac- and spacing of fixtures to
tories. eliminate shadows and re-
flected as well as direct
Safety is a glare is required. Supple-
factor as well mentary lighting for ma-
as eyesight chines or work benches
conservation. should be provided when
the seeing task demands
Task varies prolonged observation of
from discrim- critical detail. Illuniina-
Glassteel Diffuser
inating fine tion levels should corre-
detail for long spond to those recom-
periods to cas- mended for industrial in-
ual observa- teriors with similar ma-
tion. chines and work require-
ments.
^
Industrial fluores-
cent RLM 5xture
for 40- and lOO-watt
fluureacent lamps.
8—20
1
LIGHTING (Cont.)
C 1 a a 1 1 e e 1 dif-
fusera ipaced to
provide well dif-
fused, high level
ligliting.
Industrial Spotlight
Continuous rows
of RLM fluores'
cent fixtures.
Adjuatable arm eup*

plementary fixture.
Supplementary
lighting plus gen-
era] lighting.
Adjuitabla arm flu-

orcKcnt Bupplemen-
tarjr fixture.
8—21
SEEING TASK LTG. SUGGESTIONS
Very critical High level (2000 foot-

and exacting. candles or more), shadow,
Time is a big leas illumination on the
factor. Con- operating table combined
trasts are gen. wilh excellent general
erally poor, lighting (50 ft-c or more)
and glare is a throughout the operating
conatarit haz- room is required. Portable
ard. Shadows supplementary spotlight-
interfere ing that can he easily ad-
greatly in the justed should also be sup-
seeing process. plied for deep cavity
illumination. An emer-
gency lighting system op-
erated from an independ-
ent source of power supply
is essential.
Critical for These rooms should ho

short periods provided with (1) general
during doct- well dilTused illumination
or's examina- from himinoua howl in-
tion. Weaken- direct fixtures; (2) local-
ed condition of izcd bed lights f<)r patient*s
o the eyes com- convenience; (3) portable
o plicates pa- reading lamps for
lient*8 seeing niiTBes and patient^s con-
tasks. Read- valceccnt (leriod; (4) port-
ing and writ- able examination lamps
ing to a mod- for doctor's use; and (5)
erale degree night light under bed or
S is customary. in baseboard of the room.
—
Direct indirect wall fix-
Q tures at the head of the
bed are preferred to ceil-
ing units. Ceiling bright-
CO ness must be kept low
Q since it is in direct line
P< of view of the patient.
In wards where general
lighting from indirect fix-
tures is customary, the
best spacing arrangement
is between beds, about
half the bed length from
the wall.
8—22
^fel=l=fe W^
Luminous Ceiling
Composed of Lens
\ 1 /
Plates
1
Concentrates the \
Built-ia prismatic lens light from many
operating room fixture. directions on the
^ ....^
operating table.
^r^ — ffiUl
,^^
Individual Lens Lights v?,^*^
Fluoreacent
rangement
rooms.
fixture ar-
for operating
on Ceiling
Light from many
directions eliminates
shadows on
ing area.
work-
f
-^^=^
Tt
^f^
-^m-
Special Adjustable
Fixture
vj/ xx^//
The reflector in this J
unit is designed
Suspended operating to direct light on
room fixture with spe- the table £rom va-
cial reflector.
rious parts of its
surface, thereby re-
ducing shadows in
the work area.
Adjustable Examination
Light
Parabolic reflector.
Direct rays shielded Lighting equipment
from view. for private rooms.
Nigbt Light
LouTcred baseboard
light recessed in the
wall.
Special Private Room

and Ward Lighting Fix- Floor Plan
ture
Indirect lighting ^^
Provides indirect light layout for wards.
for general illumina-
tion and direct light
for reading, writing,
etc.
8—23
—
LIGHTING FOR BANKS

If
is
lobby area
used only
The
create
lighting design must
atmosphere
DOWN LIGHTS
and
for passage conform to the architec-
and casual see- tural decoration of the
ing, the visual
task not
room.
type
Direct —
chandeliers,
indirect
is coves
critical or pro- combined with downlights,
longed; but luminous architectural ele-
frequently the ments on ceiling or walls,
lobby area or real or false sky lights
and the tellers' illuminated from above
cages merge all offer decorative possi-
and the gen- bilities combined with
eral illumina- good lighting design. Il-
tion serves lumination Prismatic Leoi
levels must be
both. The vis- high if the general illumi- Type
ual task in the nation is used both fur
tellers' cages the lobby and bookkeep-
COVES—LUMINOUS
and bookkeeping areas, as is frequently
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
ing areas is the case. Sup[)Ienientary (See Chapter Ten)
both critical lighting for teller's count-
and prolong- ers and public writing
ed, requiring desks is required unless DECORATIVE LUMINAIRES
high illumina- general illumination levels
tions for cffi- are sufficient at these
c i e n t eye locations without glare or
work. deep shadows.
Fitture of luminous white glass side

panels and prismatic lens plates on
bottom.
TELLERS'
CAGES
PUBLIC
WRITING
TABLES
8—24
Downiighta from
ceiling coffers and
indirect lighting
&om top of tellers*
cages or wall <K)Te8.
Luminous panels or
decorative indirect
fixtures on wall or
ceiling.
LL \hjj
^tfr^?- ~^.f!rSr
Illuminated sky-
// I
\ V lights — i n di V i d u a I
reflectors or trough
Fixture combining di- sections.
rect and indirect light-
ing and decorated
with luminous glasi
elements.
Ceiling of precast
plaster coffers and
silvered bowl lamps
with louvers.
Pin-hole downlights
over tellers* cages and
bookkeepnng area
with indirect light-
ing from pedestals
incorporated in writ-
ing tables.
8—25
—
LIGHTING FOR CHURCHES

Rarely pro- Two levels of illumination

lunged, but in-
volves reading
arc desirable —
one for the
reading of the service, \1
Wli// Luminous
lantern ty[>«
fine print dur- another during the de- fixture for di-
ing part of the livery of the sermon. All y rect —indirect
service. lighting must be well lighting.
shielded and diffused in Down light-
the interest of eye comfort. ;
'"^
i'^'-
''
ing through
It must be designed to luuvered or
produce a mood of rest-
fulness and quiet, while / 'V\ \
N diffusing glass
cover used
concentrating attention on only during
A. -' reading of the
the altar, pulpit, sanc- ]
tuary, or choir as the serv- 7/ 1 \\ service.

ice requires. Decorative
lanterns of the direct
indirect lighting type, re-
cessed "pin hole" lights
in tall vaulted ceilings,
A high level of recessed prismatic plates,
illuminalion is architectural coves, and
required to di- floodlighting of side walls
rect audience or ceiling are nielliods
interest and most frequently employed
attention to in modern practice. Ar-
the details of chitectural style of the
the altar rit- church should be con-
ual. sidered.
Continuous trough for filament or

fluorescent lamps for altar high.
Ugh ting.
Reading ser- To attract attention to the PULPIT LIGHTING UNITS

mon notes at pulpit and to provide eye-
a rapid rate sight protection, the pul-
and with the pit area should he high-
eyes at a dis- lighted for the period it
tance from the is in use.
lectern is a Inconspicuous lectern type
severe eye reading lamps provide
task. High illumination for reading
level illtiml- but do not high light the
natiun is re- speaker.
quired. Well concealed (hack of
beams or similar arclii'-
tectural features) gjtot
lights directed from op-
posite sides of the church
will provideboth lighting
for seeing and for the
speaker and are preferred.
8—26
Luminous architectural recessed

fixture and core lighting.
kk^s.'^vW ^'.' '^VVV.V^
**Pin-hoIo" down light

for high ceilings.
|*Pin.hoIc" down light-

ing plus decorative fix-
tures.
Recessed floodlights directed on

w '
opposite walls indirectly lighting
auditorium,
udi'
Light troughs with

prismatic lens or dif-
fusing glass plates to
light altars, or con*
cealed back of beams "High lighting** the al-
to illuminate the tar from concealed flood-
church auditorium. lights to give emphasis
and direct attention. Special light troughs concealed
back of beams and facing the altar.
Spotlights concealed behind Indirect lighting from a

arches or beams light this cove at the edge of the
pulpit from two directions. canopy over the pulpit plus
a direct light for the lectern.
8—27
LIGHTING FOR CHURCHES (Cont.)
Decoration The darkness of stained

and atmos- glass windows is relieved STAINED GLASS WINDOW
phere. at night by lighting from
the exterior. Angle type
reflectors fastened to the
building or floodlighting
from the ground or stand-
ards is general practice.
Concealment of all light-
ing equipment should be
considered in the interest
of the exterior appearance
of the church.
Angle Reflector
8—28
EXTERIOR WINDOW LIGHTING

LIGHTING
Three or more angle re* Floodlights should be

flectors equipped with louvered to confine the
150 watt lamps located raj^s to the window
at the top of a imall or area. Conceal by shrub-
medium lize window bery where possible.
will increase its decora-
tive value at night.
8—29
CHAPTER NINE
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
BENEFITS OF GOOD INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
GOOD INDUSTRIAL ILLUMINATION
IMPROVES
QUALITY OF LESSENS
PRODUCT EYE FATIGUE
PREVEKTS
EVE STRAIN
MAKES PLANT OPERATION MORE IMPROVES MORALE AND MAKES

ECONOMICAL SUPERVISION EASIER
TYPES OF MODERN INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING

General Lighting
1. High Bay Narrow Interior

Luminaires which concentrate the
light in a relatively narrow beam
are desirable for this application in
order to efficiently provide the nec-
essary illumination at the working
plane. Equipment with wide dis-
tribution would direct much of its
light to the side walls and window
area where it would be very largely
absorbed.
Incandescent or mercury sources are used for this application either
alone or in combination, the type used being determined in part by the
character of the work performed in the area, the footcandle level desired,
and the facilities for mounting and servicing. Where color discrimination
9—1
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
ISnot necessary, mercury lamps may be used with the advantage

of long
^^ efficiency. The use of the higher-wattage lamps, such as the
Laaa
iUOO-watt mercury lamp, in direct-lighting equipment should be considered
only where the mounting height is 40 feet or more and the
material being
worked on is of a non-specular character. When color correction is neces-
sary m
the use of mercury equipment, at least 15% of the lumens should
be produced by incandescent lamps in order to provide an
appreciable
color improvement. There is little economical advantage in
a combination
system where more than 60% of the lumens are produced by incandescent
lamps.
2, High Bay Wide Interior

^
Equipment with a widedistribu-
tion may be used effectively in
areas of this nature to provide a
greater overlapping of light beams
with a resultant reduction in shadow
intensity and with higher vertical
surface illumination. In rows of
luminaires near the building walls,
concentrating equipment should be
used to minimize the loss through
wall and window absorption.
In addition to incandescent and mercury vapor lamps, which are recom-
mended for narrow high bay interiors, fluorescent lamps are suitable for
use in wide high bay areas where lower-brightness sources
are desired.
Ihey are particularly necessary where specular materials such as airplane
sections are being fabricated. Where proper facilities for
servicing can be
employed, such as cranes or extension platforms, mounting heights up to
50 feet are possible providing the width of the room is at least five times
the mounting height. The use of the 100-watt fluorescent lamp
luminaires may have an advantage from a maintenance standpoint
in RLM
due
to the fact that fewer lamps and luminaires will be necessary
to provide
the required level of iUumination.
3. Low Mounting
The lighting equipment selected
to produce uniform illumination
from low mounting heights is usu-
ally of the wide-angle distribution
type. Luminaires which do not
produce a wide distribution must
be more closely spaced to avoid
spotty lighting.
For low mounting-height incan-
descent installations, the RLM
Standard Dome may be used
effectively.Another type of equip-
ment with lower brightness and bet-
ter diffusion is the Glassteel Diffuser,
which may be used with either filament
or mercury vapor lamps. Fixtures designed for use with silvered bowl
lamps provide another means of reducing the brightness of the light
source.
The majority of industrial low mounting installations now being made
use fluorescent lamps in RLM luminaires. Fluorescent RLM luminaires
9—2
are available in the conventional open type, or with various forms of

louvers, with glass covers, and in vapor-proof units. The wide distribution
of this type of luminaire, its relatively low brightness, and its comparative
coolness make it particularly suitable for the lower mounting heights.
Maintained illumination levels of 50 footcandles are readily obtainable
with fluorescent luminaires.
A popular practice in industrial

lighting is to install fluorescent
luminaires in continuous rows. If
an original installation in continu-
ous rows is not desired, it may be
advisable to space the fixtures in
such a way that an additional fix-
ture can later be added between
adjacent units to form a continuous
line. In this way, illumination
levels may be doubled without
great additional wiring expense.
Localized General Lighting

Many industrial plants have ma-
chinery of such a nature or so
located that it lends itself to the
positioning of luminaires with spe-
cific reference to the working points.
Where a uniform intensity of illumi-
nation is not necessary throughout
the area, such a positioning of
lighting equipment permits the
obtaining of high levels at the
particular work points and at the
same time provides sufficient illumi-
nation for adjacent areas.
Supplementary Lighting
When the general level does not

provide enough illumination for a
f)articular task, supplementary
ighting equipment should be em-
ployed. This produces the desired
levels by concentrating light at the
point of work. There are several
methods of achieving this result
depending on the size of the work
area, its location, and the possible
location of the lighting equipment.
1. Small Areas
Where areas are small and the lighting equipment can be mounted
close to the task, adjustable brackets or fixed channelsmay be mounted
on the machines or benches.
Individual incandescent lamps in small reflectors with adjustable arms
supply up to 300 footcandles at distances of approximately ten inches.
9—3
INDUSTRIALmLIGHTING
Fluorescent lamps with indi-

vidual reflectors mounted close to
the working area will give more
than 150 footcandles of high-quali-
ty, low -brightness illumination.
2. Larger Areas
Where the light must be projected
on areas which cannot readily be
reached by other methods or where
reflectors mounted close to the work
would interfere with the workman's
operation, larger -wattage equip-
ment mounted at a distance must
be employed. Special reflectors are
manufactured for this purpose. The
PAR.38 and R-40 spot and flood
lamps requiring no external re-
flector are particularly suitable for
applications of this nature. The
units should be located so that the
operator does not cast a shadow on
the work.
3. Low-Brightness Sources
Certain types of work such as
typesetting and sheet metal work
require a large, low -brightness
source for best seeing conditions.
Incandescent lamps in a large glass-
covered fixture or in a large-area
indirect lighting unit would be suit-
able.
Direct-lighting fluorescent fix-

tures such as the RLM, if covered
with frosted or opal glass, will give
high levels of illumination with low
source -brigh tness.
4. Vertical Surfaces
When a high level of vertical
illumination is needed on an opera-
tion such as an assembly line,
fluorescent fixtures with asym-
metric light distribution or sym-
metrical fixtures tilted at an angle
can be mounted on each side of
the conveyor. Elliptical angle re-
flectors with incandescent lamps
can be used, but precautions must
be taken to prevent glare if the
operators are forced to look directly
into them.
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9—5
a
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
H
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9—6
—
5. Inspection Lighting
In designing inspection lighting
the following characteristics of the
materials or objects to be examined
T 1^^ should be considered: (1) composi-

tion, (2) finish, (3) form, (4) internal
structure, (5) surface contour, (6)
color. The lighting must then be
tailor-made to fit the seeing task
imposed by these characteristics.
Generally speaking, a large low-
brightness source is best for most
inspection work; however, surface irregularities are sometimes easier to
detect when light strikes at a grazing angle.
The inspection of transparent materials such as bottles, glassware,
can be accomplished by means of an illuminated inspection
plastics, etc.,
panel facing the inspector and projecting light through the object.
LUMINAIRE MOUNTING
Individual reflectors may be mounted directly on the ceiling, sus-
pended by conduit or chain, or from messenger cable, to the desired
mounting height.
Continuous rows of fluorescent fixtures can be mounted in several
ways. The various methods are illustrated below.
Fixtures for continuous -row mounting are little more expensive initially
than indi^vidual fixtures and are considerably less expensive to install.
The continuous trough acts as a wire-way, and power need be supplied
only at one convenient point along a row.
Although initial requirements may not warrant continuous rows of
reflectors, it is good practice to install continuous wiring channels. Addi-
tional ballasts and reflectors can then easily be installed if the natiu-e of
the work should change so as to require additional illumination.
COiDUir MOUNTING
k
HESSBNSEE CA&ILMOUNTINS
^
TWIN- eoD MouNTyyff
e£iLf» MODPtmt MiKicv* — -1 aviw*
CEium Moufwr^ff
"BT
9—7
«
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Orientation of luminaires with respect to the principal Une of sight

should be such as to provide the maximum shielding of the bare lamps.
The light distribution curve of RLM-type fluorescent fixtures is practically
the same in the planes parallel and perpendicular to the lamp axis. How
ever, due to the shielding effect of the luminaire itself, the orightness is
less annoying when the unit is viewed from the side.
Where luminaires must be mount-

ed parallel to the normal line of
sight, reflectors with closed ends
should be used since they do afford
some shielding. More comLfor table
conditions can be obtained by in-
stalling louvers which provide uni-
form shielding in all directions.
Where it is necessary to read
cylindrical or conical dials on ma-
chines, best results can be obtained
when fluorescent lamps are installed
with the long axis perpendicular
to the axis of rotation of the dial. Since dials are frequently placed in
various planes around the machine, fluorescent luminaires may be installed
in a grid arrangement so that their long axes run in two different directions.
MAINTENANCE AND EQUIPMENT

Lamp Replacement
All light sources, incandescent, fluorescent and mercury, have average
rated lives under specified operating conditions. Some lamps burn out
before this average is reached and others last longer than the average.
It is to be expected therefore that there will be a variation in the number
of burnouts during the life of an installation.
On new installations it is important to remember that there will be a
wide variation in the replacement rate during the first year or two of
service. As shown in the chart, in a specific installation of fluorescent
2Y
1
r\
/ \
1
3Y =IS. 4YRS. 6YR s, YR 5. 8 yr; 9YRS, lOYRsJ
2^ 120 / /^
5 YF S. •
1 .
/ 1
/
1
1 1
^ i. 1
2^80
\i / \ N^ ^ y -i-^ pU^
5-
1 V //
x. 1 1
'W OF F-AIULI RES =

HOU =IS BlJRNE )
RATED LAMP LIFE

X N 0. OF LAMPS
/
-< y
1 1 1
1
200 300
PER CENT OF AVERAGE tAMP LIFE
* 1250 LAMPS -BURNED 6 HOURS/ DAY, 25 DAYS /MONTH -5000 HOURS LJF|
9—
lamps (1250 lamps burning 8 hours a day for 25 days a month with an
average life of 5000 hours) the normal replacement rate as calculated
from the formula is two lamps per day. The "normal rate" is the rate
attained after sufficient replacements have been made so that burnouts
occur entirely at random. While the lamps are new the replacement rate
is well below normal, and as the original group of lamps approach the end
of life the rate is at least 50% above normal. Thereafter the rate varies
in decreasing amounts above and below normal, until the installation has
been in operation sufficiently long for the replacements to approach a
constant rate.
The length of time required to achieve the normal replacement rate
varies with the average rated life of the lamps. When fluorescent or mercury
lamps are used, the number of hours the lamps are burned at each turn-on
has a direct bearing on the life of the lamps. For example, a 40-watt
fluorescent lamp burned for 3 hours each time it is turned on will have a life
of approximately 2500 hours, whereas the same lamp burned for 12 hours
per start will have a life of 6000 hours. For filament lamps the curve will
be approximately the same, but the normal rate is reached sooner because
of the shorter life of the lamps.
Cleaning
Many modern factories have extremely high ceilings, and special devices
are necessary to maintain the lighting equipment. Among these are:
1. Step ladder 4. Lowering-type hangers
2. Extension ladder 5, Catwalk
3. Telescoping platform 6. Traveling crane
The and telescoping platforms will be determined
selection of ladders
by the amount of space between machines or stock. The other methods
mentioned depend on the construction of the building, and no specific
instruction can be given. With lowering or disconuecting-type hangers the
fixtures can be brought to floor level by means of cords and pulleys.
LOSS OF LIGHT FROM MAINTENANCE NEGLECT
LOSS DUE TO DIRTY LOSS DUE TO WRONG

LAMPS AND OPERATION COMBINATION OF
OF LAMPS PAST LAMPS i REFLECTORS
THEIR PRIME
9—9
CHAPTER TEN
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING
Luminous elements, either on the exterior or the interior of a building,

which form a part of its structural and decorative details are classified as
architectural lighting. It is of necessity custom-built, and may assume
many shapes, colors, and forms; it may be in-built or attached to other
architectural features; it may function as pure decoration or provide light-
ing for seeing in a decorative manner; it is a partnership of good taste,
artistic design, novelty, and good illuminating engineering.
TYPES OF ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING

Cove Lighting
A continuous or translucent trough section which conceals the light
sources from direct view and directs most of the light towards a reflecting
surface which becomes the luminous element is the basic structural feature
of cove lighting. Coves may be curved or straight, and arranged in hori-
zontal or vertical lines or at various angles. They are often constructed of
plastic, metal, glass or plaster. They may be attached to the walls of a
room, to vertical supporting columns, to ceiling beams or ceiling coffers,
or arranged along the edge of a dropped ceiling to illuminate the walls of
an interior. Reflecting surfaces in combination with coves are generally
light in color (for efficiency) and matte or semi-matte in finish. However,
spectacular decorative effects may be achieved with backgrounds of stain-
less steel, polished aluminum, or chromium with brushed or corrugated
surfaces.
This form of architectural lighting is very flexible as a decorative lumi-

nous element, and can also be used to provide relatively high levels of illu-
mination for seeing.
Luminous Architectural Forms

Luminous in-built panels and rectangular, triangular, and other shapes
— —
of translucent projecting elements of glass, marble or plastic are stand-
ard forms in architectural lighting. These forms may be located in or on
walls, ceilings, columns, or supporting members.
If the luminous element is for decoration only, the design should be based
on the brightness value desired; if decoration and illumination are re-
quired, then the designer must consider the illumination level necessary.
10—1
REFLECTING AND TRANSMITTING MATERIALS

Material Reflection or Characteristics
Transmission
Reflecting
(a) Specular
Mirrored Glass 80 to 90 % Provide directiona contro of light and
Alzak Aluminum 75 to 85 % high brightness at speciGc viewing angles.
Aluminum
Polished 60 to 70% Effective as efficient reflectors and for
Chromium 60 to 65% special decorative lighting effects.
Stainless Steel 55 to 65 %
Black Structural
Glass 5%
(b) Spread
Alzak Aluminum 70 to 80% General diffuse reflection with a high
(diffuse) specular surface reflection of from 5 to 10%
Etched Aluminum 70 to 85% of the hght. Undesirable streaks and high-
Satin Chromium 50 to 55 % lights will occur when these materials are
Brushed Aluminum 55 to 58 % used as cove backgrounds. Special decor-
Porcelain Enamel 60 to 80% ative band and high-brightness effects may
Aluminum Paint 60 to 70% be achieved with these surfaces.
(c) Diffuse
White Plaster 90 to 92 %
White Paint 75 to 90 % Diffuse reflection results in uniform sur-
(Matte) face brightness at all viewing angles. Ma-
White Terra-Cotta 65 to 80% terials of this type arc good reflecting
White Structural 75 to 80% backgrounds for coves and luminous forms.
Glass
Limestone 35 to 65%
Transmitting*
(a) Glass Low absorption; no di&'uston; high con-
Clear 80 to 90% centrated transmission. Used as protective
cover plates for concealed light sources.
Configurated, ob- Low absorption; high transmission; poor

scure, etched, 70 to 85 % diffusion. Used only when backed by good
ground, sandblasted diffusing glass or when light sources are
and frosted placed at edges of panel to Hght the back-
ground.
Opalescent and 55 to 80 % Lower transmission than above glasses;

Alabaster fair diffusion. Used f()r favorable appear*
ancc when indirectly Ughted.
Flashed (cased) 30 to 65% Low absorption; excellent diffusion. Used

Opal for panels of uniform brightness with
good efUciency.
Solid Opal Glass 15 to 40% Higher absorption than flashed opal glass;
excellent diffusion. Used in place of
flashed opal where a whiter appearance is
required.
(b) Plastics 0io95% Available in wide ranges of transmission,

diffusion, color, and shapes. Used as a sub-
stitute for glass in many instances, except
where high temperatures are encountered.
(c) Marble 5 to 30% High absorption; excellent diffusion; used

(Impregnated) for panels of low brightness. Seldom used
in producing general illumination because
of the low efficiency.
(d) Alabaster 20 to 50% High absorption; good diffusion. Used for

favorable appearance when directly light-
ed.
* Inasmuch as the amount of transmitted depends upon the thickness of the mate-
light
rial, the Bgures given are based on thicknesses generally used in lighting applications.
10—2
—— — —— — — — ——
•
BRIGHTNESS RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conditions have a FOR EXTERIORS

direct influence on the brightness
design of a luminous element: a. Brightness of Adjacent Elements
or Displays
The greater the contrast be-
FOR INTERIORS tween the element (sign, store
front, decoration, etc.) and its
a. General Illumination Level as
surroundings the greater will be
Compared to Brightness of Ele-
its apparent brightness and eye-
ment
attracting possibilities.
The greater the general illumi-
nation in a room, the higher the b. Function of the Element^
brightness of the luminous ele-
The brightness of a sign or
ment has to be to make it out-
advertising message in a lumi-
standing. Eye comfort is im- nous element should exceed
periled DV too great a contrast,
that of any other part of the
if the element is prominently
display. Luminous elements for
located.
decoration on monumental build-
b. Position of the Element ings should be lower in bright*
ness than those on commercial
is out of normal
If the element
buildings.
viewing angles higher brightness-
es are possible without eye dis- c. Position of the Element
comfort.
The higher the element above
c. Size of the Element eye level the brighter it should
Large luminous elements may be for equal effectiveness. Lumi-
have a lower brightness than nous decorations at the top of a
4-story building should be at
small elements and still maintain
least double the brightness of
full effectiveness.
the same element located at
d. Time of Viewing eye level.
If the element is installed
where constantly viewed, low
d. Size of the Element —
brightness is essential for eye Large elements may have a
comfort. lower brightness without loss
of advertising effectiveness.
c. Color of the Element
The
decorative value of color
c. Color of the Element
isgreat, hence brightness may The greater attraction value
be reduced when color is usea. of color makes it possible to
reduce brightness without loss
f. Brightness Uniformity of the of effectiveness in signs and
Element luminous advertising displays.
Uniformity of brightness is
generally desirable, and lamp f. Brightness Uniformity of the
spacings should be selected with Element-
this in view. If a decorative Highlights and sparkle in-
grille or silhouette is used on volving the use of metal back-
the element, rather wide varia- grounds and low diffusion mate-
tions in brightness are permissible trials may be desirable in ex-
from the appearance standpoint. terior luminous elements.
10—3
—
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING DESIGN

Cove Lighting Design Suggestions
Sight Lines—
Coves should he bo constructed that the
lamps are not visihle from normal viewing
angles. Coves located too close to the ceiling
reveal surface irregularities and create dark
areas in center of ceiling.
Typical Lamp Arrangements

GENERAL SERVICE LAMPS
Proper spacing with auxiliary
reflectors to direct light away
from surface near lamps will result
in an even, attractive appearance
free from dark areas.
FLUORESCENT & LUMILINE LAMPS

Slight shadows on background
will occur at sockets if auxiliary
reflectors are not used. By stagger-
ing the lamps and overlapping
the ends 3" this spotty "scallop
effect" can be eliminated.
REFLECTOR & PROJECTOR LAMPS

Lamps of this type have self-
contained reflectors which give
some control of the
directional
light beam. They
are used when
light must be projected across to
the opposite side of the ceiling to
obtain an even distribution. The
showcase type is suitable for
shallow coves where the distance
of throw is short; the floodlight
type is for larger coves and longer
throws.
10—4
Cove Lighting Design Procedure
To Provide Illumination for Interiors:
1. Determine the footcandles required by reference to tables in Chapter

Five.
2. Select from table below the Cove Lighting Design Factor.
COVE LIGH'llNG DESIGN FACTORS*

Room Proportions
Color of Color of
Ceiling Walls Width e<iual8 Width equals
four times twice the Width equals
ceiling height ceiling height ceiling height
Light 3.5 5.0 6.5

Very
Light
Medium 4.0 5.5 7.5
Dark 4.5 6.0 9.0
Light 5.0 6.5 9.5
Mediiun
Light
Medium 5.5 7.5 II.O
Dark 6.0 8.5 13.0
* Depreciation allowance of 70% included.
3. Compute total lumens required:

Total liunens =* Footcandles x Area (sq. ft.) of Room x Design
Factor.
4. Determine number of lamps by dividing total lumens by lamp

lumens as given in manufacturer's lamp data catalogs.
5. Decide on the spacing

This will depend upon the cove design, the wattage and type of
lamp selected, and the number of lanips required. Standard cove
design will permit spacings of 12" to 15" (from light center to light
center), but closer spacings are required in narrow coves with lamps
close to the background. Where a single row of lamps does not pro-
vide the level required, double rows can be used with correspondmg-
\y enlarged coves. If the number of lamps required is too small to
the cove without too great a spacing, then lower wattage lamps
fill
should he used to provide the necessary number to assure uniformity.

See suggested lamps and methods on opposite page.
To Provide Decoration of Interiors:

(See Procedure and Tables for Luminous Elements following).
10—5
— '
Luminous Element Design Suggestions

REFLECTOR CONTOURS AND FINISHES
RELATION BETWEEN REFLECTION FACTOR OF

REFLECTOR AND EFFICIENCY OF THE UNIT
"
\
i \
^SILVERED MIRROR
RELATfON BETWEEN RER-ECTOR CONTOUR
AND THE EFFICIENCY OF THE UNIT
40.0Z
'<P'^WHITE
^
^;—— ;:^WHIT£
EKJAMElJ
^WHITE BLOTTING »P(
WPER
ENAMEL
Al|uMINlJW EN/il
I
_
BIDTTINC
^GR£T blotting'
WPEB
PWEH
15^
CROSS SECTIONS OF R(;n rrxno^,
6-25WATT-II5VOLT-A-I9 LAMPS ON
FLASHm OPAL COVER CLASS ISxSO'
5' CENTERS ^0 ^60 35 M
REFLECTION FACTOR Of RDT.ECTOR
30—3o~
BRIGHTNESS UNIFORMITY AND LAMP SPACING
X
r.
z "SoT t^^y
y -^
^^'
.-^ 8
A .^
^
/
<l*Jeo
NO GUtLLE
0.*L
^ _^ —— -
91-
/
/
X^ ^ k- So^r ED Of"AL
CHtUH
o
.
y
^' ^^
S - Sft«;iNG IN INCHES BETWECN LAMP CENTERS
Spacing of Filament Lamps for Spacing of Fluorescent Lamps for

Acceptable Uniformity Acceptable Uniformity
The shape of the reflector and the general proportions of the unit are
the essential factors to consider when determining the
spacing of the
lamps and the distance of the lamps from the translucent cover or
diffusiu^r
surface. The permissible spacing between lamps and the
distance between
the lamps and the cover or background will vary because
of the various
characteristics and transmission factors of the materials
used for cover
plates.
The above curves give the permissible values for the spacing of filament
lamps and fluorescent lamps for acceptable uniformity. The filament
lamn
curves also apply to the spacing between parallel rows of
fluorescent lamps
while the fluorescent curve refers only to the permissible
end-to-end
spacing for fluorescent lamps.
In general, the spacing between centers of incandescent lamps
or be-
tween rows of fluorescent lamps should be one and one -ha If times
the dis-
tance from the lamp center to the cover plate.
The success of a luminous element depends primarily on its brightness
(expressed in footlamberts). A table of suggested
brightness values is
given on the opposite page.
10—6
Luminous Element Design Procedure

To Provide Illumination and Decoration in Interiors:
1. Select the brightness desired from the table of suggested brightnesses.
2. Calculate the total lamp lumens required.
Total Lumens = Brightness Luminous Area (sg. ft.)

(ft-L) x
Element Efficiency x Maintenance Factor
3. To provide brightness uniformity, refer to the Table on Efficiencies
of Luminous Elements to compute D
(distance of light center to
cover glass) and S (spacing of lamps) based on the known width
(W) and general shape of the element under consideration.
4. From the values obtained in (3), estimate total number of lamps
required.
Number of Lamps ^ Length of Element

S (spacing of lamps)
5. Calculate lamp lumens to provide brightness desired at spacings
determined in (3).
Lumens per T.^p^ Total Lumens

Number of Lamps
6. Select from manufacturer's lamp data catalogs the lamp that has
this lumen output (approximate).
SUGGESTED BRIGHTNESS VALUES FOR LUMINOUS

ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
INTERIOR ELEMENTS
FOOTLAMBERTS
Ceiling Elements
High Ceilings (20 feet) 500
Low Ceilings 250
Decorative Panels
Not in usual line of sight 150
Constantly in view 75
EXTERIOR ELEMENTS
GENERAL BRIGHTNESS OF DISTRICT
Low Medium High
Luminous Store Fronts, Back-
grounds. Signs, Marquise,
Fascia s and Soffits 80-150 100-250 200-400
Flushed or Recessed Elements
Dominant 30-100 50-150 100-300
Subordinate 30-60 40-80 50-150
Luminous Elements
Projecting
Dominant 50-130 70-170 150-300
Subordinate 30-60 40-80 50-150
Luminous Letters 150-200 200-400 300-600
10—7
EFFICIENCIES OF TYPICAL FORMS OF LUMINOUS

ELEMENTS
NOTE —The tables to follow apply not only to filament lamps (shown in
alldiagrams) but also to fluorescent lamps. A single row of 40-watt fluores-
cent lamps, spaced end to end, provides a brightness roughly equal to that
which would be produced by a row of 40-watt filament lamps spaced one
foot apart; two parallel rows of 40-watt fluorescent lamps would likewise
equal two 40-watt or one 100-watt filament lamp per linear foot, etc.
Based upon equal lumens per linear foot, either fluorescent or filament
lamps can therefore be used to provide necessary brightness for luminous
elements. The lower brightness and greater diffusion of the fluorescent
lamp makes possible the use of lighter cover glasses without impairing
brightness uniformity. Consult the brightness uniformity curves on page
—
10 6 for spacing suggestions for fluorescent lamps.
--^~. ^^^
h^
^:v
^ y^
a ^skn
^ ^;m
/•I \
s
'/ ^ ...^
^^
0^ w-^
:.:/
S=2D S== 1.5 D S=1.5D S= 1.5 D

D=0.5 W D=0.5W D=0.4 W D=0.67 W
Efficiency 40% Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
Flashed Opal 65% Flashed Opal 50% Flashed Opal 50%
Solid Opal 45% SoUdOpal 35% Solid Opal 35%
>s
1
S= 1.5 D S=D S=1.5D
r
S=1.5D
D=0.5 W D=0.33 W D=0.5 W
Efficiency Efficiency 25% Efficiency Efficiency
Flashed Opal 75% Flashed Opal &0% Flashed Opal 85%
Solid Opal 55% Solid Opal 60% Solid Opal 65%
10—8
CHAPTER ELEVEN
FLOOBUGHTING DESIGN
Including Sports Lighting
The lighting of commercial buildings as advertising media, the lighting

of sports fields for amateur or professional engagements, and the lighting
of construction projects extend the hours in which each of these can be
effective. In addition to the more utilitarian applications, floodlighting
serves many decorative uses.
The type of area to be lighted, the possible location of equipment, and
the variation in surrounding conditions impose problems in design which
tend to make standardization difficult. There are, however, certain basic
rules which may be followed in installation design.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Step 1 —Determine the level of Ulumination
In the table are listed the illumination levels for many floodlighting
applications. These levels are designated as "footcandles in service," and
allowances must be made for reasonable depreciation in the original design.
In lighting buildings, monuments, etc., the reflection factor of the ob-
ject and the brightness of the surroundings must be considered in order
to determine the amount of light necessary.
LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION
Maintained Maintained
in Service In Service
Automobile Gasoline Service Stations
Used Car Lots Yard 10
Front Row of Car« 50 Pump Island and Sales Room 30
Remainder of Area 10 Lube Room-
General 20
Automobile Parking Spaces Work Area, Repair* and
Building Washing 50
Construction 10 Loading Docks* 5
Excavation Work 2 Lumber Yards 1
Building Exteriors & Mon- Monuments (See Building Exteriors)
uments^ Floodligh ted Piers
Bright Surroundings
Freight 5
Light Surfacci. .(80%RF)* 10
Passenger 5
Medium Surfaces (40% RF)* 20 ,
Dark Surroundings Prison Yards 5

Light Surfaces (80%RF) *
. . 5 Protective Industrial 0.2
Medium Surfaces (40% RF)* 10
Quarries 5
Bulletin and Poster Boards Railroad Yards
Bright Surroundings
Receiving , , 0.2
Light Surfaces .=>0
Classification 0.3
Dark Surfaces 100
Dark Surroundings Ship Yard Construction
Light Surfaces 20 General 5
Dark Surfaces 50 Ways and Fabrication Areas 10
Coal Yards—Protective .... 0.2 Smoke Stacks with Adver-
tising Messages. 20
Dredging 2
Storage Yards. 1
DriU Fields 5
Water Tanks with Adver-
Flags— Floodlighted 30 tising Messages 20
*Approximate reflection factor.
11—1
—— ,
LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION (Cont.)
SPORTS LIGHTING
Footcandlea Footcandlea
Badiniiit.oii Hockey
Tournament 30 College and I'rofessional 50
Kecreational 10 Recreational 10
Baseball Iloraesboe Pitching 10

Seats
Playgrounds » • 5
During Canifl 2
Before and After Came 5
Polo 10
In- Out-
field field Race Tracks
Major League 150 100 Seats 2
AAA and A A League ... 75 50 Track 20
A and B League 50 30
C and D League 30 20 Rifle Range
Semi-Pro 20 15 On Target 50
Minimum 15 10 Firing Point 10
Range 5
Basketball Roque 20
College and Professional 50
High School 30
Sbuflicboard 20
Recreational 10
Skating Rink
Batbing Beaches 1 Indoor 10
Outdoor 2
Billiards
General 10 Soccer
On TaUIcB 50 College and Prufussiunal 30
High School 20
Bowling Athletic Field 10
General 20
On Pins 50 Skeet
"
On the Green 10 Vertical Surface at 100 Feet 30
Boxing Softball
Seats In> Out.
field field
During Bout 2
Before and After Bout , 5 Professional 50 30
Class A 30 20
Ring- Glass B 20 10
Amateur 100 Class C 10 5
Professional 200
Championship 500 Squash
Tournament 30
Recreational 10
OockGolf 10
Croquet 10
Swimming Pools
General 10
Football Table Tennis—Ping Pong 50

Professional 100
Class A 50 Target Shooting (On Target) ... 50
Class B 30
Class G 20
Minimum 10 Tennis
Recreational 20
Exhibition Matches 30
Gymnasium
Locker and Shower Rooms 10 Toboggan Slides 2
Exercising Room, Fencing, Box-
ing, Wrestling, Basketball,
Volley Ball, Soft Ball and Trap Shooting
Vertical Surface at 150 Feet 30
General Exercise 20
Exhibition Games and Matches. 30
Volley Ball
Recreational 10
HandbaM 30 Exhibition Matches. 20
11—2
FLOODLIGHTING DESIGN
Step 2 —Determine the location and type of floodlights

The location of floodlighting equipment is usually dictated by the type
of application and the physical surroundings. If the area is large, individual
towers or poles spaced at regular intervals may be required to light it
evenly; smaller areas may require only one tower with all equipment
concentrated on it; or adjacent buildings may be utilized as floodlight
locations. The chart below will aid in the selection of the right equipment
and its proper location for a number of typical floodlighting applications.
In planning any floodlighting system it is Important that the light be

properly controlled. Powerfuland uncontrolled light thrown along a high-
way or railroad track will produce dangerous glare to oncoming trafltc, and
a blaze of light thrown indiscriminately on adjacent private property
might constitute a nuisance.
TYPICAL FLOODLIGHTING APPLICATIONS
ClasB Main,
Re|j> resell ta live of Location tained Watts/ Sq. Ft.
Applicution Equip- of L«vel for White
tnent Equipmeot of Light
Ilium.
At edge of
area, and
mounted as I ft-c .15
high aa puB-
flible.
Mounted ill
rows ini me-

diately inside 15 ft-< 2-3
and below
parapet.
At edge of 1.5
area, or For area of
where they drives plus
will not hin- area of build-
der traffic. ing.
On ground
5' to 25' from
vertical eur. 50 ft-. 7.5
face.
11—3
SUGGESTED MOUNTING METHODS
as Ba El giB a3 r
a llPBBlLllLijj
Enclosed floodlights are necessary where rain or snow would cause

damage to the lamp or reflector or where accurate beam control is de-
sired. The general purpose floodlight is one in which the inner
surface of
the housing serves as the reflecting surface. The *heavy duty' type is more
rugged since its aluminum or glass reflector is protected by a metal housing.
DATA ON TYPICAL FLOODLIGHT EQUIPMENT
*Beam Lamp Typical Beam

Spread Advantages
Lumens
Narrow Flonrl light or 500 W 1000 W 1500 W
30® or Less Clear General
Service 8,500
Good light 14,000
control, doBt-
Clear
Medium tight cover,
General 4,700 9.500 16.500
Service
low mainte-
nance cost.
HEAVY DUTY Wide General
65° or More Servire 11,000 18,000
Narrow FIno(ilight or
Clear General Good litrht
1000 w 1500 W
30° or Le88 control,
Service 10,500 16.000
weatherproof,
Medium easily serviced.
Clear General
30°-65° Service
Good lamp 12,100 17,800
burning
Wide position. High
General
65° or More efficiency. 13.200 1*»,000
Service
1000 W 1500 W
Wide General Light weight,
(55°- 130°) low initial
Sflrviee
cost.
14,000
Medium
(35°)
Projector
Spot
Low cost,
email size,
130 W
efficient, low 990 (0* to 15°)
Wide Projector maintenance
PROJECTOR LAMP (80°) Flood cost. 1150 (0° to 30°)
the angle enclosed by two lines which intersect the

'«
tnbntion curve at the "'r"'?^'.
*Tribm?«Te?rv?i"fl,'' pomts where the candlepower is equal to 10% of its maximum.
di..
11—4
—
ELEMENTS CONTROLLING BEAM SPREAD
SPECULW^ REFLECTOR RIBBED LENS
DITFUSE REFLECTOR STIPPLED LENS
•APPROXIMATE BEAM SPREADS OF TYPICAL FLOODLIGHTS

Enclosed Type Enclosed Type
Lamp Narrow Beam Reflector Wide Beam Reflector Open
Type* Type
Plain Stippled Spread Plain Stippled Spread
Lens Lena Lens Lena Lens Lens
General 40°x40"'
Servi<^ 23°x23'^ 40°s40° 25°x46'' TS'xTS" SS'xSS" 75*x85° to
125°xl25''
Floodlight n°xW sa-isa" la^'iiO"
*For more exact data on beam epreade refer to manufacturers* catalogs.
Step S^Determine the number of floodlights required

Area x Footcandles
Number of Floodlights =
3^^^ lumens x M.F.
—
Area Surface area to be lighted in square feet.
—
Footcandles As selected from table on pages 11 1 and 11-
Beam Lumens —Refer to manufacturer's
catalog for equipment under consideration.
—
M,F* Maintenance Factor; represents
an allowance for depreciation in service
(.65 for open type and .75 for enclosed
type floodlights).
The result of this calculation will
have to be modified where all of the
beam lumens do not fall on the area.
This can best be done by making a scale
drawing which will reveal how much of
the total light output is utilized.
Step 4— Check for coverage and uniformity

A graphic check of this nature should be used to be certain that the
area will be uniformly covered. Where the number of floodlights is found
to be inadequate Step 3 may have to be repeated, using a larger number
of smaller units in order to obtain the necessary coverage. The table on
— —
pages 11 6 and 11 7 may be used to estimate the coverage of floodlights
with various beam spreads.
11—5
FLOODLIGHT COVERAGE
The area effectively covered by a floodlight will vary with the beam
spread of the equipment and its distance from the area to be lighted.
The following table provides information as to the size of the lighted areas
for various floodlight positions. To get complete coverage of an area where
several units are employed the light beams must overlap. The area covered
by each floodlight is necessarily reduced and this has been taken into ac-
count in the following table.
10° BEAM 15= BEAM 20' BEAM 25= BEAM

H D
Area L W Area L W Area L W Area L W
5 3 3 10 4 4 18 5 5 30 7 7
10 8 4 3 20 6 5 33 8 7 50 10 8
15 20 21 7 4 50 11 7 93 16 9 160 20 12
30 52 14 6 130 21 9 250 30 13 460 41 17
40 113 22 8 290 37 12 620 55 17 1300 83 23
11 4 4 25 7 7 44 9 9 70 11 U
20 23 7 5 50 11 8 100 15 12 150 19 14
25 40 71 16 8 160 25 13 330 34 17 540 45 22
60 195 31 11 490 49 18 1030 73 25 1960 105 34
80 450 54 15 1200 90 24 2920 145 36 7270 251 53
38 9 9 90 13 13 155 18 18 210 20 20
20 47 11 9 110 15 14 195 21 19 320 26 24
50 40 81 14 11 190 22 17 330 30 23 550 38 29
60 150 22 14 340 33 20 630 45 28 1070 58 36
80 260 32 17 600 49 25 1160 68 35 2060 90 45
67 13 13 170 20 20 310 26 26 480 33 33

40 110 17 14 250 25 22 440 34 30 710 43 38
75 80 220 28 18 540 43 29 1010 59 39 1630 75 50
120 530 48 25 1210 74 38 2320 102 52 3930 135 67
160 1040 76 32 2500 119 49 5050 171 67 9060 238 88
120 17 17 310 26 26 490 35 35 770 44 44

40 150 20 19 390 31 28 610 41 38 980 52 48
100 80 250 29 22 580 44 34 1050 59 46 1700 75 58
120 470 43 28 890 66 41 2000 90 56 3290 116 72
160 830 63 33 1950 98 51 3700 136 69 6340 180 89
200 1300 80 42 6650 201 84
270 26 26 610 39 39 1100 53 53 1740 67 67

40 300 28 27 680 42 41 1230 57 55 1940 71 69
150 80 400 34 30 900 51 45 1630 69 60 2580 87 76
120 570 43 34 1310 65 51 2380 89 68 3820 113 87
160 860 57 39 1970 86 58 3610 117 79 5920 151 100
200 1280 74 44 5550 156 91
480 35 35 1090 53 53 1940 71 71 3090 89 89

40 510 37 36 1160 55 54 2080 73 72 3280 92 91
200 80 600 41 38 1360 61 57 2470 82 77 3910 104 96
120 770 48 41 1730 72 61 3160 97 83 5030 123 104
160 1030 58 45 2330 87 68 4240 118 91 6800 150 115
200 1370 71 50 5800 146 102
1080 52 52 2460 79 79 4400 106 106 6940 133 133

40 1110 53 53 2520 80 80 4520 108 107 7140 136 134
300 80 1200 56 54 2720 85 82 4890 114 110 7740 143 138
120 1350 61 57 3070 92 85 5530 123 114 8790 156 144
160 1580 68 60 3590 102 90 6480 137 120 10300 173 152
3010 87 87 6810 132 132 12200 176 176 19300 222 222
40 3030 88 88 6870 133 132 12300 177 177 19500 223 222
500 80 3120 90 89 7070 135 133 12700 181 179 20100 228 225
120 3270 93 90 7410 139 135 13300 187 181 21100 235 228
160 3490 97 92 7900 145 138 14200 195 195 22500 246 233
11—6
H = Perpendicular distance from

the plane of the surface to
the location of the floodlight.
D = Distance from the center of

the area being lighted to the
perpendicular.
30'> BEAM 1
35° BEAM 40° BEAM 50° BEAM
H Ti H D
Area L W Area L W Area L W Area L W
45 8 8 60 9 9 80 11 11 130 14 14
10 80 12 10 110 14 12 5 110 13 12 175 17 16
20 240 26 14 360 32 17 10 150 17 14 260 22 18
15 30 790 56 21 1430 79 27 15 15 310 25 19 530 33 25
40 2900 133 33 8690 262 50 20 630 43 23 1250 63 30
25 1150 65 27
100 13 13 140 16 16 185 18 18 305 23 23

10 140 16 15 170 19 17 10 240 22 20 400 28 26
20 220 23 18 310 28 20 20 450 33 24 800 44 32
25 30 430 36 21 660 45 27 25 30 970 55 32 2050 83 44
40 920 59 28 1430 75 34 40 2300 98 42 6950 187 66
50 1930 94 37 3270 131 45 50 6450 194 60
60 3950 155 46 8590 249 63
350 27 27 510 32 32 320 26 26 520 33 33

20 450 33 29 650 37 34 10 380 28 27 580 37 34
50 40 800 46 35 1160 55 41 35 20 510 35 32 890 47 39
60 1590 73 44 2440 90 53 30 850 49 35 1550 67 47
80 3200 117 56 5300 151 69 40 1490 71 43 3000 105 59
50 2700 106 52
700 40 40 970 47 47 470 33 33 730 42 42

20 790 43 42 1070 51 49 10 520 35 34 820 44 42
40 1060 53 46 1460 63 54 20 650 40 37 1070 52 47
75 60 1590 69 53 2200 83 61 45 30 890 49 42 1550 67 53
80 2480 93 61 3620 114 73 40 1320 66 46 2460 91 62
100 4000 128 72 5780 160 84 50 2100 87 55
120 6400 175 84 10100 226 103
1130 54 54 1560 63 63 640 40 40 1030 51 51

40 1430 63 58 1980 74 68 20 790 46 44 1300 59 56
100 80 2550 92 70 3560 no 82 55 40 1320 66 51 2330 88 68
120 5050 146 89 7510 180 106 60 2650 104 65 5250 152 88
160 10300 234 112 80 5600 172 83
1760 67 67 2440 79 79 1020 51 51 1680 65 65

40 2130 73 71 2870 88 83 20 1180 55 54 1940 72 69
125 80 3090 97 80 4350 116 96 70 40 1680 71 60 2860 93 78
120 5200 138 96 7430 167 113 60 2700 98 70 5000 135 94
160 9140 200 116 80 4700 142 84
2540 80 80 3510 95 95 1500 62 62 2460 79 79

40 2880 86 85 3900 102 97 20 1680 67 64 2750 85 82
80 3820 105 92 5300 125 108 40 2130 78 69 3600 102 90
150 120 5700 135 107 8000 166 123 85 60 3080 100 78 5400 133 103
160 10300 234 112 80 4750 132 92
100 7500 181 106
4500 107 107 6250 126 126 2100 73 73 3400 93 93

40 4800 111 109 6660 132 129 20 2280 78 74 3700 98 96
200 80 5700 125 116 7950 149 136 100 40 2700 86 79 4500 112 102
120 7500 150 127 10300 178 148 60 3500 104 87 7800 138 113
160 10200 184 141 80 500O 130 98
1
100 7300 168 110
11—7
There can be little standardization in floodlighting appUcation due to
the wide variation in the physical characteristics of individual areas.
There are, however, some general rules which when properly adapted to
the requirements ot
of speci
specific applications will aid materially in obtainiiie:
proper illumination
Building and Dam Construction, and Excavation

Approximately one 1500-watt, two 1000-watt or three 500-watt units
will be required for each 5000 square feet of excavation area or for each
1000 to 2000 square feet of building construction area. It is usually most
satisfactory to mount floodlights in groups of two or more on wood poles
or towers 40 to 70 feet above ground. A minimum of two poles should be
used, with enough poles on larger jobs to provide coverage at any working
point from two or three floodlight banks. Fixed-pole spacing may be from
13^ to 3 times mounting height, and
r~"^" -^ as much as S times mounting height

on large projects. Occasionally it is
practical to provide one or two port-
Biaasgij o|
able poles mounted on timber sled
bases which can be dragged from
point to point by trucks or tractors,
where a mechanical shovel or crane
COIMSTRUCTION is used it is advisable to mount an
AREA
automatic levelling fioodhght on the
boom.
<^NAR
NARROW CAIXE Since these projects are of a tem-
—^
R.R,
porary nature, and since the flood-
lights and poles may have to be
I
4:_j^
moved from time to time, units of
the lighter weight type are usually
satisfactory. However, if rough mechanical treatment is anticipated,
heavy-duty type floodlights should be used.
Railway Yards
An estimate of the number of floodlights required to light a railroad
yard may be obtained by the general method of calculation explained
previously. The relatively low intensities provided require few floodlights,
the size depending on the tower spacing necessary to obtain the desired
uniformity throughout the yard.
There are two general types of
yard lighting, unidirectional and
parallel opposing systems.
The unidirectional system is ap-
B&* plicable only to tracks on which the
trafl&c is all in one direction, the light
being projected with the traffic flow.
Glare is entirely eliminated, al-
though seeing is entirely by direct
P^rE^'Sp^^ÊD^'^Si^T^'i^^^^^^^^^^^^
îtJj?"* the advantages of sil-
nouette enect.
RAtLROAD CLASSIFICATION YARD
"^
Ihe «
TÛ U1
parallel opposing system is
11—8
used where traffic flows in both directions, which is more frequently

the case in actual practice. Here seeing is accomplished by direct light
from the tower behind the observer and by silhouette of cars and glint
from the rails produced by light from the tower in front of the observer.
There is, of course, danger of glare when looking in either direction, which
may be minimized by adequate mounting heights.
Selection of tower locations is the most important part of the design
procedure, but cannot be specified by rigid rules since track layouts, oper-
ating methods, and available space for towers vary for every yard.
A few general rules may be summarized as follows:

1. The tower in the classification yard should be near the ladder
first
tracks but on the approach side of the hump, so that spill light or a
separate floodlight, if necessary, illuminates the hump area.
2. Narrow yards may be lighted by single towers located on the center
line.
3. Wide yards should have two towers abreast of each other, each about
one-fourth the yard width from the edges.
4. Tower spacings may follow the general rule of:
1000-2000 feet max.
800-1000 feet max.
—parallel opposing system
— unidirectional system
The relatively long spacing between towers makes it necessary to direct
floodlight beams at acute angles with the ground. To minimize glare and
shadows, high mounting heights are necessary. Except for spacings well
below the maximum values listed above, a height of 90 feet should be
considered as a minimum.
Heavy-duty enclosed cast aluminum floodlights are universally used to
withstand the operating conditions encountered in railroad service.
Freight Terminals
The lighting of outdoor freight ter-
minals without covered platforms is
an application similar to that of rail-
road yards except that the intensities
must, of course, be much higher, A
partial plan view of a typical termi-
nal is shown. Vehicular traffic on the
platform precludes any possibility of
installing poles at locations other
than at the ends. To avoid shadows
thrown by cars standing on the
tracks, it is necessary to place the
FREIGHT TERMINAL
poles in line with each platform.
Mounting heights of from 60 to 80 feet are required, depending on the
average length of throw. Heavy-duty floodlights are recommended, as
for other railroad service.
Shipways
Floodlighting for shipbuilding ways usually consists of providing a
general illumination of adequate intensity over the entire way by mounting
the units at an adequate height along both sides.
When the ways are paralleled by trestles for traveling cranes, the girders
11—9
—
rust below the track make ideal locations for mounting the floodlights.
The general illumination so provided may be supplemented by several
additional floodlights on the crane arm or its support, lighting the par-
ticular area over which the crane is working.
Another type of way construction is frequently employed. Here tracks

parallel the ways on each side for railway cranes and cars to move the
parts used in construction. Pole locations required for the floodlights are
necessarily limited to points where they do not interfere with the cranes,
making it necessary to design each
. particular application according to
Q n n Q Q the yard layout.
'"'^"^ '^^"^
'}_
_'î"^_^_'^^'[ i Shipways are provided with elec-
/'
~"^v 1 trical distribution systems with
V^ y \
I
weatherproof receptacles at intervals
^^^ making connections to electrically
1 RAiLWAYS^^=^7 operated tools. The general lighting
^
/ may therefore be supplemented by
/ "'v / lights on portable stands, which be-
V^^ ^
X / come necessary at some points as
.V. x\s vTr 77/ w /
the hull construction approaches its
— ^tf ^tf^" ^W # — • fi^^^lstages and parts of the interior

are in shadow.
SHIPWAYS FLOODLIGHTING t^.î i i , /v/v/^
iLither open or closed 1,000- or
1,500- watt wide beam floodlights are
employed for this application. The units should be mounted at least 60
feet high, on trestles or poles, spaced at not over 1}^ times the mounting
height.
Storage and Handling of Materials

The number of floodlights are to be calculated on an area and average
footcandle basis.
Depending on the size and distribution of materials which are to be

handled and identified at night, two methods may be used to floodlight
the storage yard. The first, for smaU or average areas, is by means of
standard crosslighting from banks
of 2 floodlights each on 25- to 40-foot
poles along the sides of the yard. The
second, where large yards are in-
volved, is by means of higher mount-
ed (50 to 70 feet) banks of four or
more floodlights to cover large areas
and large materials.
Mounting height and pole spacing
will depend on depth and width of
spaces between material piles, choice
of pole locations being such as to
minimize aisle shadows. Poles must
^——— X X X n — — — — —X—
x-GU< x X X
not interfere with truck aisles, etc.,
for handling materials. Although
. . - ,
,
general purpose floodlights will prove
satisfactory, the heavy-duty type is recommended for permanent installa-
tions.
11—10
Protective Lighting — Protection as well as utilitarian light is provided

in some plants by floodlighting the entire area. Where it is not practicable
much area the illumination may be confined to the
or necessary to light so
perimeter of the property. The use of proper equipment will allow the
guards to observe approaching trespassers without being seen. In addition
to the various types of equipment shown below projector lamps may be
employed.
Repre- Light Hori-

Load
sentative
Equip-
Distri-
Mounting Lamp aEontal
Watts
Application ment bution Data Size
Ft-c
per Ft.
(Linear)
300-watt or 2,4
10' inside
60004unien
fence, 25'
high, 125' 500-watt
apart. or 10000- .31 4.0
lumen
Directly 300-watt or ,20 2,4

over 6000- lumen
fence» 25'
high, 125' 500-watt
or 10000- .34 4.0
apart.
lumen
15'-20' 300-watt or .30 2.4
inside 6000- lumen
fence, 20'
high, 125' 500-watt
apart. or 100000- 4,0
lumen
4'-5'
A behind
fence, 30'
high, 300'
to 400'
apart.
On
500-watt
1000-watt
.20
.30
3.3
buildings 200.
25' to 50'
y|v ^
high, 100'
to
1000-watt
.25
to 200'
apart.
FLOODLIGHTING DESIGN NOTES

Color — Itusually desirable to experimentally determine the exact
is
amount of colored light necessary for any particular application. Typical
commercial filters used with 150-watt projector lamps will produce the
following percentages of the illumination obtained with no filter.
Amber 57% Red 13%
Green 32% Blue 9%
Mercury Floodlighting —This type of floodlighting finds
its greatest
application in gas station lighting and certain types of decorative flood-
lighting, being particularly effective on lawns and shrubbery because of
its distinctive blue-green color. Its color and low operating cost are the
chief advantages of mercury lighting.
Fluorescent Floodlighting —Being an extended source of low bright-

ness, the fluorescent lamp does not lend
itself to the projection of light for
long distances, and for outdoor applications is further hampered by diffi-
culty in starting in cold weather. However, it does produce colored light
very efficiently. For further details, see Chapter Three,
11—11
ARCHERY
The floodlight provides visibility
of the arrow throughout flight.
10'
a HI /\ t ti / 1 //>/ 1 n I // / 1 inJ nii 1 1 im / It lih) hh i/ U

i\
DlSTAhJCE
BADMINTON
Outdoor
Lighted from pules lucated at
the net. o
< -> °
Indoor
Lighted by suspeusiou type o i
industrial difl'using units along
the sidelines.
BASEBALL
The level of illumination is de-

termined by the class of play.
^^0^@
11—12
SPORTS LIGHTING
FlcKidlighta Per Target

1 Enclosed, Beam Spread 12*' to 20*"
2 PAR-38 Projector Spots
1 PAR-38 Projector Flood
Lamps For Enclosed Floodlight
250-Watt G.30 Bulb Up to 30 yards
500- Watt G-40 Bulb 30 yards to 50 yards
1000- Watt G-40 Bulb 50 yards to 100 yards
PAR.38
150- WattProjector Flood
150-Watt Projector Spot
Mounting Height Enclosed Floodlight 10 Feet Above Ground
PAR-38 Flood on Same Pole 8 Feet Above Ground
PAR-38 Spots on Ground About 10 Feet in Front of
and on Either Side of Target
Poles One per Target
Outdoor
Floodlights 4 per Court* Closed or Open Type, Beam Spread
65° or More
Lamps *750-Watt General Service PS-52 Clear Bulb
Load 3.0 to 3.5 Kw per Court
Mounting Height 25 Feet

Poles 2 per Court
Indoor
Equipment 500-Watt Glassteel Diffusers, 6 per Court
Lamps •500- Watt General Service PS-40 Bulb
Load Single Court 3.0 to 3.5 Kw

Double Court 4.5 to 5.2 Kw
Mounting Height 20 to 25 Feet
Mtg. Hgt. to
No. of Kwat Top of Towers Distribution of
1500-Watt 10% or Poles FloodUghts
Class Floodlights Overvoltage (Feet)
Major Poles % Units

League 750 1305 150
AAA & 1. 2, 5,
10%
AA 400 696 120 6,7,8
A&B 240 418 100

3&4 20%
C&D 160 278 80
Lamps *1500-Watt
Semi-Pro 120 209 80 .
General Serv-
tce PS-52
Minimum 100 174 60-80 Clear Bulb
* For under 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.
For over 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 5% overvoltage.
11—13
BASKETBALL
+ + +
If ceiling is lownr than 20 feet
more units on closer spacing
should be used and recessed in
the ceiling if possible.
f^ ^
^
I
-
^
+ + +
BILLIARDS
In large commercial parlors

where a number of tables are
installed, general illuminationof
high intensity proves more satis-
factory than individual lumi*
naires over each table.
BOWLING ALLEYS
Luminaires should he positioned -f D-

so as to provide even illumina-
tion along the alley with higher
intensity on the pins. Behind
the foul line any type of general
area lighting equipment may be
H^ Tt
employed.
11—14
SPORTS LIGHTING
Floodlights 28 per Court, Deep Buwl Medium Spread Reflectors

Mounted on Ceiling or Cirdera
Lamps 750- Watt General Service PS-52 Bulb
Load 21 Kw per Court
Mounting Height On Ceiling
Equipment 2 Two-Lamp Fluorescent Fixtures witb Louvers
Lamps 40- Watt T-12 White Fluorescent
Load 200 Watts
Mounting Height 9 Feet —Above Floor
Equipment 6 Two Lamp Asymmetric Type Fluorescent

Units 4 Feet Long
300- Watt R-40 Reeector Floods Over Pins
Lamps 40- Watt T-12 White Fluorescent
l4>«d 1200 Watts per Pair of Alleys
Mounting Height 9 Feet Minimum
11—15
WESTINGIIOUSE LIGHTING HANDBOOK
BOXING
'b—6- -6" "0—6^ r6"""o"'6""o[l 0^

00000 !o
;
The class <>f bout will determine 00000

the level of illumination. 00000 jo
i
!
..q_o_o..p_.p^ !o^__o___o oi| 1 •
i- i
CROQUET
V y ^
Equipment located in this man- D D
ner provides an adequate in-
a
tensity for recreational play* D t)
t>
\.
1- 60' Ir
FOOTBALL
Where open-type floodlights are used it is desirable to use hard glass lamps to prevent
breakage in bad weather.
'W/JM/m/A
75 OR O/ER—J /
y
•
•
y
/
/
r r
30-75'
-|
z
H 60'
/
//
ISO'
r 15-30'
§40'
L r, f,
mmm/M,
40' 70'
distance: from StOE LINES
100' 130' 160'
11—16
SPORTS LIGHTING
Load Equipment Deep Bowl Medium

No. of Spread Reflectors
Plan Unit. lOOO-W 1500.W
110% 110%
Lamps •1000- Watt or 1500-
A 25 29 kw 44 kw Watt General
Service PS-52
B 16 19 kw 28 kw
Bulb
C 9 11 kw 16 kw Mounting Height 20 Feet.
Floodlights 4 per Court, Open or Closed Floodlights, Wide Beam
Lamps 300-Watt or 500- Watt General Service PS Clear Bulb
Load 1.2 Kw or 2 Kw per Court
Mounting Height 20 to 25 Feet Above Ground
Floodlights 1500- Watt Kw at 10%

Distance from No. of Over-
Oasa Sideline Poles Units per Pole Total Units Voltage
30' or less 10 12 120 208
A 30' to 75' 8 16 128 223
75' or more 6 24 144 250
30* or less 10 8 80 139
B 30' to 75' 8 12 96 167
75' or more 6 18 108 188
30' or less 10 6 60 104

C 30' to 75' 8 9 72 125
75' or more 6 14 84 146
30' or less 10 4 40 70
Minimum 30' to 75' 8 6 48 84
75' or more 6 9 54 94
Distance from Sideline 30' or less 30' to 60' 60' to 90' 90' or more
Beam Spread 65° or more 40° to 65° 25° to 40° 10° to 25°
Lamps 1500- Watt General Service PS.52 Clear Bulb
'
For under 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.
For over 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 5% overvoltage.
11—17
GOLF DRIVING RANGE
The floodlights should be direct-

ed so as to provide illumination
on the ball throughout its flight.
HOCKEY, OUTDOOR
This layout covers the lighting

of an outdoor area used for
amateur play. Professional in-
door hockey requires higher
levels of illumination and is
usually taken care of by the
regular lighting in the field-
house.
HORSESHOE PITCHING COURT

I bT
40'
'Td~— f]
J_l
Floodlights should be directed
across courts to prevent direct
glare from lumiuaires.
m :
ra
^L. ic
11—18
SPORTS LIGHTING
Floodlishu A One 1500- Watt, Beam Spread 65** or More

B One ISOO-Watt. Beam Spread 25° to 40°
C Three 1000- Watt, Beam Spread 10° to 25°
Lampa 1500- Watt General Service PS-S2 Clear Bulb

1000- Watt Floodlight Service G.40 Clear Bulb
Load 7.5 Kw per Pole
Mounting Height 30 Feet Above Ground
Pole* One for Every 50 Feet of Width
Floodlight* 16 1500- Watt, Beam Spread 65® or More

4 1000-Watt, Beam Spread 25° to 40° (Marked
"X'* on Drawing)
Lamps *1500-Watt General Service PS.52 Clear Bulb

•1000-Watt General Service PS.52 Clear Bulb
Load 32.5 Kw (10% Overvoltage)

30.2 Kw 5% Overvoltage)
(
Pole* 8
Floodlights Beam Spread 65" or More

2 Required for 1 to 3 Courts
4 Required for 4 to 8 Courti
Lamps 500- Watt General Service PS-52 Clear Bulb for 1 to

3 Courts
1000-Watt General Service PS'52 Clear Bulb for 4 to
8 Courts
Load 1 to 4 Kw
Mounting Height 20 Feet above Ground
Poles 2 or 4 A and D for 1 to 3 Courts

A, B, C, D for 4 to 8 Courts
*
For under 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 10 % overvoltage.
For over 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 5 % overvoltage.
11—19
ICE SKATING RINK
The design suggested produces

satisfactory illumination for rec-
reational skating on an outdoor
pond.
RACETRACKS
The lighting equipment should

he 80 positioned and directed as
to keep glare and shadows at a
minimum.
SIIUFFLEBOARD
Similar equipment should be

installed for each court where
multiple courts exist. ^ -K^z-
eJfeMd-a'la'la'ja']*—
-\4h'~
iêV-
_L
n—20
SPORTS LIGHTING
Floodlights Beam Spread 65** or More
Lamps 1500- Watt General Service PS-52 Clear Bulb
Load 0.25 Watts per Square Foot of Area
Mounting Height
Spacing
Poles Spacing Not to Exceed 4 Times the Mounting Height
Floodlights Narrow Beam Enclosed Type Floodlight with

Horizontal Spread Lens. For wide tracks use stip-
pled lens
Lamps •1500-Watt General Service PS.52 Qear Bulb
Load Varies with Track Size
Mounting Data 40 Feet High and 20 Feet Inside Inner Side of Track
Floodlights 3 Medium Spread Glassteel DiCFusera
Lamps 500- Watt General Service PS40 Bulb
Load 1.5 Kw
• For under 200 hours' use per year, operate lamps at 10 % overvoltage.
11—21
SKEET SHOOTING
^.,-u CROSSING POINT OF TAF8SETS LCW
HOUSE
Floodlights beami are selected

to provide uniform coverage to
prevent an apparent variation
in bird speed.
SKI SLOPE
300'T0 400' H* 300'TO 400'-^-- 300fTO4OO'*| 1
*I* A 0-^3
To minimize glare the
7^ 6
7^^
larger lamps should be
directed down the slope.
.2^ ALTERNATE
POLE LOCATION
^
SOCCER
*- 75 OR OVER /
5 '00' /
/
^ 80' ./
60' y
/
p
r r -30-75H
/
§ 40' /
15-30' /
1. 1.
100' 140' teO' 220' 260'
DISTANCE FROM CENTER LINE
11—22
SPORTS LIGHTING
Floodlights 4 Enclosed 1000- Watt, Beam Spread 50° or More and
8 Enclosed 500- Watt, Beam Spread 65° or More
Lamps 4 *1000-Watt General Serrice PS-52 Clear Bulb

B *500-Watt General Service PS-40 Clear Bulb
Load 11.6 Kw at 10% Overvoltage

Focusing
Yisor sbields ahould be
provided for the eidea of Floodlight Direction Elevation
Floodlights C and D next
to the firing poBitions.
£ 10° Left 18° Up
F 5° Left 29° Up
Floodlights E to M may G 30° Right 43° Up
be shielded by shrubbery. HJKL Straight 45° Up
M 30° Left 55° Up
Floodlights 500- Watt, Beam Spread 50° or More

1000.Watt» Beam Spread 50° or More
1500-Watt, Beam Spread 50° or More
Lamps 500, 1000. and 1500-Watt General Service PS Clear

Bulb
Load 0.03Watts per Sq. Ft. of Area (1 Watt UphUl for

Every 2 Watts Downhill)
Mounting Height Not Less Than 1/10 the Spacing of the Floodlights
Floodlights Total
Distance LoadKw
From No. of (10%
Sideline Poles Units per Total Over-
FloodlighU
Pole Units voltage)
30' or lest 10 8 80 139

30' to 75' 8 12 96 167
75' or more 6 18 108 188
Distance from Sideline or less 30' to 60' 60^ to 90^

25* to 40°
W or
10' to 25"
More
Beam Spread or more 40" to 65*
Lamps 1500-Watt General Service PS-52 Clear Bulb
* For under 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.
11—23
SOFTBALL—CLASS A & B
The distaace to the poles in the

outfield is determined hy the size
of the field.
'5
I
V^
14"
L.
fe-T
SOFTBALL—AMATEUR—CLASS C
5e«
The distance to the poles in the

<^
outfield is determined by the size
>«P
of the field.
1^
IS&li^j]
P
^ gS'
30-.
. I 15-
L
SWIMMING POOL—UNDERWATER FLOODLIGHTS
Floodlighting equipment maj be

located behind water-tight glass
plates in the wall of the pool or
be of waterproof construction
and locatedin niches in side of
pool. ':^\~
11—24
SPORTS LIGHTING
Outfield
Distance 200' or less 200' to 240' 240^10 280'
Pole
Class A ClassB Class A OassB Class A Class B 1
Number 1-2 3-4 5-6 1-2 3^ 5-6 1-2 3-4 5-6 1-2 3-4 5-6 1-2 3-4 5-6 1-2 3-4 5-6
7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8
Mounting
Height 40' 40' 60' 40' 40' 60' 40' 40' 60' 40' 40' 60' 40' 40^ 60' 40' 40' 60'
No. of 1500.
Watt Units 2 4 3 2 3 2 3 5 5 2 4 3 4 8 6 3 6 4
Per Pole
Total Units 24 18 36 24 48 34
Kw Load
(10% Over. 42 Kw 31 Kw 63 Kw 42 Kw 84 Kw 59 Kw
voltage)
Note: Supplementary corner poles arc recommended to carry overhead wires
around boundary rather than across playing field.
Outfield 150' or ISC' to

Distance "X" Less 200'
Floodlights Closed or Open
1-2 1-2
Type, Beam Pole Number 3-4 5-6 3-4 5-6
Spread 65° or
More Mounting Height 40' 40' 40' 40'
No. of 1500-Watt
2 2 2 3
Lamps 1500-Watt General Units per Pole
Service PS-52 Total Units 12 14
Clear Bulb
Kw Load 21 Kw 24 Kw
(10% Overvoltage)
Recom- •B' (Ft. Max.) 'E' (In.)

mended Siwsof 'A'
Loca. Lamp (Ft.) Where Where (Ft.)
tion
Watts
Per Sq. Ft. 'D' =5' + 'D' =5' — Min. Max.
of
Pool Good Mini-
Prac- mum 250-Watt\ 4 8 10 5 12 15
tice 400-Watt/
Outdoors 3 1.5 500- Watt]

1000-Watt 6 12 15 7H 18 24
Indoors 5 3.0 1500- Watt
* For under 200 hours* use per year* operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.
11—25
SWIMMING POOL—OUTDOOR—OVERHEAD
FLOODLIGHTS
The water as well as the sur-

rounding area should he illumi-
nated.
TENNIS— SINGLE COURT
"T
Illumination must he uniform
and directed suflTieiently high *-2r-i
36'
to provide even illumination
on the hall during Sight.
L._..,,J/. ^_.i^d.
120'-
TENNIS—DOUBLE COURTS OR MULTIPLES OF

TWO COURTS
ff T
Illumination must be uniform
and directed sufficiently high to 1
I2'MIN.
provide even illumination on the
ball during flight.
T
a ^
^ » 6'MIN.
-V*-
11—26
SPORTS LIGHTING
Fioodlighta Closed or Open Type, Beam Spread 50° or More, or

Ornamental Standards
Spacing Not to Exceed 4 Times Mounting Height
Lamps 500- or 1000- Watt General Service PS Bulb
Load Watts per Square Foot Including Fool Area

Good Practice — 1.B5
Minimum— 0.5
MoudUhk Height Conventional Floodlights —25 to 30 Feet

Ornamental Standards — 18 to 20 Feet
FToodlight* Amateur Play — 8. Beam Spread 65° or More
Lamp* •1000- Watt General Service PS-52 Clear Bulb
Load Amateur Play—8.6 or 9.3 Kw (5% or 10% Over-

voltage)
Professional Play—13.9 Kw (at 10% Overvoltage
Pole* Amateur Play —

Professional Play—
Professional or Tournament Play Should Have 4 Ad-
ditional Poles and FloodUghts at Points A. B, G
and D.
Floodlights Amateur Play — 8, Beam Spread 65* or More

Professional Play — 12, Beam Spread 65** or More
Load Amateur Play— 13.0 or 13.9 Kw (5% or 10% Over-

voltage)
Professional Play —20.9 Kw (10 % Overvoltage)
PoIm Amateur Play —

Professional Play —
Professional or Tournament Play Should Have 4 Ad-
ditional Poles and Floodlights at Points A, B, C
andD
operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.

For over 200 hours* use per year operate lamps at 5% overvoltage.
11—27
TABLE TENNIS
In professional play three unitt

gbould be employed, one over
the center and one about two
feet beyond each end of the
table.
TRAPSHOOTING
Wide beam lloodUghtB are de- ^

sirable to provide uniform
>^
coverage to prevent an ap-
25'
Kr-^^-
parent V aria lion in bird speed.
"J^xN
VOLLEY BALL—OUTDOOR
J\
This design provides sufficient

illumination for recreational
play.
60'-
11—28
SPORTS LIGHTING
Equipment 2-Lamp RLM Fluoreicent Fixtures with Louvers
Lamps 40- Watt T-12 White Floorescent
Load 200 Watts
Mounting Height 3 to 4 Feet Above Table
Floodiight* 8. Beam Spread 18" to 35"
Lamps *1000'Watt General Service PS-S2 Clear Bulb
Load 8.6 or 9.3 Kw
Poles S
Floodlights 4, Beam Spread dS" or More
Lamps 500-Watt General Service PSÔ Clear Bulb
Load 2Kw
Mounting Height 20 to 25 Feat Above Ground
Poles 2
• For under 200 hours* use per year, operate lamps at 10% overvoltage.
For over 200 hourfl* use per year, operate lamps at 5 % overvoltage.
11—29
CHAPTER TWELVE
STREET LIGHTING
Good street and highway lighting, often termed "Traffic Safety Light-
ing," not only promotes safer conditions for drivers but provides greater
safety for pedestrians as well. It enhances the community value of a street
by its attractive appearance, which is usually reflected in higher properly
values. Well-lighted streets also act as a deterrent to criminal activity.
In order to achieve truly effective street lighting it is essential that the

installation be well planned. Planned street lighting should follow the
"Recommended Practice of Street and Highway Lighting" of the Illumi-
nating Engineering Society, and will involve the following considerations:
1. Traffic classification of the street.
2. Determination of the proper lighting intensity for the street classification.

3. Selection of luminaires according to the light distribution needed for
the street.
4. Determination of the mounting height of the luminaire above the road

surface and the proper linear spacing between luminaires.
Each step follows the preceding one in logical order, and the following
tablesand charts will assist in the accurate planning of an installation.
1. Street classification
A traflSc classification should be made of all streets so that the lighting
system design will be in keeping with the particular needs of each street
or highway. The table shows
the vehicular traffic volume
Classification Vehicles classification recommended by
of Traffic per Hour
the Street Lighting Committee
Very Ligbt Traffic Under 150 of the Institute of Traffic Engi-
Light Traffic 150- 500
neers.
Medium Traffic 500-1200
Fleavy Traffic 1200-2400 It is recommended that all
Very Heavy Traffic 2400-4000
HeavicBt Traffic Over 4000 streets be further classified by
the volume of pedestrian traffic
•Maximum night hour ia both directions. during the night hours of maxi-
mum usage:
—
Light or no pedestrian traffic as on streets in residential or in
most warehouse areas, on express, elevated or depressed roadways or on
open highways.
—
Medium pedestrian traffic as on secondary business streets and
on some industrial streets.
Heavy pedestrian trajflic— as on business streets.
2. Lighting intensity
The proper lighting intensity for each street classification may be de-
termined from the following chart.
12—1
STREET LIGHTING
RECOMMENDED AVERAGE HORIZONTAL FOOTCANDLES

(LUMENS PER SQUARE FOOT) FOR URBAN STREETS
Vehicular Traffic Classirication
Very Light Light Medium Heavy to

Pedestrian Traffic Heaviest
(Under 150) (150-500) (500^1200)
(1200 Up)
Heavy 0.8 1.0 1.2

Medium 0.6 0.8 1.0
Light orNone 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
These recommended footcandle levels are the minimum average values

on the roadway between curbs. The lowest intensity at any point should
not be less than one-fourth of these values. The figures given above are
based on favorable pavement reflectance of the order of 10%. When the
reflectance is low (3% or less) the illumination recommended should be
increased 50%. When the reflectance is unusually high (20% or more)
the recommended values may be decreased 25%.
3. Selection of luminaire
Luminaires should be selected according to their pattern of light dis-
tribution, so as to conform not only to the light intensity required, but to
the physical characteristics of the street to be lighted. Five typical candle-
power distribution types showing lateral distribution in the 75° maximum
cone are given below:
TYPE I LUMESfAIRE
Two-Way Distribution
Intended for luminaire mounting
approximately over the center of the
street. It projects two beams of
light in opposite directions along the
street, their axis being parallel with
the curb line.
TYPE II LUMINAIRE C-WAY

Narrow Asymmetric Distribution
at or near the side of the street. It
provides narrow distribution, having
a lateral width up to approximately
25° in the cone of maximum candle-
power.
TYPE III LUMINAIRE B-WAY

Medium Width Asymmetric
Distribution
at or near the side of the street but
having a lateral width up to approx-
imalely 45° in the maximum cone.
It is intended for wide streets.
12—2
—
TYPE IV LUMINAIRE A-WAY

Wide Asymmetric Distribution
wider laterally than type III.
Still
The width is about 90° in the cone
of maximum candlepower at approxi-
mately 75''. Intended for use on
widest streets.
TYPE V LUMINAIRE
Symmetric Distribution
Candlepower in the 75° cone is the
same through 360°. It is useful where
lighting must be installed in center
parkways and to some extent for in-
^ _ ^
tersections.
4. Mounting height and spacing of luminaires

Spacing of typical pendant -mounted luminaires may range from as low
as three times the mounting height to eight times the mounting height.
The table on the next page will assist in determining proper mounting
height and lurainaire spacing, correlated with street width, lamp size, and
specified footcandle values.
UTILIZATION EFFICIENCY CHART

C-W>W TYPE 1
.—
/-" B-W- W TYPE II
/ A-W \Y TYPE V
V
/
^^''
-'-"
/
/ jr-^"
/ .''
/
f
/
/
/
>
'/
.« A- WAY
""'^ZZ--^ B - WAY HOUS SIDE
c^
:
C - WAY
/^
:^-'
k'
2 3
RATIO -STREET WIDTH TO MOUNTING HEIGHT
The typical Utilization Efficiency Chart shown above provides a means
of checking footcandle intensities when other factors such as lamp lumens,
mounting height, street width, and spacing are known.
Lamp lumens x Coeff. of utilization x Maint. factor
^* ' ~~
Spacing x Street width
12—3
STREET LIGHTING
The following table illustrates various combinations of luminaire types,
spacings, and lamp sizes required to provide speciiic footcandle values.
Street Luminaire Approx.

Footcandlea Width Lamp Distribu- Arrange- Mounting
(Feet) Lumens tion ment Height
0.2 30 2500 I Center 25 170

30 2500 11 Staggered 20 165
30 4000 I Center 25 200
40 4000 II Staggered 25 200
40 4000 III Staggered 25 200
0.3 30 4000 I Center 25 180

0.4 40 6000 II Staggered 25 155

50 6000 IV Staggered 25 110
0.5 40 6000 n Staggered 25 125

50 6000 n Staggered 25 110
0.6 50 10000 III Staggered 30 140

60 10000 IV Staggered 25 115
0.7 50 10000 III Staggered 30 120

60 lOOOO IV Staggered 25 95
0.8 SO 10000 III Staggered 30 105

1.0 60 10000 in Staggered 30 75

70 10000 IV Opposite 25 120
80 10000 IV Opposite 25 110
1.2 60 15000 IV Staggered 30 75

70 15000 IV Opposite 30 130
80 15000 IV Opposite 30 120
1.4 60 15000 IV Opposite 30 120

70 15000 IV Opposite 30 110
80 15000 IV Opposite 30 100
1.6 60 15000 IV Opposite 30 105

70 15000 IV Opposite 30 95
80 15000 IV Opposite 30 90
1.8 60 15000 IV Opposite 30 95

70 15000 IV Opposite 30 85
80 15000 IV Opposite 30 80
2.0 60 15000 IV Opposite 30 85

70 15000 IV Opposite 30 75
80 15000 IV Opposite 30 70
12^
^
TYPICAL STREET LIGHTING LAYOUTS
THOROUGHFARES
Light Traffic
1
)' .
—
40'
(150 - 500 Vehicles per Hour)
4000 Lumen Lomps t-

3L.
Mounting Height 25'
Medium Traffic
(500 • 1200 Vehicles per Hour)
115'. 140- H 10.000 lumen Icmps
Mounting HeigM 25' - 30'

±
r
50' -70'
J
— h
(1200
/S'-IOJ-
-
Heavy Traffic
2400 Vehicles per Hour)
T"
Mounluig Height 25' • 30'
r — (2400
Very Heavy Traffic
^
• 4000 Vehicles per Hour}
15,000 Lumen Lompi
i L
Mowt'ing Height 30*
4^
RESIDENTIAL
130' • 160'
Non-Traffic Strectt
5* 2500 L
^
Mounlfaig Height 20' -25'
RETAIL BUSINESS
T Y H 15/}00 Lumen lampi
1 ±_
Mounting Height 30'
4^
12-5
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
AERODROME AND AIRITAY LIGHTI]%'G
The primary purpose of aerodrome and airway Hghtiug is to assist the

pilot of an airpIaDe to determine his position relative to the aerodrome
after dark, to enable him to make a safe landing, and to permit the plane to
be guided into position for efficient handling of passengers and cargo and
to be taxied safely toand from the hangar. The amount of light required
tor these purposesnot always large, but its intensity, direction ana color
is
must of necessity conform with rigid standards.

On the following pages are listed the various items of equipment that
are generally used for aerodrome and airway lighting. Titles and defini-
tions are those standardized by the Provisional International Civil Avia-
tion Organization. The Civil Aeronautics Administration has recognized
the use of these titles in the United States.
The term "aerodrome" includes both airports and airfields, an airport
being defined as any aerodrome at which facilities available to the public
are provided for the shelter, servicing or repair of aircraft, and for receiving
or discharging passengers or cargo. An airfield is any aerodrome other
than an airport. Airports are divided into classes, from I to V, on the
basis of effective runway length. The wing loading and power loading of
the airplanes to be served determines the class of airport required. The
effective landing-strip lengths for the five classes are:
Class 1—1800 to 2700 ft.

Class 11—2700 to 3700 ft.
Class III—3700 to 4700 ft.
Class IV-^700 to 5700 ft.
Class V—5700 ft. and over
The following table lists the minimum recommended lighting facilities

for the five classifications.
REQUIRED LIGHTING EQUIPMENT FOR AIRPORTS

Type of Equipment Class Class Class Class ClaM
I II III IV V
Aerodrome Beacon X X X X X
Identification (Code) Beacon® X X X X X
Boundary and Range Lights® X X X X X
Obetruction Lights X X X X X
Wind Cone X X X X X
Runway and Threshold Lights X X X X
Wind Tee or Tetrahedron X X X
Apron Floodlights X X X
Ceiling Projector and Clinometer X X X
Taiiway Lights X X
Approach Lights (i) X X
® The Identification (Code) Beacon ie required only where one airport must be di»*
tinguished from another nearhy.
® Boundary Lights should be omitted on runway-type fields.
® Approach Lights should be installed for each instrument landing runway.
13—1
1. Aerodrome Beacon
2. Identification Beacon
©-* 3. Boundary Light
4. Threshold Light, Low In-
tensity
5. Obstruction Light
6. Wind Sock
13—2
AERODROME AND AIRWAY LIGHTING
Runway Ltght, Low

tensity
Flaodlights, Landing Area
or Runway
9. Wind Tee
10. Angle of Approach Light,
11. CeOing Projector
12. Taxiway Light, Low In-
tensity
13—3
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all air as gas a

for for
sur- ob- plat- sur-
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etc.,
where etc.,
enable
trans-
build-
obstruc-
mounted
auxilia-
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desig-
such
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V
towers,
Aerodrome
clear landmark.
to
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clear
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platform
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forms,
rounding
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bridge tanks, »
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ings, the Top
ry
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aero-
code.
in
|l
flashes
s *
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t Land drome
flashes
3
code.
^ low
II
115-volt
bi- 115-volt bi- 115-volt 115- A-IS
1000-watt
base.
PS- mogul 115-
bipost screw
prefocus
1000- medium
T.20
medium bipost
medium
115-voit
500-watt
115-volt 25-watt 2—
115-volt or
mogul bulb
or or
bulb
or
30 or 30 mogul base.
medium
IS
base, base.
mogul bulb
bulb
base, ©500-watt
30 bulb
200-watt
or
PS-40
15-watt
or
bl
or bulb A-19
prefocus
©SOO-watt
post post watt

base. base, volt bulb base, volt screw
30 bulb
30
T-20 T-20 T-20
to air re- ex- na-

of so
de-
IS
entire
marking
to and is
n
their unit.
which
adjacent
boundary
hazardous
that
area
a
of i area
special
III as
1
m
obstructions
navigation
circuited
Located
quire
because
tremely
a
Around
landing landing
lineated
p.
ture.
I§g O
or to
a air or to air
type,
designate
dan-
Identification
type,
identify
partic-
sur-
on Landmark
type,
as
land-
an
Obstruction
used
Obstruc-
Beacon
particu-
ob-
to
Light
outline
landing
n
Hazard
hazard
code a serve
type, Lights
hazardous
earth.
extended
of to of
Jl
navigation.
point along
to
to to particular
Rotating
particularly
of navigation.
positively Rotating structions
lieu indicate
Flashing Hazard
Flashing
li
gerous
Used limits
mark route. tion Boundary area.
used used ular face used Marker larly Airfield
Beacon,
an
air Beacon, Beacon, Beacon,
in
0®
13—5
WESTINGUOUSE LIGHTING HANDBOOK
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13—10
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
SIGN LIGHTING
OUTDOOR BULLETINS AND POSTER PANELS

The following diagram and chart present the necessary data for lighting
the standard type of outdoor bulletin and poster boards with individual
elliptical reflectors. For floodlighting these boards with standard flood-
lighting equipment the design methods explained in Chapter Eleven
should be used.
DIMENSIONS
FEET LAMP WATTS
Dark Medium Bright
B Surroundings Surroundings Surroundings
2 to 4 2H 2H 5 50 75 100
5 to 6 3 6 75 100 150
7 to 8 4 3H 6H 100 150 200
9 to 12 5 4 8 150 200 300
13 to 16 6H 5 10 200 300 500
17 to 21 9 13 300 500 750
22 to 25 12 17 500 750 1000
25 to 30 15 10 20 750 1000
EXPOSED-LAMP SIGNS
The proper lamp spacing and lamp wattage in exposed -lamp signs de-
pend upon the height of letter and on the general nature of the surround-
ings, whether light or dark.
Dimensions for the height, width and stroke of the letters and the spac-
ing between them can be determined from the following table for any read-
ing distance.
14—1
-
DISTANCE -FT -lNCHES-

READING Wl DTH - STROKE - SfVC tNC'
SOW n -n "~ ^~~ r— ~ "~ "" ~^'~ '-
nn —
sou ^ FT
4O00
*"*
^^
JOUU '^ >
^^
r~ ^^
1500
^^
1000 o
.-^
^ 7^ "
if^ T n%\ ^
^ c
\ LETTER o - îfz aVz 8'/2
r^
'~_^
^
'
HEIGHT
3 7'^
'
^ '
LETTER
%% z\ 6'''2
-^ STROKE
^ cJ 8
MO -- ^
2'/2 5'-^
ooooool rJ ooocCE^ -
2S0 h'-ETTER-*|.i_J SPACING
2'/2 4%*
2'/2 4
i9 1 i MI H» u s 2 a 46 72
1
08
LU M 120 14*
1
lee
M i«M 1
2MS
_j
2U
240
*SpacinK
Between Letters
LE EF HEIGHT IN INCHES
After the size of the lettering is determined, refer to the table below
for recommended lamp wattages and spacings.
LAMP SPACING AND LAMP WAl 1 AGE FOR EXPOSED-

LAMP SIGNS
Letter Spacing
Height Surround ingi (luches) Wattage
10"-.15" Light 2H 15
Dark 3 10
15"-20" Light 3 25
Dark 10
2'- 3' Light 3 25

Dark 3H 10
3'- 5' Light 3 25

Dark 4 15
5'- 6' Light 3^ 25

Dark 15
6'- 8' Light 4 50

Dark 7 15
8' -10' Light 4 50

Dark 9 15
10' -12' Light 8 50

Dark 12 15
12' -16' Light 10 60

Dark 16 15
16' -20' Light 12 100

Dark 20 15
14—2
SIGN LIGHTING
ENCLOSED-LAMP SIGNS
Enclosed -lamp signs are generally of two types: (1) Translucent letters
inserted in an opaque background; or (2) opaque letters or painted designs
on a glass or plastic background. In each case, the backgrounds are mount-
ed in metal boxes, and illuminated from within by uniforndy spaced lamps.
The design of lighting for an

enclosed sign follows closely the
procedure for designing exterior
architectural luminous elements as
explained in Chapter Ten. The sug-
gested brightness values given in
that chapter apply also to en-
closed signs.
3u GROUND CU *5Sy
// .^-
^
•"
r y.^
if" ,^
|3 "
"^ ^ -
// ^ <J ^r
SI \
'
.
i3 eo >*L
CRILU
1
y^
^^^
r^
^
6 2 » 20
S - SPM.lt'IC IN KICH£S KTWrE£N LAMP LCM-m
LAMP WA'ri'AGE FOR ENCLOSED SIGN

LAMPS SPACED 6" ON CENTERS
Greatest Viewing
Distance (Feet) Surroundings WatU
50- 75 Light 40
Dark 10-15
75-100 Light 40
Dark 15
100-150 Light 50
Dark 15
150-200 Light 60
Dark 15
200-300 Light 75
Dark 25
300^00 Light 75
Dark 25
400-500 Light 75
Dark 25
14—3
fhiy.,^ X:^ f 1 luminauon on the glass background depends on

°^}^'' S>«^«' the distance of the lamps behind
the glass, and the ^^T^-
hr!l««°^Viif reflection factor of the interior of the
box. The chart
hows the spacing of lamps and the distance
between the light center of
'""^ *.'"' ^'''1'°/ acceptable uniformity of
brightness for flashed
oâl3' or etched glass This spacing also applies to continuous
rowl nf
rows of fluorescent lamps. As the message
fl^
on the average sign covers an-
proxmiatey 50 per cent of the background,
greater brfghtness varlatbn
IS permissible than in
Luminous Element Design without decreasing
the
°''^' ^' ^P'«<=t•<=-• S"ide. S should equal 1.5D, wVere
I equals
S eari!"th'
the spacing"f°- between lamps and D equals the distance to glass
SILHOUETTE SIGNS
Silhouette signs consist of translucent
(often colored) or opaque letters
SXn r ^r^"- P'^T*^ '°

^'r' °' " ''™'°°"« bacfcgrouSd^ Variable'
brightness, changing colors, and specular
or configurated oacKgrounas
backgrounds add
variety and interest to this type of
sign.
""«t .consider that the brightness of the background

afiwAh""®"" may
^.'^"-^ °^ the strokes of the sign letters or even
ttLÂT-V'^f ' of a decorative design due to irradiation effect.
obscure
?s li nr
18 less pronounced if the surrounding
illumination
This effect
is relatively high!
"^^ p-p'" '^•' •"«- '- •"•^«<'"-

visifiiuf;nh7dScrshoti''' "
^°^ concealment in silhouette signs are subject to the same
^pn.Tf^''^-""^
"' ^"^^ Lighting," and reference should be
made L rrt''"^"'P''; for suggestions on design procedure.
It must be
Te^mVZr^Fu
remembered that! greater freedom in lamp concealment
and location
is possible for interior signs
of this
type; exterior signs must have the
lamps properly shielded from ad-
verse weather conditions.
LETTER HEIGHT AND

VIEWING DISTANCE FOR
SILHOUETTE SIGNS
(Background Brigfatneu of
100—250 Footlambecti)
Viewing Dittanctt Letter Height
200' 5"
400' 8"
600' 12"
800' 16"
1000' 20"
14r-4
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
THE COST OF LIGHTING
Total cost of light can be computed by assembling all of the factors of

both fixed and operating charges which apply to any particular installa-
tion. The total thus obtained may serve either as a comparison of the
cost of light with other elements of production, or as a comparison of
various lighting systems.
In comparing dissimilar lighting systems, such as direct and indirect,

it is impossible to evaluate the quality factor from a dollar-and-cents
standpoint. Therefore it is desirable to compare the cost of installations

on the basis of equal levels of illumination of the same quality. The
results thus obtained are a more reliable guide as to the best light source
and type of luminaire to employ for a given installation.
There are several other factors which affect or are affected by the light-
ing installation. The reflection factors of wall and ceiling surfaces are
quite important, especially in connection with lighting systems which
direct a preponderance of the light to the ceiling. It is difficult, however,
to assign any portion of the expense of maintaining these surfaces to light-
ing cost, since in most cases they are cleaned or repainted to improve the
appearance as well as to improve the illumination.
Air-conditioning equipment, while usually purchased independently of

the lighting equipment, must have the capacity necessary to remove the
heat produced by the light sources. Any increase in its capacity caused
by a difference in efficiency of light sources should therefore be included
in the cost of lighting. The additional operating cost of this increased
capacity should also be considered in the comparison of two lighting sys-
tems. Since there are many installations where air conditioning is not a
factor, it is not ordinarily included in a cost-analysis form.
Many of the figures used in cost analyses should be secured from some-
one familiar with the operation and accounting procedure of the business
for which the analysis is being prepared. Variation in depreciation methods,
borrowing power, cleaning and lamp replacement practices, and power
cost, if not correctly estimated, can lead to erroneous results. Some busi-
nesses are able to finance projects at much lower rates than others. The
number of years in which an investment in lighting equipment is to be
written off will depend to a large extent on company accounting procedure.
The cost of luminaire cleaning and lamp replacement will vary with the
kind of labor used and whether or not the lamps are replaced on a group
basis. It is well to take advantage of the experience of the customer in
arriving at the estimates for these items. In all cases the figures used for
each item should be those that apply to the specific conditions encountered
in the particular installation.
I5~l
TYPICAL COST-ANALYSIS FORM
FIXED CHARGES Lighting Lighting

Method § 1 Method #2
L Number of lumioaires
2. Approximate cost of each lumiaaire

Net price lest lamiit
3. Approximate cost of additional accessories

4. Estimated cost of wiring per luminaire
This includes all wiring materials such as conduit,
wire and fittings, and the labor necessary to install
the iviring and fixtures. This figure wiM vary
greatly, depending on the number and type of
units, accesaibihty, type of conetruotion, etc.
Panels, feeders and transformers, if necessary,
should be proportioned in this cost.
5. Complete installation cost per luminaire

Sum of Lines 2, $ and 4
6. Total installation cost
Line 1 x Line 5
7. Depreciation per year (

The proportion of the initial
% of Line 6)
expenditure to be
written off each year is dependent upon the nature
of the business. In considering industrial plants,
where fixture styles change infrequently, 10% or
less may be used. The motifs of commercial estab-
lishments change frequently, and the depreciation
factor may approach 20%. The purchaser should
be oonsalted.
8. Interest, taxes and insurance ( % of

line 6)
The interest rate will vary with the company*s
borrowing power, and existing financial market
conditions. Taxes and insurance are a function
of property valuation, location and type of busi-
ness. The sum may vary from 7 to 10% per year.
9. Total Annual Fixed Charges

Sum of Lines 7 and H
OPERATING CHARGES
Lamps—
10. Total number of lamps
IL Lamp life in hours
12. Lamp cost — net

13. Labor cost to renew each lamp
14. Total cost to renew one lamp
Sum of Lines 12 and 13
15—2
THE COST OF LIGHTING
TYPICAL COST-ANALYSIS FORM— (Cont.)
OPERATING CHARGES (Cont.) Lighting

Method § I Method #2
15. Renewals per year

Line 10 x Operating houra
Lamp Life
16. Annual cost of lamp renewals

Line 14 x Line IS
Cleaning Cost —
17. Cleaning frequency per year
18. Cost of cleaning per luminaire
19. Annual cost of cleaning

Line 1 x Line 17 x Line 18
20. Minor repairs and replacements

Glatsware, ballasts, startere, soeketa, etc., per year
21. Total maintenance cost per year

Power Cost—
22. Watts per luminaire (including auxiliaries)
23. Annual Kwh used

Line 22 x Line 1 x Operating hours
1000
24. Annual power cost (Line 23 x |S Power

rate)
25. Total Annual Operating Charges

Sum of Lines 16, 21 and 24
26. TOTAL ANNUAL COST

OF LIGHTING*
27, Cost per sq. ft.
28. Cost per footcandle
* Where light sources which vary markedly in their heat production are heing considered
in connection with air-conditioned areas« the annual depreciation and operating charges
or the additional air •conditioning capacity required should be added to this cost.
15—3
CONVERSION EQUIVALENTS
Distance
1 inch =2.54 ceutimetera 1 kilometer = 0.6214 miles
Circumference of circle = ttD (tt = 3.1416, D = diameter)
Circumference = 27r radians
1 radian = the arc whose length is equal to the radius = 57.3° of angle
Area
1 sq inch = 6.452 sq centimeters Area of sphere = 7rD2
Area of triangle = Y^ altitude x hase
Area of trapezoid = J^ (sum of
Area of circle = ^
4
= 0.7854 D^
parallel sides) x altitude
Volume
1 cubic inch = 16.39 cubic cm = 0.01639 liters
1 cubic yard = 0.7645 cubic meters 1 cubic meter = 35.32 cubic ft
Volume of sphere = ^^ = 0.5236 D^

Volume of cone = area of base x 1/3 altitude = 1.0472 r%
Energy —Power
1 watt = 0.00134 horsepower 1 kilowatthour = 3414 Btu
1 joule = 1 watt-second = 0.738 ft-lb 1 horsepower-hour = 2544 Btu
1 ft-lb per second = 0.001818 horsepower
1 horsepower = 746 watts = 33,000 ft-lb per min = 550 ft-lb per second
Heat— Temperature
1 Btu = =
778 ft-lb 0.00039 hp-br 1 Btu per min 17.6 watts =
1 Btu =
252 calories (gram) 1 calorie 0.003968 Btu =
1 Btu =
heat required to raise 1 pound water 1 degree F
1 calorie =
heat required to raise 1 gram water 1 degree C
Degrees Centigrade = 5/9 (°F— 32)
Degrees Fahrenheit = 9/5 (°C) +32
Degrees Kelvin = °C +273
Light
1 lux = l lumen
per square meter = 0.0929 footcandles
1 candle per sq in. =452 footlamberts
1 lambert = 929 footlamberts = 2.054 candles per sq in.
1 stilb = 1 candle per sq cm = 6.452 candles per sq in.
Mean spherical candlepower =
Miscellaneous
1 in. mercury = 0.491 lb per sq in.
1 atmosphere = 14.69 lb per sq in. =29.92 in. H£ = 33,9 ft water
1 year = 8760 hours (365 days)
Formula for parabola: y^ = 4ax Formula for ellipse: — +^ = 1

a^ b^
INDEX
Aerodrome and Airway Lighting — 13-1
Air Conditiomng .3-41, 4-11, 15-1
Airport Lighting. 13-1
Arehitectural Lighting 10-1
Ballasts-
Fluorescent Lamp 3-29, 6-24
Mercury Vapor Lamp 3-21, 6-24
Bank Lighting. 8-24

Bases, Lamp 3-4, 3-28
Brightness^
Architectural Elementt 10-3, 10-6
Factor in Glare 4-2
Fluorescent Lamps 3-39
Light Sources. 4-3
Meters. 2-10
Primary Factor in Seeing 1-6
Ratios 4-4
Units and Measurements. 2-4» 2-10
Bulbs, Lamp 3-2
Candle per Square Inch 2-4

Candlepowet^ 2-2
Curves for Projector and Reflector Lamps 6-30
Distribution Curves. 2-11
Church Lighting .
8-26
Coefficient of Utilization 6-1, 6-6, 12-3
Coloi—
Color Matching
2-1, 4-<>, 4-14
4-16, 8-1
Efifect of Colored Light 4-16
Effect of General lUuminants ,4-17
Fluorescent Lamps 3-27, 3-38
In Floodlighting 11-11
In Store Lighting 8-4
Mercury Lamps 3-24
Color Temperature 2-2, 4-16
Contrast 1-6, 4-3, 4-18
Cost-
Lamp 3-2, 3-10
Lighting 15-1
Cove Lighting 10-1, 10-4
Diffusion 4-5
Direct Lighting 4-8
Direct-Indirect Lighting 4-7
Distribution Curves— 2-11
Projector and Reflector Lamps 6-30
Street Lighting Luminaires 12-2
Drafting Room Lighting .8-14
Efficiency^
Lamp 3-1. 3-5, 3-8
Luminaire 2-12
Luminous Architectural Elements 10-6, 10-8
Of Production of Colored Light 4-15
Eye-
Defects 1-4
Parts and Mechanism 1-1
Seeing Characteristics 1-2
Sensitivity (Spectral) 1-3
Visual Field 1-4
IND£X (Coat.)
Filament Lamps (See Lamps, Filament) 3-2

Floodlighting—
Beam Spread 1-5
1
Coverage Table 11-6
Design Procedure 11-1
Footcandle Tables 11-1
Industrial 11-8
Protective 11-11
Sports 11-12
Typical Equipment 11-4
Fluorescent Lamps (See Lamps, Fluorescent) .3-26, 6-24
Footcandles— 2-4
Calculated Tables—
Point-by. Point 6-28
Precalculated Footcandles 6-17
Show Window 8-6
Street Lighting 12-4
Distribution Curves 2-14
Measurement of 2-5, 2-8
Recommended Levels (See lUumination)
Representative Levels 4-1
Footlambert 2-4
General Diffuse Lighting 4-7
General Lighting 4-9, 9-1
General Lighting Service Lamps 3-12, 6-24
Glare. 4-2
Group Replacement 3-10, 4-12
Heat Lamps 3-16
Hospital Lighting 8-22
Illumination—" 2-4
Distribution of 4-1
Measurement of 2-5,2-8
Methods 4-8
Quality of [[[ 4-2
Reciommended Levels
Floodlighting
— , 5-1
5-3, il-1
General Interior 5-3
Industrial 5-9
Sports Lighting 11-2
Street Lighting 12-2
Relation to Visibility . 1-6
Representative Levels 4-1
Incandescent Lamps (See Lamps, Filament) , . 3-1
Indirect Lighting 4-6
Industrial Lighting. . , 9-1
Infrared Lamps 3-16
Inverse Square Law. , 2-5, 6-25
Isocandle Diagram 2-13
Isolux (Isofootcandle) Diagram. 2-14
Lamp Data^
Filament 3-13^ 6-25
Fluorescent 3-28, 3-33, 6-24
Mercury 3-18, 6-25
Lamps^
(Choice of Type 4-11
Filament — .
. ......'.']!... [s-l, 6-25
Construction 3-2
Operating Characteristics 3-8
Types ... 3-12. 6-25
. i
INDEX (Cont.)
Lamps (Cont.)— „ „,
Fiuoresccnt— • •
0-29, -^^J
• •
Auxiliary Equipment ^*^

Construction o f^
D-C Operation. |-37
Operating Characteristics ?~£?
Types. ^27, 6-24
Mercury Vapor— i^gFit"?
Applications
a ni iZgl
Auxiliary Equipment 3-21, ^**
Construction
f~99
Operating Characteristics « %• ^ 5 „f
•
Types 3-18, 6-25

Sodium Vapor d ^»
^'*^^Nl7ure of 2-1. 2-3

Unite and Measurement 2 2
Lighting Systems ^^
Localized General Lighting 4^10, 9~3
Location of Luminaires 4-1, 4-9, 6-3, 9-8
Lumen— •
•
-2-2
-^"^^
Zonal Factors
Lumen Method of Lighting Design 6-1
Luminous Elements 1*>-1' l^"^
Maintenance— ^}h ?~?

Factor ^2, 6-0
Lumen 3-10,3-15,3-23,3-34
Measurements— 9_a 2-10

«> ia
Brightness 2-4,
Candlepower o'i'o o
Illumination (Footcandle) ^"•'» *
^
2-J
Lumen.
Reflection
.2-6
Transmission 2 6
Mercury Vapor Lamps (See Lamps, Mercury Vapor). 3-17, 6-25, Il-l 1
Meters—
Brightness .2-10
Light-Sensitive-Cell 2-6, 2-8
Machelh niumiuometer 2-9
Visual .2-9
Overvoltage Operation 3-9
Office Lighting 8-14
Point-byPoInt Calculation— 6-25

Table 6-28
Polarization 2-6
"7-5
Power Factor
Precalculated Footcandle Tables 6-17
Projector Lamps 3-13, 3-15, 6-30, 10-4
Purkinje Effect -
1-4
Quality, Ught 4^2
Quantity, Light (See Illumination Levels) 4-1
Radio Interference 3-41
Reflection — 2-6
2-6
Factor
Of Room Surfaces « ' .;
*
i
7~«
Of Various Light-Controlling Materials 2-7, 10-2
Reflector Lamps 3-13, 3-15, 6-30, 10-4
Refraction 2-6
INDEX (Cont.)
Room Index 6_4

Rough Service Lamps 3-12
SchcM>l Lighting , , . . . 8-16
Seeing Factors 1_5
Semi-Direct Lighting 4_7
Semi-Indirect Lighting 4_7
Series Burning Lamps , 3-14
Showcase Lighting ".
5_32 8-9
Show Window Lighting. 8_4
Sign Lighting 14^j
Sodium Vapor Lamps 3^25
Spectrum-
Electromagnetic Fruntiapiece, 2-1
Fluorescent Lamps 3-38
Mercury Vapor Arc ;..*. .'
3-20
.'Frontispiece',
Sodmm Vapor Arc Frontispiece, 3-25
*>«*>Ie Frontispiece, 2-1
Sports Lighting . 11_2^ 11_12

Starters, Fluorescent Lamp 3_2q
Store Lighting. 8_j
Street Lighting I2_i
Stroboscopic Effect 1-5, 3-25, 3-40
Supplementary Lighting 4-10 9-3

Systems, Lighting 4_5
Temperature (See also Color Temperature)—
Effect of Lighting on Room. . , ^ _3-41 ^
Filament ',.'..3-5
Filament Lamps !!!3-ll
Fluorescent Lamps '.'.'.'.
3-35
Mercury Vapor Lamps. [[[ 3-23
Transformers, Mercury Vapor Lamp 3_2 1 6-24

Transmission^ 2-6
Of Various Materials ,..,... 2-7 10-2
Trigonometric Functions 6-31
Ultraviolet 3-20, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27
Vibration Service Lamps 3-12
Voltage-
Drop 7_7
Effect on Operation of Lamps 3-9, 3-22, 3-36 4-14
Wall Case Lighting— 8-10

Calculations 6-32
Wire-
Conduit Size for. 7_4
Current-Carrying Capacity 7_3
Types and Uses .!"]]* 7-1
Wiring— 7_1
Distribution Systems 7_8
Estimating Capacity .*]!!! !7~9
Symbols. !!".]!'.[ 7-10
Voltage Drop \ ^7_7

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Wbstinghouse

The Association for Preservation Technology International

Building Technology Heritage Library

The Association for Preservation Technology International

Building Technology Heritage Library

LAMP DIVISION BLOOMFIELD, N. J. I

2,500 3.000 3,500 4,000 4.500

10,000 1x10'' 1x10' 1x10'"

5,500 G.OOO 6.500 7.000 7,500 10,00(

6,000 6.500 7.000 7.500 10,00

000 5,5 00 6.0 00 S.! 00 7.0 00 7.500 10.0Q

15,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

15.000 20,000 30.000 40.000 50.000

Chapter 1 The Eye and Vision. . . .

Chapter 2 Light —Characteristics and Measurements,

Chapter 4 Introduction to Lighting Design

Chapter 3 Illumination Levels

Chapter 6 Interior Lighting Design .

Chapter 7 Interior Wiring for Lighting

Chapter 8 Store, Office, School, and Public Building.

Chapter 9 Industrial Lighting

Chapter 10 Architectural Lighting ,

Chapter 11 Floodlighting Design

Chapter 12 Street Lighting.

Chapter 13 Aerodrome and Airway Lighting

Chapter 14 Sign Lighting

Chapter 15 The Cost of Lighting

Since the purpose of lighting is to make vision possible, any study of

THE SEEING MECHANISM

THE PARTS OF THE EYE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Iris —The colored (blue, brown)

SEEING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EYE

THE EYE AND VISION

Adaptation—The eye is enabled to function over a tremendously

The size of the pupil opemng is primarily a function

The length of time required for the adaptation process

"XV* °°* '"J"''"y "nsitive to energy of

tivity at the blue and red ends of the

In the practical application of lighting for seeing, strong

Visual Field—The normal visual

Structural Eye Defects —The four most common causes of defective

Astigmatism (the inability to bring horizontal lines and vertical lines

Myopia (nearsightedness). The

Presbyopia (loss of accommodat-

All four of these visual defects can

Mercury vapor lamps and fluorescent lamps operated on 60-cycle service

OBJECTIVE FACTORS IN THE SEEING PROCESS

more clearly is unconsciously

Visual acuity^ expressed as the

Brightness —One of the primary factors in visibility is brightnms.

lumination necessary for equal

Contrast —As important for seeing as general brightness-level is the

The time factor is particularly important where the visual object is

eyes must work, and to relieve

THE RADIATION SPECTRUM

The distance between crests of successive

in which they manifest themselves. The present known spectrum ranges

TERMINOLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

Luminous Intensity I Candle The standard unit of luminous

Light travels in straight lines^