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Department of Chemical Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
Engineering
Ch.E. 333.2
Laboratory Manual
2011
Course Outline
This course is intended to develop skills, which will be of use to you as a practicing chemical
engineer. You will be expected to use typical items of equipment and to conduct simple
measurements and tests. You will be expected to communicate the results in a clear and effective
manner.
Each student in the course must have a hardcover laboratory notebook. It is available at the
University Book store: Lab Notes, Model # WL191 (blue). Experimental investigations will be
conducted in groups of two or three students. One student from each group will be designated
(called the designated student leader) to be responsible for:
2. Planning
The designated student leader is responsible for planning the experiment and for ensuring
that sufficient data of an appropriate quality are obtained. This will require background
reading, visits to the laboratory to view the apparatus and discussion with the instructors. Both
partners will be assessed for their contribution to the experiment by the Demonstrator.
3. Reporting
Each student is required to hand in one full formal report, one brief formal report and two
technical memos. When one partner submits a formal report, the other partner must submit a
technical memo. Reports and memos are due two weeks from the completion of the
experiment, unless a time extension has been granted. Student will get 7 “free” late hand–in
days for the whole course. Indicate on your report when you use it. Reports and tech memo’s
1
are to be handed in to Dale Claude in Room 1D43 (office inside 1D25), and marks will be
deducted for tardiness (read EVALUATION below).
III. EXPERIMENTS
(The template file for the title page of both formal and brief reports can be downloaded
under the heading of Title Pages at http://www.engr.usask.ca/classes/CHE/333/)
2. Abstract: This is written after the Discussion has been completed. It may be prepared with a
word processor and pasted into the notebook. It is intended to be read by persons who will not
read the rest of the report.
3. Table of Content: Give titles of sections with their page numbers. This should include the
Appendix with titles of each section of the Appendix.
4. Introduction. This is a brief statement of the purpose of the experiment. It serves as an
introduction to the rest of the report.
5. Theory. A brief summary, giving the equations to be used, is required.
6. Apparatus and Procedure. The apparatus diagram can be prepared with a drawing program or
drawn by hand. Chemical Engineering symbols for the unit operations should be used wherever
possible so that a proper Process Flow diagram (PFD) is prepared. The procedure should record
what was done. It must not be written as instructions.
7. Presentation and Discussion of Results: In this section, indicate where the data and results are
presented. Any significant observations should be reported here and what effect that had on the
outcome of the experiment. Data and result are probably presented most effectively in tabular
form in an Appendix. Graphs can be presented in this section or in an Appendix. Your results
should then be fully discussed in this section. All conclusions and recommendations must be
defended. Error analyses may or may not be useful in this regard. Figures or Graphs can be
included in the body (insert as the page following the first mention of the graph in the body of
the report) of the report or presented in an Appendix. If there are several graphs that are
similar, a representative graph can be included in the body of the report.
2
8. Conclusions: Give your conclusions in numbered statements, each one concise and precise.
No discussion is given here. All conclusions must be fully discussed and supported in the
Discussion Section.
9. Nomenclature: List all symbols used in alphabetical order. Greek symbols should be kept in a
separate list.
10. Recommendations: A similar format to that of the Conclusions should be followed here.
11. Reference: A list of references must be included here. Use a standard format (list in
alphabetical order and in the body of the report refer to the last name of the first author
followed by the year of publication in brackets).
12. Appendix: Identify them by A, B, C … and in the following order: data, results, sample
calculation. All tables and Figures should have headings (e.g., Table B1, Figure A1, etc.) and
full titles. In your sample calculation, indicate the run number used and which table(s) the
information can be found.
13. Constrain the length of the formal report within 20 pages.
Technical Memos
A technical memo is a brief memorandum to the supervisor. It should state concisely the
experimental conditions, results, discussion, conclusions and recommendations. A brief table
of results or a graph should be included to support the conclusions. Limit your technical
memo within a 2-page length.
(The template file for the title page of the technical memo can be downloaded under the heading
of Title Pages at http://www.engr.usask.ca/classes/CHE/333/)
V. EVALUATION
Careful measurements, correct calculations, logical deductions and clear conclusions are necessary to
a good report. However, even if all these are present but the report is not well written, some of the
positive effects of the investigation will be lost. Although proper spelling, grammar and general use
of the English language are somewhat less important than clarity, conciseness and technical contents,
they will also have an effect on the marking.
Both formal reports, brief technical reports and technical memos will be marked out of 10 grade
points. However, for the final mark, each formal report will be worth 35 marks, the brief technical
report, 25, and the technical memo, 10 marks. The lab demonstrator will be reviewing your
performance and your lab notebook while you are in the lab and will assign a mark (out of 5) at the
end of each lab period. A summary of the marking scheme is given Table 1 below.
3
Reports and technical memos must be completed and submitted within two weeks i.e. while the
experiment is still fresh in the student's mind. Therefore, the deadline for receiving reports and
technical memos without any penalty will be two weeks after the experiment was performed. A
penalty of 10% per week will be deducted from late reports or memos. Submissions will not be
accepted after the last day of classes and will be given a mark of zero. Visit
http://www.engr.usask.ca/classes/CHE/333/; click on Class Info; scroll down to Grading Sheets;
choose an appropriate marking sheet to view what will be evaluated in the submitted report and
memo.
1. Use a hard-covered and numbered record book (purchase from University Bookstore)
2. Label research ideas/proposal to differentiate them from experiments that are performed
3. Explain all abbreviations or terms that you use that are not universally known
4. Make all entries in ink
5. Do not erase any entry. Instead draw a line neatly through the error and then initial and date the
correction in the margin
6. Record data and observations when they are made. Date each entry
7. Stick to the facts (positive and negative). Your notebook is not the place for your opinion
8. Leave no blank space between entries. Cancel all blank spaces (including blank pages) with
diagonal lines drawn across the space. Initial and date the cancellation in the margin
9. Have each page of your notebook witnesses by someone who is not an inventor but who
understands the experiment and its objectives (ask your Lab Demonstrator as the witness)
10. Make no changes or insertions on a page after it has been signed and witnessed
11. Attach support records to the notebook where practical. If not practical, then, cross-reference
the notebook with the material and witness as above
12. Maintain safe custody of your notebook
4
1. FLUID FRICTION IN PIPES, VALVES AND FITTINGS
A variety of studies will be conducted with this equipment, including the determination of:
a) the friction factor - Reynolds number relationship for pipe flow,
b) valve coefficients (Cv values) and characteristics (f(x) vs x) for gate valves, and globe
valves,
c) friction losses for various fittings.
Since the piping systems used for a, b, and c contain substantial lengths of pipe, it will be
necessary to correct the measured pressure drops for the lengths of straight piping between the
fittings. These corrections should be calculated assuming the pipe is smooth.
The main apparatus is a flow loop with ten (10) separate lines, each incorporating different types
of fittings. The pressure differences across the piping and from the venturi meter are measured
with variable reluctance differential pressure transducers.
The transducer output is a voltage signal that is collected by Voltage Meters and Demodulators,
which are connected to a SCB-68 National Instruments Shielded I/O Connector Block for DAQ
Devices with 68-pin connectors. The Connector Block is then used to send voltage signals to a
NI PCI-MIO-16E-4 I/O Terminal installed in an IBM Intel computer. The resulting signals are
then picked up by LabVIEW 8.2 and displayed in “Fluid Friction.vi” in a series of graphs and
indicators. A cold junction-compensated (CJC) thermocouple is used to measure the temperature
of the fluid. The CJC occupies channel ai0 and the thermocouple is attached to channel ai1 and
ai9 of the connector block.
Each transducer is calibrated individually. The Demodulators are set to zero by allowing the
individual transducers to be open to atmospheric pressure (with both bleed screws open). Once
stabilized, the spans of the Demodulators are set at 10V with the bleed screws closed and air
applied at the appropriate pressure. The exact procedure will be discussed by the TA.
To measure the flow rate for comparison with the Venturi meter, a bucket, stopwatch, and scale
are required. A 3/32” Allen wrench is also necessary for adjusting the pressure transducer bleed
screws. The inside diameter of the tubing is 0.527 inches.
The equipment is fairly complex and you will have to spend some time tracing the flow lines and
thinking about what you are going to do. Don’t turn anything on until the demonstrator has
given his/her approval.
From your experimental measurements on the Venturi meter, calculate the coefficient of
discharge, C, in the relation:
5
2 ( − ∆p )ρ1
w = CA 2
1 − β4
The valve coefficient and valve stem function are defined as:
∆Pv
Q = Cv f ( x)
S
In examining the valve performances the data should be used to find the best-fit values of Cv and
m.
References
2.1 Anon, “Flow of Fluid Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe”, Technical Paper No. M-409,
Crane Ltd., 1950.
6
2. ION EXCHANGE IN WATER SOFTENING
Introduction: Water softening is a process to reduce hardness in water and prevent the
build-up of lime scale and calcium deposits in pipes and equipment. Hardness is normally
measured by the amount of calcium and magnesium that is present in water and is reported as the
concentration of CaCO3. To get an idea of scale, the Saskatoon Water Treatment and Meters
Branch reports the potable water has an average hardness of 126 mg/L as CaCO3. The river
water has an average hardness of 176 mg/L. 120 mg/L as CaCO3 or greater is considered hard.
Ion exchange has been used on an industrial basis since 1910 with the introduction of water
softening. Cation exchange is widely used to soften water. The most usual ion exchange material
employed in water softening is a sulphonated styrene-based resin, supplied by the makers in the
sodium form. In the process, calcium and magnesium ions in water are exchanged for sodium
ions on the resins. Ferrous iron and other metals such as manganese and aluminum, sometimes
present in small quantities, are also exchanged
7
after calcium and magnesium are removed, but are unimportant in the softening process.
Removal of the hardness, or scale-forming calcium and magnesium ions, produces “soft water”.
Softening can be carried out as a batch process by stirring a suspension of the ion exchange resin
in the water for a period until equilibrium, or an acceptable level of hardness, is reached.
However, it is more convenient to operate a continuous flow process by passing the water
downwards through a column of resin beads.
Theory: The exchange reaction for water softening with a sulphonated styrene-based resin in the
form of sodium can be described below.
where R represents the resin chain and the exchange point on the beads.
The reaction takes place rapidly enough for the upper layers of the bed to approach exhaustion
before the lower layers being able to exchange ions. There is thus, a zone of active exchange
which moves down the column until the resin at all depths becomes exhausted. The position at
an intermediate stage can be illustrated as shown in Figure 2a. Plotting the hardness readings as
CaCO3 (mg/L) in the effluent against the volume of water treated (L) generates the breakthrough
curve as shown in Fig.2b. The breakthrough point can be determined at which the concentration
of CaCO3 in the effluent reaches an acceptable level of hardness or the hardness of the feed. It is
usually the limit of the exhaustion cycle.
Figure 2a. Ion Exchange Zone Figure 2b. Idealized Breakthrough Point
When the resin is exhausted, it can be regenerated with a copious amount of sodium salt such as
sodium chloride. The excess salt will shift the equilibrium (Eq.1) to the left and sodium ions will
replace calcium and be present on the solid.
8
If the hardness is measured by CaCO3, the ion exchange capacity of the resin can be determined
as follows:
where
πD 2
Volume of Wet Bed (mL) = XFinal Depth of Resin Bed (cm) (3)
4
where D is the diameter of the column (cm), equal to 1.5 cm in this investigation.
The mass of CaCO3 removed from the tap water up to the breakthrough point can be calculated.
Graphically, this is given by the area in the graph of breakthrough curve between the curve
plotted and the horizontal line, representing the original hardness of the water. The mass of
CaCO3 (mg) can be converted to milliequivalent (meq) by multiplying a factor of 0.02.
(DOWEX, Ion Exchange Resins, Water Conditioning Manual, p.74.) Knowing the wet volume
of the resin bed, the exchange capacity of the resin can be calculated as meq/mL. If other
minerals such as magnesium carbonate, calcium oxide and so on are removed, they can be
converted to the equivalent concentration as CaCO3 by certain conversion factors. The
conversion factors of common substances are given in literature (DOWEX, Ion Exchange
Resins, Water Conditioning Manual, p.75).
Once the exchange capacity of the resin bed is determined, it can be used to design a column
packed with the resins for water softening at large scale. The required resin volume can be
determined in the following equation:
where the throughput refers to the volume treated per exhausted cycle of resin.
Apparatus: Water softening in this investigation is carried by the Armfield Ion Exchange
Apparatus W9. The sketch is shown below in Figure 3. The system consists of a column packed
with a sulphonated styrene-based resin, a pump to supply liquids to the column, four tanks to
store solutions of HCl, NaCl, test and deionized water and a sump tank. A rotameter is used to
measure the flowrate of the feed. A conductivity meter is used to monitor the concentration of
sodium in the effluent. An anion exchange column was set up for the experiment of
demineralization but not used in this investigation.
9
A Mettler Toledo DL28 automatic titrator with an attached DP5 Phototrode is used for
determination of CaCO3 concentration in the effluent. For this purpose, 100 ml plastic sample
cups are provided.
10
Materials and Methods:
The hardness of the test water passing through the ion exchange column is determined by
titrating the effluent of the W9 Ion Exchange apparatus with a complexometric reaction.
(Appendix A).
The concentration of sodium ions [Na+] in solution is measured by the conductivity of the
collected effluent.
Procedure:
1. Drain the column by first placing a waste vessel at valve 10, then opening valves
6 and 10
2. Remove the cation column by undoing the plastic holders on each end of the
column. The column pulls out towards you and has no catches.
Regeneration is required at the beginning of the experiment to ensure that the cation
column has the requisite amount of Na+ ions. You are assuming that the column is
depleted.
11
1. Select Tank B, open valves 2 and 12 turn on the main switch.
3. Set the flow meter to 20 -50 mL/min and add the salt to the column. Continue
until the conductivity reaches 1.1 x 10-2 Siemens for three minutes or all the salt
has been placed in the column. This means that the column has reached the
saturation point and has an excess of Na+ ions.
3. Select Tank “D” and flush the column for 5 minutes at 70 ml/min.
The Resin is pre-regenerated with excess sodium. Backwashing ensures that the
remaining regeneration solution and debris from the last experimental run are washed out
of the column. Plus it expands the resin beads so that no air pockets remain in the resin
bed.
For apparatus configuration see Data Sheet I (Page 9 of this manual), Figure 1b.
3. Select Tank D and turn on the pump, then backwash the cation column at a flow
rate of 50-70 ml/min for 5 minutes.
Large air bubbles can be gotten rid of by closing valve 6 and opening 12 until the water
has reached the top of the column. Then close 12 and re-open 6. Repeat if necessary.
4. When the air bubbles have been eliminated and the resin has settled, turn off
valves 3 and 6.
12
4. Collect the initial 2 samples at 300-400 ml intervals, the remainder at 100-400 ml
intervals.
5. Determine the hardness of each sample as per Appendix “A” and continue testing
each sample until hardness rises above 100 mg/L as CaCO3.
E. Shutdown
1. Select Tank “D” and flush the column at max flow for 5 minutes
2. Turn off the pump, open valve 10 and completely drain the resin column.
Data Analysis:
a) Plot the hardness as CaCO3 concentration (mg/L) against effluent volume (L). Identify the
breakthrough point. Determine the total amount of CaCO3 (mg) removed by the column up to the
breakthrough point.
c) Design a column (area and height) to reduce the hardness of 10,000 L of water to 100 mg/L of
CaCO3. The initial hardness of water is the same as your experimental. Keep the height-to-
diameter ratio of the wet resin bed the same as that of the resin column used in this experiment.
Provide brief discussion on your design results including the feasibility of using one column and
one exhausted cycle to complete the task.
Hint: you need to first determine the required resin volume for this project. A safety factor
should be applied to the exchange capacity figure to compensate for non-ideal operating
conditions and resin aging on a working plant. Typical safety margin is 5% for cation resins.
Column sizing should be adjusted to allow for resin expansion if backwashing is performed (80–
100% of the settled resin bed height) and resin swelling during service, approximately 5-8% for
strong acid cation resin.
Suggestion: Determine the hardness of the untreated test water at the beginning of the
experiment. (5 ml sample)
13
Data Sheet I – Configuration of Ion Exchange Apparatus
14
Appendix “A”
Complexometric Titration for the Determination of Water Hardness
Titration Procedure
The calcium will be complexed out first as it has a larger formation constant with EDTA
than magnesium. When all of the calcium ions have been complexed with EDTA, the
trace amount of magnesium ions in the buffer will react. Once the trace amount of
magnesium is complexed, the solution will change to a blue. The addition of the trace
amount of magnesium is required for the complexometric titration and eliminates the
need for a blank correction titration.
pH is very important in this experiment as having a higher value than 10.5 will precipitate
out CaCO3 or Mg(OH)2 immediately. However, even at a pH of 10 Ca2+ will precipitate
out eventually. Thus, a maximum of 5 minutes from the addition of the buffer solution
should be observed, to prevent interference from Calcium (III) hydroxide precipitation.
Procedure:
1. Take 10-25 mL of collected sample then add buffer solution until the pH is 10,
15
The correction factor will be provided by the Lab Demonstrator.
Example 1
References:
Armfield Instruction Manual. 2000. Ion Exchange Apparatus W9. Issue 14. WO014461.
Dowex, 2007. “Water Condition Manual – A Practical Handbook for Engineers and Chemists”.
Dow Liquid Separations. http://www.reskem.com/pages/resin-pdfs.php.
Bailey, S. J., et al. 2003. “Standard Test Method for Hardness in Water, D1126-02”. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 11.01. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Pg
98-101.
Frason, M. 2005. “2340C EDTA Titrimetric Method.” Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater. 21st Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington
D.C. Pg 2-37 – 2-39.
16
3. VISCOMETRY
Introduction
This experiment involves the use of a cone and plate viscometer. You will be asked to
characterize a fluid which may or may not be Newtonian. Newtonian fluids should be tested at
different shear rates for a range of temperatures. Non-Newtonian fluids should be tested at a
range of shear rates. Discuss the choice of a fluid with the instructor before planning the
experiment.
Procedures
The viscometers are operated empty at first to find deflections at zero load. The viscometers
must be operated according to the procedures in the literature provided in the laboratory.
Because they are sensitive and expensive instruments, please read the procedures carefully
before operating them. If you are unaware about any procedure, ask the demonstrator before
proceeding. When you are placing the fluid in the viscometer, try to avoid entrapping air
bubbles as these may cause significant errors. Also, before changing fluids in a viscometer,
wash it thoroughly since small amounts of contamination may distort the results. Be careful not
to scratch the surfaces of the measuring elements.
Before testing an unknown fluid, a Newtonian standard fluid should be used to verify instrument
performance.
Data
1. Brookfield Viscometers (springs are linear)
2. Working equations:
17
3T
τ ( dyne / cm 2 ) =
2 πr 3
ω
γ (sec −1 ) =
sin θ
Characterizing a Fluid:
For non-Newtonian fluids calculate the pressure drop per meter of pipe in horizontal
flow if the velocity is 1.0 m/s and the pipe diameter is just small enough to ensure
laminar flow (i.e., the flow is not turbulent).
References
1.1 Streeter, V.L., “Handbook of Fluid Dynamics”, Chapter 7. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Inc., 1961.
1.2 Middleman, S., “The Flow of High Polymers”, Interscience Publishers, 1968.
1.3 Cheremisinoff, N.P. and Gupta, R., “Handbook of Fluids in Motion”, Ann Arbor Science,
1983.
1.4 Tabor, D., “Gases, Liquids and Solids”, 2nd Ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979.
18
4. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Objectives:
a) To determine the characteristics of a centrifugal pump including total head, power,
efficiency and NPSH versus flowrate.
b) To determine the size of a geometrically similar pump that would be needed to pump
against a total head of 100 feet of water at peak efficiency using the same RPM.
Introduction:
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of fluid mover in the chemical industry. A
fundamental understanding of the operation and performance of a centrifugal pump is of primary
importance to any engineering student.
A centrifugal pump converts energy of a prime mover (an electric motor or turbine) first
into velocity or kinetic energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being pumped.
The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute
or diffuser. The impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the kinetic energy.
The volute or diffuser is the stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
All of the forms of energy involved in a liquid flow system are expressed in terms of feet of
liquid i.e. head.
The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into the eye (center) of an impeller.
When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in the cavities between the vanes outward
and provides centrifugal acceleration. As liquid leaves the eye of the impeller, a low-pressure
area is created causing more liquid to flow toward the inlet. Because the impeller blades are
curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force. This
force acting inside the pump is the same one that keeps water inside a bucket that is rotating at
the end of a string.
The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The
amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the
impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be
the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid. This
kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a resistance to the
flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing) that catches the liquid and
slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity is
converted to pressure according to Bernoulli’s principle.
19
Theory:
If we consider the inlet and discharge of the pump under test as the boundaries of a
control volume then we may apply Bernoulli's Theorem of continuity to the fluid within that
boundary (Armfield, 1980).
where ΔH is the pump differential head (m) and g is gravitational acceleration 9.807 m/s2.
Hydraulic power:
The hydraulic power of the pump is the product of machine head and flow, thus hydraulic
Power Nh,
where Q is the flowrate (m3/s) and ρwater is the density of water kg/ m3
No=T*n W (3)
60
nm = n * 2Π RPM (4)
2Π
n = nm * 60 rad/s (5)
2Π
No=T * nm* 60 W (6)
The power absorbed by the pump therefore, is the dynamometer output less transmission losses,
thus:
N p = No- NL W (7)
20
NL represents the transmission losses between the pump and the dynamometer motor and is the
power absorbed by bearing friction, air drag, etc. The value of the power
loss will vary between rigs and on the same rig will vary with motor speed.
Nh
η= × 100% (8)
No
then:
21
Pd − Ps Q 2 Ds4
∆H = + [ − 1] m (13)
ρ water g 2 gAs2 Dd4
p
NPSH = H s − (14)
ρg
Where:
Ps Vs2
Hs = + (15)
ρ water g 2 g
Pump Discharge
1. The basic method of measuring the pump discharge on the test rig is by means of the
volumetric measuring tank. The discharge is directed into the tank for a known period of time
and the rise in water level during that period noted, then:
Aδd
Q= t m3/s (16)
where A = area of measuring tank, m2
δd = change in water level in tan, m
t = time, s
2. Venturi:
The pump discharge may be measured by means of the perspex venturi tube after the tube
has been calibrated. The venturi is being used in conjunction with a Dwyer Differential Pressure
transmitter.
The venturi demonstrates the principle of Bernoulli's continuity equation, thus flowrate Q
is related to the difference in pressure across the Venturi meter,
2(− ∆P )ρ water
Q = CA2 m3/s (17)
1− β 4
where A2 is the cross-sectional area of the throat of the Venturi, C is the Venturi coefficient, and
β is the ratio of throat diameter to inside pipe diameter (pump outlet pipe diameter for the case
being studied).
In the case of an actual venturi, small losses occur due to viscous shear and friction effects, thus
reducing the theoretical flow through the device into Equation (17). A calibration curve for a
22
particular venturi tube will therefore show curves of theoretical discharge, predicted by the
equation, and actual discharge determined by
volumetric measurement.
Nomenclature:
A area of measuring tank m2.
As cross section area of the inlet pipe, m2.
D diameter of pipe, m
H head, m
Hatm the barometer reading, m.
Hgs the reading of a gauge at the inlet of the pump, m.
Hgd the reading of a gauge at the outlet of the pump, m
Hs the equivalent total head of liquid at the inlet of the pump
(suction), m
Hvs the velocity head at the inlet, m.
ΔH pump differential head, m.
L length of dynamometer torque arm, m.
n rotational speed rad/s.
N power, w
p the vapor pressure, mmHg
Q flowrate m3 /s
t time, s.
T torque kg-m
V velocity. m/s.
W weight applied to torque arm, Kg
δd change in water level in tank, m
Suffix:-
p pump input
o dynamometer motor output
L dynamometer transmission losses
h hydraulic output
s inlet (suction)
d discharge
1, 2 differential manometer limbs
Constants:
g Gravitational acceleration = 9.807 m/s2
ρwater density of water, 103 kg/ m3
ρm density of mercury, 13.57 x 103 kg/m3
23
Apparatus:
The centrifugal pump used in this experiment is the Armfield R2-00. The pump
is of cast iron construction and is provided with an open impeller. On the pump cover plate
tappings are provided at various radii so that the increase in pressure across the impeller may be
determined. These tappings are brought to a manifold with valves for pressure sampling as
required.
The pump is driven by a trunnion mounted variable speed 1.6 kW DC motor. The pump
set is mounted on a substantial bed plate. The equipment includes a combined
transformer/rectifier and speed controller.
The rig includes the tanks necessary for carrying out performance testing. The main
reservoir is approximately 1.36m x 0.66 m x 0.53 m fabricated in G.R P. and fitted with a drain
valve. On this tank is mounted the volumetric measuring tank which incorporate a level indicator
and scale. A quick acting drain valve is provided together with an emergency overflow. A
manually operated diverter is included so that water discharged by the pump can be returned
either directly to the sump or to the measuring tank as required. To carry out flow measurement
it is necessary for a stop watch to be used. This system allows level measurements to be taken in
still water and, hence, increases the accuracy of flow measurement.
The pump suction pipe is fabricated in PVC with pressure tapping. The pump delivery
pipe work incorporates a gate type throttle valve. Pressure and suction electronic indicators are
supplied complete with small bore pipe work and valves to allow multiple pressure readings.
A perspex Venturi has been upgraded and now runs with pressure transmitters and
indicators. This Venturi is modeled on the requirements of B.S. 1042 Part 1- 1964 having a
nominal bore of 1.5" and a throat diameter of 1.28". The Venturi operates in conjunction with a
25 psi Dwyer differential transmitter and Omega DP32 indicator. This instrument allows pump
flows up to 60 GPM (5 L/sec.) to be determined, after the instrument has been calibrated.
A 50 psi Differential Pressure transmitter is also available. This instrument allows the
differential heads developed by the pump up to 30 ft to be determined. Tappings are provided on
the pump and the supply includes all necessary fittings and connecting flexible tube.
Specification:
24
Shaft Speed 0 - 3000 RPM
Rating 1.6 kW at 2900 RPM.
Motor type Variable speed
Electrical Supply 220V/single phase/50-60 Hz
Relationship between Torque and voltage for strain gauge (when using x 10
amplification):
Torque=1.5861*Volts*g*0.1442
Procedure:
Start UP Procedure
Experimental Procedure
a) Calibrate the venturi meter by making at least 8 runs from a low flowrate to a high
flowrate. The venturi meter is calibrated using the measuring tank and stopwatch.
b) At 8 or more discharge rates collect the data necessary to characterize the pump
including the pressures across the pump, venturi pressure drop, motor rotating speed and the
Torque Gauge Reading. The safety bar should always be inserted when force measurements
are not being made.
It is removed when making force measurements and the motor arm is SLOWLY
allowed to touch the strain gauge mechanism.
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Report:
1) To determine various characteristics and parameters of a centrifugal pump. These
include graphs of total pump differential head, hydraulic power, brake horse power,
efficiency and Net positive suction power versus discharge flowrates.
2) To determine the size of a geometrically similar pump that would be needed to pump
against a total head of 100 feet of water at peak efficiency using the same RPM. What
flowrate is generated by the big pump at this condition? If energy costs 10.2 cents/kw-
hr, how much does it cost to operate the big pump each year?
References:
Armfield Technical Education Co. Ltd., “Instructional Manual for Centrifugal Pump Test Rig
R2-00”, 1980.
Perry, R. H., Green, D. W. and Maloney J. O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook”,
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Sulzer Pump Division, Sulzer Brothers Ltd., “Sulzer centrifugal pump handbook”, Elsevier
Applied Sicence, London and New York, 1989.
Lobanoff, V. S. and Robert, R. R., “Centrifugal Pumps – Design & Application”, Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, 1985.
Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J. F., ‘Chemical Engineering” Vol. 1. 3rd Edition, p.133-144,
1977, (TP145C45).
.
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5. FLUID METERING
Introduction
In this experiment you will be measuring the flow rate of water which is pumped through a loop,
using a variety of flowmeters as listed below:
1. Magnetic Drive
2. Nutating Disc
3. Coriolis
4. Torsion Paddle
5. 3 Beam Ultrasonic
6. Vortex
7. Altometer (Enviromag)
8. Variable Area (Rotameter)
9. Venturi
10. Orifice
11. Doppler Ultrasonic
12. V-notch Weir
You may use the readings from the Coriolis flow meter as the standard value. Compare the
reading of other flow meters with this value and discuss the observed differences, if any. Using
the values of flow rates obtained by the Coriolis Meter, determine the meter coefficients for the
Orifice and Venturi meters as functions of Reynolds number. These can be compared to the
expected values found in the literature.The Magnetic flowmeter readings should be linear with
flow rate. Evaluate the magnetic flowmeter coefficient for converting EMF to flow rate. The
Ultrasonic meter should also give a linear signal with respect to flow rate. Examine your
readings with the ultrasonic meter to see if such linear relationship can be established.
In your reports review the operating principles of each flow meter, compare their advantages and
disadvantages and comment on the practical applications for each device.
Finally,
consider the following situations and suggest a suitable flowmeter for each case. The factors to
be considered are capital cost (including data processing), operating cost (primarily energy
losses), reliability (whether calibration is required or not).
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Some background information is given in References 1, 2, 3.
Procedure
Determine the direction the water flows and decide how you will adjust the flow rate. Be sure to
start your measurements at a low flow rate and then increase between readings. Determine
where each meter is located and how to make a measurement for it (discuss this with the TA).
Note that for the Orifice and Venturi meters you have to make pressure measurements and this is
accomplished with a pressure transducer. The transducers will need to have the air removed and
the associated demodulators will have to be zeroed. Confirm this procedure with your TA before
adjustments are made. Make at least eight measurements by first increasing the flow rate and
then reducing it to zero.
Calculations
(1) Orifice or Venturi: The flowrate Q is related to the pressure drop, minimum (throat) area and
density ρ by the equation:
2∆P
Q = CA
(1 − β 4 )ρ
Q= (0.31h02.5 2 g ) / tanφ
Where ho is the height of the liquid above the bottom of the weir and φ is the angle between
the side of the notch and the horizontal.
Data
Diameter of pipe = 1.049 in.
Diameter of orifice = 0.441 in.
Diameter of venturi = in.
Angle of weir = 54o
References
1. N. de Nevers, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, 3rd Ed. McGraw Hill (2005).
2. J. O. Wilkes, Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, 2nd Ed. Prentice Hall (2006).
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3. Y. A. Cengel, J.M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications.
McGraw Hill (2006).
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