Review of Renewable Energy Development in Africa
Review of Renewable Energy Development in Africa
Review of Renewable Energy Development in Africa
A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Despite its vast natural resources, African is facing serious challenges in sustainable development in an energy
Renewable energy sector, if addressed with dispatch could not only check its indispensable needs, but also mitigate some global
Energy efficiency phenomenon at stake, such as desertification, environmental degradation and green house emission. This paper
Energy reviews the prospects of four major renewable energy sources-hydro, solar, wind and biomass- for each of the
Africa
three leading countries in Africa namely South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria. Based on literature survey of energy
efficiency, all the three countries encourage energy efficiency in varying degrees. In the course of this review,
several national energy policy frameworks of these countries were looked into, especially on how African
countries could overcome the persistent energy crisis in the continent by utilizing the naturally gifted renewable
energy sources. This could only be achievable if proper technology, awareness and skills for harnessing the
resources are provided. Also lingering energy challenges such as energy efficiency measures, needs for grid
extension, energy storage technology and seasonal variation were carefully highlighted.
1. Introduction wind, biomass and biogas are meeting up top challenges of sustainable
development in four countries namely South Africa, Nigeria, Mali and
Investigation has shown that renewable energy sources such as Egypt [2]. In a paper titled “the economics of renewable energy
power from sun (photovoltaic and solar thermal), hydro, wind and expansion in rural sub-Saharan Africa”, Uwe Deichman chose
biomass-derived fuel have contributed greatly to the sustainability of Ethiopia, Ghana and Kenya [3]. In his short review that focused on
certain nations with several environmental and socioeconomic benefits poverty and energy in Africa, Stephen Karekezi talked about popula-
to the nations that tap them. A far bigger and wider benefit according to tion, energy consumption, renewable energy, fossil fuel and access to
research, is the contribution of renewable energy in the reduction of electricity [4]. In his another paper titled “renewable in Africa- meeting
pollution at both local and global levels, thus helping in the mitigation the energy needs of the poor”, Karekezi examined the large and small-
of climatic change which both industrialized and developing nations scale biomass energy, solar PV, solar thermal, evaluates how each of
committed themselves to in the Kyoto protocol. It has been tested and the renewable energy technologies can meet the need of rural and
proven that reliable and affordable power supply is an essential urban poor [5].
prerequisite for technological and economic growth. Generation of In view of the absence of a paper that focuses on the three leading
electricity from renewable energy resources can play a major role in nations namely South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria, this paper has made
electricity generation in African countries. an extensive review of the four major renewable energy sources (hydro,
This paper presents a review of renewable energy technological solar, wind and biomass), energy efficiency of each of the three
development in South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria which varies due to countries, energy policy, overview of conventional energy, why renew-
factors that included topography, characteristics of the resource, cost of able energy?, strategies towards utilization of energy efficiency in
labor and policy regulation. The three countries have about half of the Africa, renewable energy road map in Africa, needs for grid extension,
total of Africa's primary energy use as shown in Fig. 1 [1], - a status energy storage system and seasonal variations in Africa.
that can translate into huge economic growth if power supply is reliable This review paper starts with an introduction, followed by the
and affordable. overview of conventional energy in Africa, why renewable energy?,
In his review of renewable energy for sustainable development in strategies towards utilization of efficient energy in Africa, an extensive
Africa, I.M. Bugaje considered the extent to which policies on solar, review of the four major renewable energy sources, energy efficiency of
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.W. Tan).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.055
Received 24 February 2016; Received in revised form 11 June 2017; Accepted 18 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Aliyu, A.K., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.055
A.K. Aliyu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 1
Fig. 1. primary energy use in Africa by country, 2009 [1]. Non-renewable energy resources potential of Africa [7].
each of the case studies starting with South Africa, Egypt and Nigeria, Types energy Proven reserves Regional distribution
renewable energy road map for Africa, energy policy in Africa, energy
Non-renewable
storage systems, general discussion and finally ends with the conclu- Crude oil 132.1 billion barrels 53.2% Northern Africa
sion. 28.2% Western Africa
16.9% Central Africa
1.7% Other Africa
2. Conventional energy in Africa Natural gas 14.7 trillion m3 55.8% Northern Africa
36.1% Western Africa
With proven oil reserve which increased by 150% from 53.4 billion 8.2% Other Africa
Coal 31.696 billion tones 95.2% Southern Africa
barrels in 1980 to 13.3 billion barrels as of 2013 (according to BP
4.8% Other Africa
Statistical Review of Energy), Africa is second only to the Middle East in Nuclear Reasonably assured resources: 2.9% Northern Africa
terms of oil export and it accounts for over 11% of world oil production. 663,400 tones
However, the bulk of the oil is exported as the continent accounts for only 36.7% Western Africa
4% of global oil consumption. Since 2013 Africa's oil export has declined Inferred resources: 286,300 2.7% Central Africa
tones
from an average of 6.3million bpd to 5.2 million bpd as a result of sharp
4.2% Eastern Africa
drop in Libya's output and low production from Nigeria, Algeria and 53.5% Southern Africa
Sudan. The four countries account for 84% of Africa's oil production
(Libya 48.5 billion barrels reserve, Nigeria- 37.1 billion barrels reserve,
Angola- 12.7 billion barrels reserve and Algeria- 12.2 billion barrel) and 3. Why renewable energy
are all members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), Figs. 2 and 3 show chart representing Africa's oil and gas reserve The united nations has regarded Africa as one of the continents
as well as the production (in million bpd). with maximum vulnerability to the effects of climatic change due to
Africa's natural gas proven reserve significantly increased between population growth and its attendant human activities, overreliance on
mid-1980 to early 2000s, due to mainly a strong increase in Nigerian subsistence agric, low capacity to adapt to change and impending water
reserves. West African contributed almost half of the total natural gas crises. Whereas the quest for renewable energy in developed countries
proven reserve increment over a period of mid-1980 to early 2000s, while driven more by insecurity in energy supply, air pollution caused by
the North Africa which consists of Libya, Algeria and Egypt accounted for burning fossil fuel, the need for resource diversification and prospect of
the remaining. As at the beginning of 2014, five countries accounted for resource depletion, Africa remains vulnerable to vagaries of fossil fuel
94.4% of the total of Africa's natural gas reserves. The countries are set to developed countries to which they export crude oil [10–12].
Nigeria (5.1 trillion m3), Libya, Algeria and Egypt combined (8.1 trillion Renewable energy as an alternative is a sustainable option that can
m3) while Mozambique whose proven gas rose from 126 billion m3 to 2.8 significantly overdependence on fossil fuel. Furthermore it has the
trillion m3 from 2013 to 2014 [6–9]. Table 1 represent the non-renewable advantage of creating employment, proximity to load and in many
energy potential of Africa. cases, led dependence on concentrated energy source. The use of more
renewable energy would similarly reduce Africa's economic vulner-
ability to the adjustable and rising prices of imported fuels. Global and
local communities are gradually trying to follow the renewable energy
trend by shifting the economy towards greater dependence on renew-
able source. It is expected that rules and regulations, as well as
voluntary structures such as the “Clean Development Mechanism”
and Renewable Energy Certificates will offer better sustenance for a
prolonged role of renewable energy in the economy [13].
Table 2 shows the renewable energy target of Egypt, Nigeria and
South Africa, and Table 3 shows electricity access, population without
access and targets access of Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa.
Fig. 2. Africa's proven oil and gas reserve [6]. For an energy need to be attained by all and sundry, proper
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Table 2 lamps with the compact fluorescent lamps, can result to 30–60%
Renewable energy targets for Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa [14]. energy saving cost.
b) Industrial sector: the use of improved efficient pumps, boilers,
Country Sector/Technology Targets
motors, heating system and other material with high efficiency can
Egypt Hydropower 2.8 GW by 2020 reduce energy demand and greenhouse gases.
Solar PV 220 MW by 202; 700 MW by 2027 c) Transportation sector: the use of efficient diesel and gas vehicle and
CSP 1.1 GW by 2020; 2.8 GW by 2017
other method of transportations.
Wind power 12% of generation and 7.2 GW by 2020
d) Residential sector: major improvements have been made in refrig-
Nigeria Bio power 50 MW by 2015; 400 MW by 2025 erators, water heaters, washing machines and dish washers.
Hydropower (small 600 MW by 2015; 2 GW by 2025 Advance technologies such as smart metering, micro combine heat
scale) and power generation CHP, fuel cells, solar photovoltaic and more
Solar PV (Large scale > 75 MW by 2015; 500 MW by 2025
efficiency lighting can save energy [18].
1 MW)
Wind power 20 MW by 2015; 40 MW by 2025 e) Demand side management (DSM) and energy conservation mea-
CSP 1 MW by 2015; 5 MW by 2025 sures (ECM): DSM is an action or policies or program tends to
reduce managing the energy consumption. DSM give birth to three
South Africa (Electricity) (18.2 GW by 2030; 42% of new
programs; energy efficiency, energy conservation measures and
generation capacity installed 2010–
2030) load management. Energy conservation measures ECM is to change
Solar PV 8.4 GW by 2030 the consumption of energy by the consumers based on shifting their
Wind 8.4 GW by 2030 peak period energy consumption to the base period. Or the method
CSP 1 GW by 2030 of valley filling etc. utilities should encourage the consumers by
Others 0.4 GW by 2030 [15].
giving incentives on less consumption of energy and enlighten the
consumers on the importance of energy efficient equipment's.
f) Installation of electrical equipments control: electrical equipments
Table 3
Electricity access by country (Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa) [14]. control such as lighting control, street light control, electric water
heater control etc. can be used to turn off or on or dimming them
Country Electrification rate People without Targets based on the energy output required. It makes the system flexible
in 2012 access to
such that the consumption of energy can be controlled based on the
electricity in
2012 usage of energy at a particular time.
Share of millions Share of
population with population with The importance of energy efficiency are outlined into eight points,
access access which are; (i) It improve the health of the nation, i.e. reduce the emission
Egypt 99.6% 0
of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Such gases have an adverse effect
Nigeria 45% 93 75% by 2020 on health, such as respiratory ailments, cancer etc. (ii) Alleviates energy
South Africa 85% 8 100% by 2019 poverty i.e. it alleviates energy services in the environment at an
affordable cost. (iii) Reduction of environmental pollution such as
emission of harmful odorous gases. (iv) Improves industrial competi-
strategies of energy management need to be addressed at various tiveness i.e. it has been proven that, one way to maximize profit in an
sectors such as residential, commercial and industrial [16]. Energy industries is to implement energy efficiency measures. (v) Enhances
management can be defined as the strategies of shifting or optimizing energy security i.e. it will reduce the imported sources into the country
the use of energy. The main purpose of energy managements are; such as crude oil, coal etc., this will strength the energy security of the
conservation of resources, climatic protection and energy cost saving country against price fluctuation of the products. (vi) Defers the necessity
[17]. Energy efficiency is the act of replacing electrical equipments with for additional power generation capacity. (vii) The country power
the less energy consumption equipments with the same output generation is insufficient to meet the consumer demand. But with energy
magnitude. There is need to identify the inefficient energy equipments efficiency measures it will maximize the demand. (viii) Job creation and
and find a solutions, so as to improve the efficiency of the power sector. lastly Reduce of CO2 emission [16].
However, ongoing monitoring and target need to be schedule in order Demand side energy efficiency enhancement determines obviously
to measure their performance [16]. the costs of energy for end-users, while for supply side energy efficiency
Improvement of energy efficiency is the cheapest, fastest and i.e. (generation, transmission and distribution) employed by the utility
environmental friendly way to meet a significant of the world's energy firms will also result into cost benefits for end users by ensuring energy
demand. The need for energy investment is reduced by energy prices are well controlled. It will ensure older systems and equipment
efficiency which is more economical because in the end, it reduces of the power system to be in good conditions because of lesser total
energy cost overtime. Energy efficiency is associated with technical and loads which enable the operation of equipment below the maximum
cost obstacles that are subordinate to other barriers, these include; capacity [19].
financing, creating awareness, incentives, public acceptance and proper Over 60% of urban population in Africa do not get adequate
education. Countries are encouraged to pursue energy efficient policies electricity. They depend on tradition energy i.e. wood for cooking and
more patiently in the long term period regardless of the development of much is spend for the purpose of energy services such as kerosene and
the fuel prices. Energy efficiency and renewable energy policies are very electricity compare to other countries. It is estimated that the energy
vital because of their advantage - for providing energy security and used in African homes consumed 56% of the entire national electricity.
mitigation of global warming [18]. In large cities, the consumption is more than 75% of the whole
To improve energy efficiency significantly, government should electricity produced and the urban energy demand increases annually
employ regulations and standards such as public sector leadership in by 7%. The initiative of the UN secretary general Ban Ki-moon on
procurement, public awareness and incentives. The points below are “sustainable energy for all” pleaded for players to join hands and efforts
the strategies towards utilizing energy efficiency in Africa. to; ensure the accessibility of modern energy services universally by
2030, doubling the rate of improving in energy efficiency, doubling
a) The use of buildings with insulated windows, modern oil and gas energy efficiency improvement and the share of renewable energy in
furnace and efficient air conditioners, replacement of incandescent the mix of global energy [20].
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Fig. 4. Annual solar radiation of South Africa [12] Source CSIR et al., a.s.
The scope of increasing energy efficiency from the supply side and existing renewable energy contribution. The REWP 2003 also dedi-
reduction of energy consumption at the demand side without economic cated the country to developing a practical strategy application on
output and reducing standard of living is significant in African renewable energy. The renewable energy resources of South Africa have
countries. Based on International Energy Agency (IEA) studies, shows large and vital potential that will contribute immensely to its energy
that, the African total energy consumption per GDP is twice the global sector, society and the economy at large. The cost of energy is an
average. Energy efficiency has been greatly pursued in North Africa, important factor in determining the cost effectiveness of renewable
South Africa and a few countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The obstacles energy technologies [13].
that hindered the adoption of energy efficiency programs are; initial
capital cost, lack of appreciation, resistance to change, lack of policies- 5.1. Hydropower
regulatory frameworks and subsidy of cost of energy.
To ensure economic competitiveness, Africa needs to systematically Hydropower is indirectly another form of solar energy. The vapor
incorporate energy efficiency into the existing energy generation and cycle as result of the sun give rise to rain and eventually transform to a
use system as well as new major infrastructure projects. This could be rivers which are used to generate hydroelectricity. Topography via
achieved through the formation of policy and regulatory frameworks which the flow of rivers occur normally determines the energy from
that would promote energy efficiency with appropriate policy instru- hydro resources [12].
ments to ensure success and effectiveness. According to international standard, the widespread deployment of
Energy efficiency provides several benefits to Africa, as it reduce hydropower electricity generation has not received serious attention in
carbon mono-oxide and other greenhouse gas emission. Thus, reducing South Africa. For the past three decades, the significant of hydropower
the burning of fossil fuels will address the issue of climatic change as development has not been recorded excepting for the new small-scale
such accelerate the use of renewable energy sources and more efficient installation of 7 MW capability commissioned at the Sol Plaatjie
technologies which provide “win-win” options to tackle global and local municipality Free State area. Currently, the overall penetration of
challenges. Over 75% capacity of power generation in Africa is based on hydropower electricity is only 5% of the present total of 45,500 MW
thermal energy, as such improving energy efficiency in the existing installed capacity [23].
systems could results to a significant money savings by many countries
and will increase competition among the local industries [21].
5.2. Solar
5. South Africa Solar energy is one of the renewable energy resources with highest
potential in South Africa. The popularly known technologies used to
The southernmost country in Africa is South Africa as it is produce electrical energy from solar radiation are; photovoltaic (PV)
circumscribed by south Atlantic, and Indian Ocean on the north by and concentrated solar power (CSP) also called solar thermal energy. In
the neighboring countries of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, by this process, CSP plants use mirrors to concentrate the energy from the
Mozambique and Swaziland from the eastern and northern part sun to drive traditional steam turbines or engines that create electricity.
respectively, and surrounding the kingdom of Lesotho. The 25th largest Steam produce by the heat energy is then used to generate energy
country in the world by land zone and a population of closed to 53 through the conventional turbine. Silicon is used in photovoltaic panels
million people [22]. South Africa figured out the commencement of a to convert solar radiation into electrical energy directly [13]. The major
speedy transition towards renewable energy, and came up with a shortcoming of electricity generated from solar is storage problem, in
renewable energy policy in 2003. The Renewable Energy White Paper an off-grid configuration, the storage technology involves a significant
(REWP 2003), developed by the Department of Minerals and Energy, running cost as a result of it limited life span. However, technologies
set a target for renewable energy contribution, over and above the like fuel cell, super capacitors, flywheel and enhanced chemical
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batteries were used to decrease the running cost considerably provide 5.4. Biomass
more hope. The grid connected system is the main international market
for photovoltaic which uses the grid system as its storage alongside The status of biomass will continue to increase in as much as the
with dispersed storage option [12]. national energy policies and strategies are following the trend of
Fig. 4 indicates the potentials of solar energy resources in South renewable energy sources. In recent years, biomass energy source has
Africa. There is a total area of approximately 194,000 km2 of high solar gained specific interest as a result of the progressive reduction of
radiation potential including Northern Cape which is one of the best conventional fossil fuel that led to an increase in the use of renewable
solar resource area in the world. Note that 1300 MJ/m2/year is equal energy sources [25].
to 1 kW h/m2/day. The level of power generation from biomass is significant in South
Photovoltaic (PV) has been widely in used in South Africa for the Africa, some of the paper packaging and sugar mills burn bagasse using
purpose of lighting, home appliances, telecommunication, water biomass to generate steam, generate roughly 210 GWh of electricity
pumps in homes and institutions in the rural areas. The price of the each year. Biomass being considered as renewable which is free from
photovoltaic module used to be expensive but is now declining steadily carbon has its own downside environmentally, few among others are as
over the past decade. In the developments described, it was envisioned follows;
that PV technology will be playing a very significant part up to 14 per
cent in supply by the year 2050 [12]. a) Level of water: Water shortage still remains one of the problems
encountered by South Africa
b) Food security: famers should give emphasis to food crop not only
5.3. Wind energy crop in other to avoid food scarcity.
c) Biodiversity: planting of single energy crop in large scale also has to
Wind is indirectly connected with solar energy, due to the fact that the some extent effect on land quality.
energy from the sun drives the climate pattern and cyclical movement of
water vapor and air. Much parts of South Africa is in the equatorial zone The areas with greatest biomass energy in South Africa are
but also overlaps with wind regime of the temperate westerlies in the Kwazulu-Natal and the water ways of Mpumalanga. Presently, there
southern and northern region. Having identified as one of the country are about 4300 km2ha of sugar cane plantation and forestry farm area
with greatest wind prospect in the sub-Saharan Africa, it has a wind speed of 13,000 km2 in South Africa. The paper and bagasse burnt by sugar
ranging from 7.29 to 9.70 m/s recorded in Cape Alguhas through Cape mill produces about 210 GW h annually [12].
point. Although there is no record of mean annual wind speed across the
country, perhaps due to variations, general use of wind machines in many 5.5. Energy efficiency in South Africa
parts of the country for the purpose of pumping water points to the
potential of wind power even for electricity generation [5] (Fig. 5 shows Improving energy efficient technologies and renewable energy
the current wind atlas which is compiled from modelling that was done sources are very important for the sustainable development of any
under two separate projects in South Africa ). country. Since 1998, the Government of South Africa set up a demand
Although studies have put South Africa's potential for wind energy side management, energy efficiency measures and strategies in policy
between a minimum of 500 MW, and maximum of 56,000 MW, only documents. The current drafted policy was National climate change
0.05% has been generated from the ESKOM Klipheuwel demonstration response white paper of 2011, energy efficiency was highlighted as one
plant and the Darling wind farm. A number of small turbines have also of its main goal. Energy efficiency measures and strategies are also
been mounted on locations along, but not connected to the national included in the national energy Act 34 of 2008 and the electricity
grid [12,20]. regulation Act 4 of 2006. Its National Standards SANS 50001:2011
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Table 4 Table 5
South African end users electricity consumption by sectors [26]. Feed-in-tariff categories in Egypt [32].
6. Egypt Table 6
Small/mini hydropower potential in Egypt [33].
The republic of Egypt is situated in North Africa, bordered by Libya
Site Head (m) Flow (m3/sec) Power (MW)
in the east, Sudan in the south, Palestine and Israel in the east [29].
Egypt is blessed with tremendous potentials of renewable energy Assuit barrage 3.5 1200 32
resources such as wind, solar, hydro, biomass etc. It has a population Damietta 4 350 13
of more than 83 million people, mainly concentrated along the river Zefta 5 150 5
Elmokhtalet 20.75 5 1
Nile and occupies only 6% of the land and 94% of the land as a desert. Tawfike rayah 1.86 134 2.45
Based on international energy agency IEA state that, the energy Assuit regulator 1.33 229 3
consumption of Egypt by end user was 47% for industry, 29% of Ibrahimia canal intake 1.38 114 1.55
transport, 20% for buildings, 2% in agriculture and 2% for other sectors Baheri Raya 1.2 188 2.2
Menoufi Raya 1 173 1.8
[30]. New and renewable energy authority was established in 1986
Sharkawia Canal 0.82 232 1.85
through the aim of assessing and promoting renewable energy sources Total 63.55
through research and investigation of new technologies. They also have
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Fig. 7. wind resource map of Egypt [24]. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.).
Table 8 7. Nigeria
Egypt wind farms based on sites, power and turbine [44].
Nigeria is located in West Africa, bordered by Niger to the north,
Site Power (MW) Number of turbine
Benin to the west, Cameroon to the east, Chad to the northeast and
Gulf of El-zeyt 200 100 Atlantic Ocean to the south. It lies between latitude 4 4016i and 130 53i to
Zafarana 1 30 50 the north of the equator and longitudinal 2040i and 14024i to the east of
Zafarana 2 33 55 the Greenwich meridian [52]. It has 923,768 square kilometer land
Zafarana 3 30 46
Zafarana 4 47 71
area and over 170 million population [53]. Nigeria is blessed with
Zafarana 5 85 100 abundant solar biomass, wind, hydroelectricity and tidal energy
Zafarana 6 80 94 sources that can address the problems associated with non-renewable
Zafarana 7 120 141 energy source. In November 2005 the Nigerian government approved
Zafarana 8 120 141
the country's Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) that was drawn
by the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN) with assistance from the
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) [54]. The Master Plan
is set to articulate the framework for the development of renewable
energy policies, legal instruments, technologies, man power, infra-
structures and market to ensure that vision, mission and target is
achieved [55]. Table 10 shows Nigeria renewable energy sources and
the estimated reserves.
In the process of promoting the potentials of renewable energy
sources in Nigeria, the country has set a vision 20–2020 for the use of
renewable energy sources to meet the national electricity demand
which comprises of energy measures and strategies. Table 11 shows the
renewable energy supply projection in MW in Nigeria. Some of the
highlighted goals in the draft document are;
Table 9
Crop residues in Egypt with their production, usage and un-utilized [47].
Rice straw 5.0 little amount for animal fodder and composition 3.1
Wheat straw 8.2 Almost all used as animal fodder 0.082
Maize residues 6.7 Almost all used as animal fodder 0.67
Sugar cane residues 4.8 Used as fuel in sugar factories 0.69
Cotton stalks 1.3 Used as fuel in rural area 0.65
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Table 12
Renewable energy used and REmap options for 2013 and 2030 respectively [80].
2013 (in PJ/yr.) 2030 (in PJ/yr.) 2030 (in physical units)
Industry sector
Firewood for boiler 721 608 220,000 average systems
Solar thermal 3 244 90 million m2 area
Heat for own use in sugar factories i.e. Bagasse CHP 43 104 4 600 MWthth
Heat for own use in dairy factories i.e. Biogas digester 1 4 1100 average systems
Industry residue based power 18 63 17 TWh
Renewable energy sources for power generation (grid connected/standalone systems) 155 1557 430 TWh
Percentage of renewable energy sources 29% 30%
Building sector
Firewood used in traditional cooking stove 10,270 3115 50 million stoves
Firewood used in efficient cooking stove 571 3 851 180 million stoves
Charcoal used in traditional cooking stove 846 330 5 million stoves
Charcoal used in efficient cooking stove 47 408 19 million stoves
Ethanol used in cooking stove 13 82 2 million stoves
Solar water heating 7 326 120 million m2 area
Renewable energy sources for power generation (grid connected/standalone systems) 199 1 701 470 TW h
Percentage of renewable energy sources 80% 54%
Transport sector
Biodiesel 0 93 2800 million liters
Ethanol 0 123 5800 million liters
Power generation in TW h
Hydropower 97 402 101 GW
Solar PV 0 70 31 GW
CSP 1 160 38 GW
Wind 2 304 101 GW
Geothermal 2 21 3 GW
Distributed solar PV 0 46 24 GW
Biomass 5 37 8 GW
Biomass industrial residues for own production 5 17 4 GW
Percentage of renewable energy sources except hydropower 2% 30%
Percentage of all renewable energy sources 17% 49%
Total final energy consumption
Percentage of renewable energy sources 56% 32%
8. Renewable energy roadmap for Africa extend in which they are frequently updated and implemented system-
atically. South Africa, Ethiopia and Ghana relatively have a cohesive set
Africa is involved in the key energy viewpoints from the US of energy policy brochures. Majority of the countries in Africa started to
Department of Energy's Energy Information Agency (EIA), British inaugurate policies with the aim of increasing renewable energy into
Petroleum (BP), International Energy Agency (IEA) and International the energy mix. In some cases, energy policy is part of broader policies
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Every data set has different stages design to reduce poverty and boost economic growth, such as Rwanda.
of descriptive information, reporting, and aggregation. According to Some countries focused on some particular sectors as presented in
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), African continent Table 13 below.
can generate almost a quarter of its energy demand by the use of clean For instance, Nigeria (gas and renewable energy master plan),
indigenous renewable energy by 2030. The 2030 all-inclusive roadmap Tanzania (power system master plan) and Mozambique (natural gas
for Africa's energy transition established that a mixture of modern master plan). Most of the African countries have targets for electricity
renewables can convincingly meet 22% energy demand of Africa by the access and policies in place, but no similar provision for clean cooking
end of 2030. According to the report also, scaling up up-to-date [7,81].
renewables in Africa is an affordable means to support fast rising
energy needs while increasing energy access, improving health and 10. Needs for grid extension
attaining sustainable goals. To accelerate Africa's uptake, 14 actions
were recommended by the report. These are regulatory framework to The early days of electrical energy generation, distribution were
catalyze investment, adopting enabling policy measures to attract direct current (DC) based. Hence, the supply voltage was limited as
stakeholders and promoting stand-alone renewable solution to im- well as the distance covered between generation and the consumers.
prove energy access and reduce poverty. Table 12 shows the amount of They used local storage such as batteries to mitigate the shortage in
renewable energy used and REmap options for 2013 and 2030 terms of less solar irradiant and wind intensity especially at the night
respectively. Where PJ, TWh and MWthth are pet joule, terawatt-hour which are directly coupled with the DC grid. Advancements of
and megawatt-thermal [77–80]. technology led to the coming of a transformer with the emergence of
Alternating Current (AC) grids, allowing for electrical energy to be
9. Energy policy in Africa transported over longer distance. The balancing and storage needs are
the very important issues in case of intermittent renewable energy
While practically, all the energy policies for each countries in sources, since they are not consistent [82].
African continent cannot be presented here, an extensive policy and Intermittent renewable energy sources in Africa were not fully
plan reviews of both national and regional have been undertaken for explored. They are used as off grid system in local remote areas which
this paper. A lot of countries such as South Africa, Ghana, Angola, are mainly used for irrigation purpose, water pumping, powering traffic
Cameroon, Kenya, Ethiopia and Rwanda have national energy policies, and street light, vaccine refrigeration, small scale industries, crops
but the time limit varies (on the average of 5–20 years), as to the processing, and powering rural clinic etc.
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Table 13
Selected energy policies and targets of few Sub-Saharan African countries [81].
Angola Power New power market model implementation with single power purchaser and equal right for both the public and private power utilities.
Access Electrification rate increase from 30% to 60% by 2025.
Integration Link transmission lines with Namibia and Congo.
DR Congo Access Electrification rate increase from 9% to 14% by 2015 and 26% by 2020.
Power Declaration of stricter standards for electric motors.
Ethiopia Renewables New renewables energy capacity targets for geothermal, hydro and wind.
Access Distribute 9 million improved cooing stoves by 2015.
Ghana Oil and gas Strategy to increase exploration, reduce poverty by utilizing the revenues, maximize local participation and develop a petrochemical industry.
Efficiency The transmission lines losses reduce to 18% by 2018 as well as the lighting and air conditioners are well labels and standardized.
Renewables Established feed-in tariff by the Renewable Energy Act in 2011.
Kenya Efficiency Set a standards for electrical appliances, energy efficiency obligations for utilities and enforcement of energy efficiency standards – energy bill
2014 provides for the creation of an Energy Efficiency and Conservation Agency.
Buildings Kerosene used as household fuel to be eliminated by 2022 and requirement to install solar water heaters in buildings served by the grid.
Mozambique Gas Master plan approved in 2014 for maximizing the value of gas resources.
Access Electrification rate increase from 39% to 85% by 2035.
Renewables Install of 50 000, 5 000, 2 000 of lighting systems, refrigeration systems and televisions respectively powered by solar PV or wind turbine systems
in off-grid areas and 100 00 solar water heaters by 2025.
Nigeria Oil and gas Draft Petroleum Industry Bill tend to revise various areas of the existing framework.
Power As set up in the Roadmap for power sector reform that continue sector-wide reforms to allow private investment as such establish a competitive
electricity market and achieve reliable power supply.
Access Provide reliable electricity available to 75%, 100% of the population by 2020 and 2030 respectively- connect an average of 1.5 million households
per year.
Buildings Announced the design and implementation of minimum energy performance standards for appliances and industrial equipment.
Rwanda General Expand the transmission systems network by 2 100 km by 2017 and reduce share of bioenergy in primary energy demand to 50% by 2020.
Access Electrification rate increase from 17% to at least 60% by 2020 and give access to all schools and hospitals by 2017.
Senegal Renewables 20% target of total energy supply from renewable energy sources by 2017.
South Africa Renewables The update of 2013 Integrated Resource Plan sets out a strategy to diversify the power mix, moving strongly towards low-carbon sources of power
supply.
Energy prices Electricity prices to be adjusted gradually to better reflect costs and Carbon dioxide CO2 tax under consideration.
Egypt Renewables Implement new laws to attract foreign investors in the renewable energy sector so as to enable Egypt to meet its target of 20% renewable energy
production by 2020.
Grid extension is a viable to cater for excess electricity generated by 11. Energy storage systems
non-hydro renewable energy sources. In developed and developing
countries, they have introduced feed-in-tariff and net metering pro- The process of converting electrical energy into another form of
grams, so as to encourage the use of renewable energy sources. This energy and later accessed when it is needed is termed energy storage.
programs tackle the issue of excess electricity by the non-hydro The application power, energy rating, response time, operating tem-
renewable energy sources. Feed in tariff and net metering known as perature etc. determines the type of energy storage system suitable for
net energy metering are both methods design to speed renewable a particular application. The characteristics of various energy storage
technologies investment, (e.g. solar panel and wind turbine) by technologies is illustrated in Table 14.
allowing energy producers (e.g. homeowners) to be compensated for Currently, the state of energy storage (ES) is mainly categorized by
the energy feed back into the utility grid. There are basically three types the following; the developing technology under demonstration, inte-
of renewable electrical energy configuration in used today, these are; gration of system with improved power electronics and the absence of
standalone off-grid system, battery-based grid tie system and battery- recognized planning tool that will help in understanding the storage
less grid tie systems. system and differences on the design of the storage system
[84,85]. Sections 11.1–11.5. discussed the different types of storage
1. Standalone system: this is a configuration in which there is no system technologies in detailed [84–90].
connection between the system and the grid. It uses battery as a Energy storage system is mainly classified into the following; thermal,
backup in the case of low input or high energy demand. chemical, mechanical and electrical storage systems. Thermal storage
2. Battery-based grid-tie systems: this type of configuration is con- systems are classified into low temperature ES and high temperature ES.
nected to the grid so that whenever there is excess electricity from Chemical energy storage system comprises of chemical ES (batteries),
the renewable system, it inject to the grid and vice-versa. Electrochemical ES (fuel cells) as well as Thermochemical ES (solar
3. Batteryless grid-tie systems: this is the most simple among the hydrogen, solar metal, solar ammonia and solar methane). Mechanical
configuration. It has no battery but it is connected to the grid utility. energy storage consist of potential ES (compressed air and pumped
The system can be made up of solar modules, wind turbine, hydro hydro) and kinetic ES (flywheels). Lastly, Electrical energy storage which
turbine or a combination of both with an inverter [83]. includes; electrostatic ES (capacitors and supercapacitors), and
Magnetic/current ES (superconducting and magnetic) [91].
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A.K. Aliyu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table 14
Energy storage systems [85].
Type Energy efficiency (%) Energy density (W h/kg) Power density (W/kg) Cycle life (cycles) Self-discharge
11.1. Pumped hydro storage Commercial systems use ordinary hollows as air reservoirs for the
purpose of storing large amounts of energy; installed commercial
In pumped hydro storage technology, the working principle is such system capacity ranges from 35 to 300 MW.
that water pumped from one reservoir to another at a higher height,
often during off-peak and other low electricity demand periods. This
technology is perhaps the first and biggest of all the commercially 11.3. Battery energy storage system
accessible energy storage technology. Facilities of pumped hydro exist
in size of up to 1000 MW range, there are also found small sizes of less Battery energy storage (BES) is basically classified under electro-
than a megawatt and even a few kilowatt usually in isolated grid. chemical energy systems. It consist of two electrodes separated by an
Pumped hydro storage known to have the characteristics of reasonable electrolyte. Ions from the anode are released into the solution and
high efficiency of 65–80%, power capacity of normally 100–1000 MW, deposit oxides on the cathode during discharge process. The fast
its capacity to store large and a long life span of 30–60 years, has made growth witnessed in power electronics devices has led to the massive
it to become very popular. development in the design of battery storage systems.
Battery storage system (BSS) is designed in such a way that the
chemical energy stored in it, is converted into electrical energy and vice
11.2. Compressed air energy system versa during charging process. BSS components consist of batteries,
control system, power conditioning system (C-PCS) and protection
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a technology in which system. Batteries are used for both high and low voltage applications
energy is stored as compressed air for future use. A standard gas depending on the power usage requirement. The most extensive
turbine is used to extract the energy, turbine phase used for compres- storage devices used for power system application is the battery.
sing air is replaced by CAES thereby avoiding air compression by the Deep cycle battery with an efficiency of 70–80% is the most common
use of natural gas. The exothermic and endothermic nature of the air battery used in power system application. Mostly, batteries are
compression and expansion has made the system to be complex. A classified in to low temperature internal storage and high temperature
typical compressed air energy storage system uses an existing under- external storage systems as presented in Table 14. The low temperature
ground site such as rock cavern, a salt dome or an abondone which is types usually works at room temperature. Electrochemical system can
then released during peak day-time hours to power a turbine for power be design based on internal or external storing operation and their
generation. major difference is allowing for separation of energy conversion units
CAESs have been painstaking for many applications, more parti- from active constituents. This arrangement allows for design and sizing
cularly for electric grid support for load leveling applications. In such of power and storage section. Lead acid (PbO2), nickel cadmium
schemes, energy is kept during periods of low demand and then (NiCd), lithium ion and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) are the typical
converted back to electricity when the electricity demand is goes high. examples of low temperature battery having internal storage system.
Table 15
Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) applications in power system [86].
1 Near consumers Recommended for limiting daily peak demand so as to-improve security (endure disturbances through peak loads), reduce the need for
spinning reserve, reduce the need for demand forecasting and peaking generators
2 Israeli isolated system Simulation studies to study the effect of a 30 MW BESS on frequency regulation of the system.
3 Wind-Diesel stand-alone system Monitoring active and reactive power of redox flow batteries by neural networks. Simulation studies carried out to observe the effect of
load and wind instabilities
4 Fixed speed wind farm Levelling wind farm power output, improving temporary stability and providing reactive power backing are illustrated through
simulations
5 Interconnected power system Remove doubt in predicting the annual peak demand. Further applications include; load smoothing, backup supply, damping of inter
area oscillations are established experimentally (lab setup) using 100 Ah, 110 V lead-acid batteries
6 Interconnected system Peak load shearing, compensate load destabilize, harmonic and reactive powers (maintain nearly UPF and operate as UPS. A 5-kVA
prototype BESS used to show these in a laboratory
7 Demand side applications Can be function in grid link (active filter, power conditioner, voltage stabilizer) or stand-alone (UPS) mode. Demonstrates these
features experimentally (lab) on a 5-kVA battery and through simulation
8 Laboratory Set up Load leveling, active filtering and operation as UPS-these features of the considered BESS controls are demonstrated experimentally on
a 100-Ah, 110-V lead-acid battery bank
13
A.K. Aliyu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Sodium sulfur (NaS), sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl) and flow also depend on the site of the wind farm and the wind speed is much
batteries are the examples of high temperature type of the external more constant in sea breezes than in land breezes [92].
storage facilities. Table 15 shows the direct Battery Energy Storage
System (BESS) application in power system. 13. Discussion
11.4. Superconducting magnetic energy storage system Africa is the second largest continent and also the second most
populous continent with 54 countries in the world, it has abundant
Another emerging storage system device is the superconductive renewable energy as well as fossil fuel for electricity generation which
magnetic energy storage (SMES). In this technology, the dc current greatly contributes to global warming, cancer and various respiratory
flowing through a superconducting coil produces a magnetic field diseases, oil crises in the world market, oil crises in the world market. It
where the energy is stored. They have a high operational cost as a is therefore, necessary to supplement the fossil fuels with the renewable
result of their construction and as such, they are best suited to supply energy sources.
constant, deep discharges and continuous activity. A solenoid or a The Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE) elaboration of IEA data
collection of two or more solenoids are usually used for the (ARE 2011) shows that people living without access to electricity have
construction so that it will cancel the magnetic field about them. reached 589million as in 2008 and mostly rural areas. As shown by the
SMES has the advantage of possessing of above 90% and one of the three case studies of this paper, the potentials of each country are not
highest in term of power densities of any storage system. High fully exploited, mainly due to limited policy interest, investment level
dynamic response in the range of millisecond is also an additional and poor infrastructural support to harness the renewable energy. In
benefit of SMEA. The fast response period (below 100 ms) of these South Africa and Egypt the contribution of renewable energy is
systems marks them ideal for regulating network stability (load significant. As South Africa and Egypt target 42% and 22% of the
flattening). These facilities currently are in the range in size of up renewable energy contribution in electricity generation by the year
to 3 MW units and are usually used to provide grid stability in a 2020 and 2030 respectively. Nigerian contribution is insignificant due
supply system and power quality at industrial facilities demanding to above factors mentioned earlier. Renewable energy can be generated
ultra-clean power such a chip construction facility. in small amount as a standalone system. Most of the areas without
access to electricity in the African continent are rural dwellers.
11.5. Flywheel energy storage system However, electricity generated from renewable energy sources is the
solution because most of the areas are offshore. The cost of transport-
Flywheel energy storage system (FESS) stores energy by means of ing electricity to an offshore area is very expensive due to High Voltage
accelerating a rotor up to a high speed and keeping the energy in the Direct Current (HVDC) facilities and equipment's. In order to sustain
system as inertial energy. This theory has been functioned in synchro- African economy, energy is the first priority to consider as it is a
nous generators to give out a stable voltage. This technology has catalyst of growth and development of any nation.
become smart for a number of application as a result of the recent In summary, the following are the current obstacles to renewable
advancement in electronics aspect of power and engineering materials. energy developments in African countries: (i) Insufficient policy and
Flywheel systems is characterized by its ability to provide very high lack of implementation of the existing policy. (ii) Insufficient funding of
peak power. FESSs has virtually infinite number of charge–discharge governmental agencies that are responsible for generation, transmis-
cycles as well as high power and energy density. Therefore, they are sion and distribution of electricity. (iii) Mismanagement of funds
used in the area of transport system and power quality. The flywheel allocated to the energy sector. (vi) Lack of understanding on the effect
energy is released by reversing the process and using the motor as of gases emission by the burning of fossil fuels. (v) Lack of awareness of
generator. As the flywheel releases its stored energy, the rotor slows latest renewable energy technologies. (vi) Insufficient collaboration
down until it is fully discharged. Although most of the flywheel with international bodies on promoting renewable energy. (vii)
technology was established in the auto and space industry, flywheels Insufficient financial resources and expertise knowledge with regard
have witness maximum commercial achievement targeted for power to the implementation of modern renewable energy that would be
distribution abilities ranging from 150 kW to 1 MW. The speed of efficient and cost effective. (viii) Interest of governments and investors
rotation of flywheel determines its application. The FESS can be to develop a large scale instead of small scale renewable energy
categorized as low- and high-speed FESSs with respect to the speed. production. (ix) Lack of enforceable regulation due to lack of rule of
The electrical machine and bearing is a function of the flywheel speed law, corruption and poor governance. (x) Poor market for renewable
of rotation. The systems with more speed are more complicated as a energy products in Africa as some parts of African continent lack the
result of technological requirements. These systems are compressed right policies to develop an efficient market for renewable energy
and have low maintenance costs and requirements compared with technologies [93]. (xi) Institutional and regulatory barriers such as
battery storage systems. The key focus for development of this building a power plant that require a number of legal and regulatory
technology is for the purpose of power quality and reliability market. prerequisites for their improvement. Having many agencies makes it
take a long time before they approve and issue licenses.
12. Seasonal variation To remedy the above obstacles it requires: (i) Standardization of
institutional and regulatory departments and authorities to a single
Seasonal variation of solar irradiant and wind intensity are very agency that may regulate all the institutional and regulatory bodies. This
important in siting a solar energy and wind energy plant. Solar PV has will dependently reduce the delay for approval and issuance of license. (ii)
a great electrical energy potential with a peak in summer period, Public enlightenment and awareness about the importance of building
although along the equator there is almost constant exploitable renewable energy resources as they are clean energy sources [94]. (iii)
potential throughout the year. Electrical energy production using solar Deregulation of energy sector can promote the use of small scale
PV varies on a diurnal bases from dawn to dusk peaking during mid- renewable energy production that will increase the availability of
day and lastly short term fluctuation of weather condition such as electricity, reduce cost of energy and provide favorable environment for
clouds and rainfall, impact on the inter-hourly amount of electrical private investors. (iv) The consistence of government policy in addressing
energy that can be harvested. Wind power can fluctuate at various time the issues about renewable energy sources. (v) External assistance from
scales - it is subject to seasonal variations of peak electrical energy countries and financial entities to assist in reducing risk in renewable
production in winter or summer period depending on the region, as energy deployment by the use of technological equipment and facilities.
well as diurnal and hourly changes. The degree of wind speed variation (vi) Rural electrification programs most integrate renewable energy in
14
A.K. Aliyu et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
energy as you use, then the grid supplies the difference and you get billed
for the difference, if you produce more then you use the required demand
and the excess just goes to the utility grid.
14. Conclusion
15
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