Rice oraiZA sativa s the stable food for most of the countries mostly half of the world.

India is the second

most largest producers of the rice and china is the largest producer. Asia is the largest producer , as of
2020/ 2021 china produces the 149 metric tonnes of the rice and india produces 106.5 million metric
tones. Rice canbe consumed as raw and parboiled which involves in washing, dehulling, whitning,
polishing and grading. Processing of rice results in the production of different materials like milled rice
(endosperm 70%, germ 2%), husk (20%) and bran (8%).

. The cultigen Oryza sativa grew in all regions around the globe, but the other Oryza glaberrima
is totally confined to West Africa regions. Rice is cultivated in almost 42 different countries and can grow
in the mountainous Himalayan region as well as in low land delta areas (Panda, 2010). The association
between rice cultivation and human culture began more than 7000 years ago which is clearly indicated
in existing excavations (Oka, 2012). The species Oryza has been in cultivation for long centuries and well
adapted to a diverse range of climatic conditions. This has led to the evolution of three different
subspecies under this category which are O. sativa sub sp. indica, O.sativa sub.sp japonica, O.sativa sub
sp. Javanica
Root system

Rice has fiberous root system, it has no primary root system consists of seminal, nodal and
lateral roots. Rice usually germinates after soaked in water for 2 days. usually the primary embryonic
roots called radicles will pierce its way out through the coleorhiza and forms a seminal root, followed by
the development of lateral roots. The clums will rise after the growth of the rice from germination.
Clums are secondary adventitious roots which arise from the basal nodes.

Shoot system

The visible parts of the plants above the soil are called shoot system. The shoot system of the
rice composed of various parts are culms, tillers, leaves, and panicles, spikelet and grains.

1.Culm

In simple words, Stem of rice is called Culm. Actually, It is long cylindrical hollow stem with alternating
nodes and internodes.

The node of clum has a leaf and a bud. The node which is at the ground level starts forming new
tillers(New Shoots). The final production of rice plant also depends on this tillering capacity.

The internode of clum is hollow from inside while the node is solid. Clum is smooth and the length of its
internode increases as we go upward i.e towards panicle.

Function:- The main role of culm is to support rice plant and helps to transport minerals and water
absorbed by roots to upper parts.

2.Leaves

Leaves develops from each node of the culm. They are alternate and opposite in position and only one
leaf emerges from one node.

There special leaf just beneath the panicle of rice called Flag Leaf which plays great role in
photosynthesis.As leaf emerges from node-It sheath(Leaf Sheath) covers the internode and grow
forward.Just above node and at the base of leaf sheath, there is a swelling which is frequently mis-
recognized as node is called Sheath Pulvinus.Leaf of rice contains Leaf blade, Sheath along with sepcial
part of rice plant called Ligule and Auricle.Auricle pair of small ear like appendages situated at the base
of leaf.Ligule in rice papery triangular structure situated above auricle.

Function– Leaves are main source of photosynthesis which helps to make food.

2.Panicle

Panicle is the most important part of rice as it determines to total grain production.

In simple-Panicles are flowers of rice. If we go by scientific term-Panicles are group of spikelets which
are situated at the top end of culm/stem.
Panicle is connected to the culm by panicle base which is also called as neck.

Panicle is further divided into primary branch and secondary branch. All these branches bear spikelets.

Function:-Panicles hold spikelets which are filled after pollination and formation of grains starts.

3.Spikelet

Spikelet is structure of rice pant which contains floret(Grain) and pedicel(This Support Floret).

Floret consists of lemma Palea and Flower. Lemma and Palea are outer hard covering.

The flower of rice consists of a pistil and six stamens. During reproduction, palea and lemma opens.

After opening- The pollens drops into stigma which ultimately reaches to ovary and fertilization occurs
and grain(Ripened Ovule) forms and harvesting is done.

After fertilization-The lemma and Palea closes. This suggests that, Rice has self pollination.

Thus- These are the Parts of rice plants and Its functions. Each part of rice has immense contribution in
the development of most eaten rice.
Production of rice’

Oryza Sativa, it is believed, is associated with wet, humid climate, though it is not a tropical
plant. the rice plant may have originated in southern India, then spread to the north of the country and
then onwards to China. It then arrived in Korea, the Philippines (about 2000 B. C.) and then Japan and
Indonesia (about 1000 B. C.). When Alexander the Great invaded India in 327 B. C., it is believed that he
took rice back to Greece.

History of Rice in India:

India is an important centre of rice cultivation. The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India.
Historians believe that while the indicavariety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the
foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India), stretching through Burma, Thailand, Laos,
Vietnam and Southern China, the japonicavariety was domesticated from wild rice in southern China
which was introduced to India. Perennial wild rice still grow in Assam and Nepal. It seems to have
appeared around 1400 BC in southern India after its domestication in the northern plains. It then spread
to all the fertiled alluvial plains watered by rivers. Some says that the word rice is derived from the Tamil
word arisi.

7common in India. Few varieties cultivated in restricted pockets of Kerala for their medical properties
e.g. Chennellu, Kunjinellu, Erumakkari & Karuthachembavu etc. 1.7 Rice Growing Region in India: 1.7.1
Rice is grown under so diverse soil and climatic conditions that it is said that there is hardly any type of
soil in which it cannot be grown including alkaline and acidic soils. Rice crop has also got wide physical
adaptability. Therefore, it is grown from below sea-level (Kuttanad area of Kerala) upto an elevation of
2000 metres in Jammu & Kashmir, hills of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and North-Eastern Hills (NEH)
areas. The rice growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below
: i.North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In Assam rice is
grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy rainfall and rice is grown
under rain fed condition. ii. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in the
basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. This
region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed conditions. iii.Northern Region:
This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July
to September-December is grown. iv.Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October - December.
v.Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rice is
mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area
of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.
Post harvest methods of paddy

post-harvest technology is a series of processes as a part of rice cultivation cycle (referring to

figure 1) and any handling techniques or treatments applied to the economic part of a crop just
harvested from the field for the purposes of transforming it into a form, condition, or composition that
adds value, makes it storable or prolongs its shelf-life, and makes it useable or edible.

Harvesting

harvesting is the process of obtaining plant parts or component of plant-parts that has
reached its physiological maturity or at the stage of growth ideal for separating it from the stock plant.
The act of harvesting can be picking, pulling, plucking, slashing, cutting, stripping and shaking the
economic part of the plant that is of interest to the harvester. Time to harvest a crop is often
determined by changes that takes place in the economic part of the crop and, in some cases, the entire
plant. This change can be in the form of visual appearance, smell, colour, size, and the moisture content.
For the rice crop, the harvest time is often determined by the visual appearance, colour, and moisture
content of the grains. When the crop ripens, rice grains will be filled and tight, the grain colour change
from green to olive-green to yellow andthe moisture content drops between 18%w.b and 22%w.b. the
harveasting is done by both manually and by using machinaries

Threshing

Threshing is the physical process of separating the grains from the rice straw and the panicles. Threshing
of rice can be done by hand, foot, or simply by a swinging, beating and whipping actions against a
framed object. Threshing can also be done with winnowing machines. In PNG agriculture, threshing
grains is not a common practice, therefore, all new rice grower will need to learn the right operationand
techniques for threshing. Threshed rice will contain a lot of chaff and foreign materials, therefore, after
drying as shown above in Figure 6, cleaning needs to be carried out.

Drying

Drying is the process that reduces the moisture content of the rice paddy down to asafe-level where rice
can be properly milled and, importantly, put away safely for storage. Drying is the most critical operation
after harvesting a rice crop. Any delay in the drying process, incomplete drying or ineffective drying will
reduce the grain quality and result in post-harvest losses.

Cleaning

Cleaning is the process to remove rice straw chaff, foreign matters and immature/empty grains within
paddy after threshing and drying. High percentageof chaff, foreign matters include the soil piece, sand,
small stones, metal debris, plastic or paper pieces, twig and branches, wood piece, weed seed, other
grains, chemical and poisonous matters, etc., will unnecessarily increase the number of sack of rice and
weight of paddy
milling

Paddy or rice grain consists of husk and brown rice. Brown rice, in turn, contains bran which comprises
the outer layer and the edible portion. Rice milling is removal or separation of husk (dehusking) and
bran to obtain the edible portion for consumption. The process has to be accomplished with care to
prevent excessive breakage of the kerneland improve recovery of paddy or rice. The extent of recovery
during milling depends on many factors like variety of paddy, degree of milling required, the quality of
equipments used, the operators, etc.Milling is the process wherein the rice grain is transformed into a
form suitable for human consumption, therefore, has to be done with utmost care to prevent breakage
of the kernel and improve the recovery.Brown rice is milled further to create a more visually appealing
white rice.After harvesting and drying, the paddy is subjected to the primary milling operation which
includes de-husking as well as the removal of bran layers (polishing) before it is consumed. In this
process the rice which is obtained after milling is called raw rice.An other process through which rice is
obtained after milling is called "Parboiling Rice." Nearly 60% of the total rice produced in India is
subjected to parboiling.Rice milling losses may be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Quantitative or
physical losses are manifested by low milling recovery while low head rice recovery or high percentage
of broken kernel reflects the qualitative loss in rice grains. The byproducts of milling are broken rice, the
husk, and the bran layer

Rice husk

Rice husks have been attracted as value added material towards waste utilization and cost reduction in
domestic and industrial processing. Rice husk (RH) is widely available in rice producing countries like
China and India which contributes 33% and 22% of global rice production respectively, as by-product of
the rice milling. RH content ranges from 16-25% of paddy

Rice bran

One hundred kilogram (100 kg) of paddy rice will generate approximately 5−10 kg of bran. Rice
bran is a mixture of substances, including protein, fat, ash, and crude fiber. In many cases, bran contains
tiny fractions of rice hull, which increases the ash content of bran. Bran composition is largely
dependent on the milling process.
In modern rice mills, several different kinds of bran are produced: coarse bran (from the first whitening
step), fine bran (from second whitening step) and polish (from the polishing step). Polish consists of part
of the endosperm and is often referred to as meal.

Compositional distinctiveness of rice bran

The composition of rice bran differs with the variety of rice, geographical conditions and processing
methods. Rice bran, the outer layer of the rice grain, accounts for 8–10% of the total weight of the grain;
however, it contains most of the nutrients: carbohydrates (34–62%), lipids (15–20%), protein (11–15%),
crude fiber (7–11%) and ash (7–10%). In particular, rice lipids and bioactive components are
concentrated in rice bran [6, 7]. Fatty acids such as palmitate (21– 26%), linoleate (31–33%) and oleate
(37–42%) are predominant in rice bran. In addition, due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, rice bran is considered a healthy food [7, 8]. Significant quantities of bioactive compounds such as
γ‐oryzanol, tocotrienol, tocopherol and α‐sitosterol as well as dietary fibers such as α‐glucan, pectin and
gum have been found in rice bran [9, 10]. Specifically, γ‐oryzanol, the main antioxidant present in rice
bran, has a 10‐times higher antioxidant activity than tocopherol, while tocotrienol has 40–60 times
greater antioxidant activity than tocopherol. However, the proportions of these phytochemicals vary
with the type of rice cultivar [11]. In addition, rice bran contains 4‐hydroxy‐3‐methoxycinnamic acid (FA),
which has photoprotective and antioxidative effects [12–14]. The health information website
SelfNutritionData (http://nutritiondata.self.com) reports that one cup of crude rice bran provides 88
calories and that 28 g of rice bran contains 5.8 g of fat, 1.2 g of which is saturated and 4.2 g of healthy
unsaturated fatty acids.

Defatted Rice Bran

Deeflatted rice bran is the byproduct of rice bran after removal of rice bran oil. It is usually
considered as the waste product. But, it has rich nnutritional value also used as the animal feed, poultry
feed etc. It is rich in dietary fiber, minerals along with high protein and fat content and its exhibit higher
fat and water absorption capacity because of the presence of dietary fiber. Defatted rice bran can offer
the potential to supplement the dietary fiber in making bakery products to enhance its nutritional
quality

Rice Bran Oil

Rice bran is a by-product of rice milling, and is produced  during the polishing of 
brown rice to prepare white rice. The  bran contains 15–25% oil depending on the cultivar, 
agricultural practices, and the extent of polishing. The potential for  production of rice bran 
and rice bran oil (RBO) in major ricegrowing countries is presented in Table 1. Although rice 
bran  has reached its full potential, only 19% of RBO’s potential is  realized—even though 
paddy (rough rice) is produced in as  many as 15 major rice-growing countries in the 
world.India produces 65.7% of its potential (820,000 MT).

 crude RBO comprises 95% saponifiable and 4.2% nonsaponifiable lipids. The 
saponifiable components include triacylglycerols (71%), diacylglycerols (3%),  monoacylglycerols 
(5%), phospholipids (4%), and glycolipids  (6%); on saponification these yield alkali salts of fatty 
acids (FA)  and glycerol. Waxes (3%) and oryzanol (1.8%) are also present  in the oil. These 
saponify with difficulty and may be found in the  unsaponifiable matter (as such or in the 
saponified forms, viz,  long-chain alcohols from waxes, phytosterols from oryzanol).  If proper 
care is not exercised, this may eventually increase the  level of unsaponifiable matter in the 
oil. Like groundnut oil, sesame oil, and corn oil. RBO contains a high proportion of 
monounsaturated  (40–50%) and diunsaturated FA (29–42%). It has comparatively higher 
amounts of different classes of unsaponifiable  matter than other edible oils. Extraction of rice
bran oil involves following process

Crude Rice Bran Wax

the tank settlings of crude RBO can be a source of wax. They purified RBW fromthe tank settlings by
dissolving the tank settlings with hexane, acetone, isopropanol, and diethyl ether and filtering the
precipitate in 5 different procedures. The wax yield ranged from 8.3 to 13.7%. Even though the wax
contents in the study excluded the soft waxes and there was no composition analysis performed, the
researchers provided insight into wax purification methods with proper solvents. The composition of
waxes from crude RBO tank settlings was studied by Yoon and Rhee (1982) with TLC and GC. They

used methyl ethyl ketone to remove the oil and isopropanol to crystallize the wax. Their results

showed that there were soft (mp 74 oC) and hard waxes (mp 79.5 oC) in the oil according to their

melting point, and that the contents of hydrocarbon, fatty alcohol and fatty acid were 5.6%, 3.9%
and 0.6% in hard wax, and 1.2%, 4.0%, and 1.0% in soft wax, respectively. The hard wax was

mainly composed of saturated fatty alcohols of C24, C26, and C30, saturated fatty acids of C22, C24, and
C26, and n-alkanes of C29 and C30, while the soft wax was mainly composed of

saturated fatty alcohols of C24 and C30, saturated fatty acids of C16 and C26, and n-alkanes of

C21 and C29. However, their study did not determine alkyl ester composition according to their

chain lengths. Both of the studies focused mainly on separation of wax from crude RBO settlings

and composition analysis of hydrolyzed wax ester. Belavadi and Bhowmick (1988) investigated

crude RBO settlings, and compared the compositions of hydrolyzed and unhydrolyzed wax.

They extracted rice bran oil with petroleum ether, separated wax with isopropanol crystallization.

Refining of crude rice bran wax

Refining involves in many steps. At first, the deflating , then treating with hexane at 65 followed
by treating with isoproponal at 80. Then the bleaching is done which removes the resinous materials.
Sodium borohydride solution is used to remove the reddish brown color resinous materials. The final
step of refining is filtration of the residue obtained from the previous step along with proper washing
and vacuum drying.

Studies on the Health Benefits of RBW

RBW suspended in 25% gum arabic solution had an oral LD50 of >24 g/kg body weight (bw) in

male mice. Hydrogenated RBW (administered as 50% in corn oil) had an oral LD50 of >5 g/kg

bw in white rats, which were necropsied 14 days after dosing; one male rat had a dilated right

kidney. Ten albino rats (5 male and 5 female) that orally received RBW (a 12.5% suspension

heated and cooled in corn oil) at a dose of 5 g/kg bw, were observed for 14 days, and dissected.

No gross changes were observed in nine, but one showed two red nodules (3mm i.d.) attached to

fat adjacent to the bladder. The LD50 was >5 g/kg bw (No author listed, 2006).

Hansen and Mead (1965) studied the effect of waxes on rat growth by feeding diets with a

defined wax such as oleyl palmitate at either 4 or 15 g/100 g diet for 2–4 weeks, in which

absorption of the wax was about 50%, and the animals fed at this level developed steatorrhea.

This indicates that intact wax esters are not absorbable, and that for uptake to occur, the
esterified fatty alcohol must be released by a lipase or other carboxyl esterase.

Efficiency of long chain species uptake decreases as chain length and hydrophobicity increase,

and depends on the secretion of bile acids, colipases and a carboxyl esterase and the existence of

competing substrates for those enzymes. Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes triacylglycerol at

approximately 10 times the rate of waxes, so the presence of dietary fats may stimulate secretion

of bile and pancreatic enzymes yet inhibit wax hydrolysis. Hydrolysis of WEs releases fatty

acids and fatty alcohols, both of which are readily absorbed by the intestinal epithelium

(Hargrove et al. 2004). Based on the studies in the previous section (Sec. 1.1.1.1), hydrolysis of

WEs also releases sterols.

Long chain fully saturated aliphatic alcohols (C24-C34), known as policosanol, especially

when extracted from sugar cane wax, have been widely studied mainly by Cuban scientists

(Pepping, 2003; no author listed, 2004). Octacosanol (CH3-(CH2)26-CH2-OH, C28) is the

predominant moiety, comprising approximately 63% of the mixture (Granja et al., 1997).

Policosanol is a drug currently in use in combination with dietary therapy in patients with

hypercholesterolemia (Gouni-Berthold, 2002). The health-promoting effects of policoanol has

been well reviewed (Janikula, 2002; Gouni-Berthold and Berthold, 2002;; McCarty, 2002, 2005;

Pepping, 2003; Taylor et al. 2003; Jacoby and Mohler, 2004; No author listed, 2004).

Policosanol have been found to show little or no toxicity or harmful side effects in various

animals with the concentration range of 0.25-5000 mg/kg bw for 3 weeks to 18 months.

Policosanol has significant anti-platelet effects or anti-coagulation effects in blood in both

humans and animal models. Policosanol prevents the development of atherosclerosis by

inhibiting LDL oxidation as well as neointimal formation and by accelerating LDL metabolism.

Policosanol appears to decrease synthesis and increase degradation of HMG-CoA, the rate

limiting step in cholesterol synthesis. It is thought to interfere with the synthesis and degradation
of the enzyme. Singh et al. (2006) found that policosanol inhibits cholesterol synthesis in

hepatoma cells by AMP-kinase activation, which indirectly down-regulates HMG-CoA

reductase, and that triacontanol (C30) is more effective than octacosanol (C28). However,

several other studies recently reported that sugar cane policosanol has no or little direct effects

on hypercholesterolemia in human and animal subjects, and that policosanol does not alter the

serum lipid profile over an 8-wk period in adults with mild hypercholesterolemia (Kassis and

Jones, 2006; Dulin et al., 2006; Kassis et al., 2007; Francini-Pesenti et al., 2008). Rice

policosanol has also been tested in human and animal subjects. Rice policosanol treatment did

not change significantly neither fibrinogen nor coagulation factors VII, VIII, XII and XIII

(Reiner and Tedeschi-Reiner, 2007). Rice policosanol significantly reduced plasma total

cholesterol and increased Apo AI but did not change plasma triglycerides, HDL, HDL2, HDL3

and LDL cholesterol, ox-LDL, Lp(a), Apo B, fibrinogen, homocysteine or CRP levels (Reiner et

al., 2005). Rice bran policosanols have no significant favorable effect in changing lipid levels in

hamsters (Wang et al., 2003). All the studies indicate that policosanol does not improve blood

lipid profile but inhibits cholesterol synthesis.

Edible coating

To prevent the wastage of the foods edible coatings were developed there will be a thin layr of
coating will be applied to the food products which are consumable. Edible coatings are used for
extension of shelf life of fruits and vegetables. These can also be safely eaten as part of the product and
do not add unfavourable properties to the foodstuff [9]. Edible coatings or films increase the shelf life of
fruits and vegetables and are environment friendly. In recent years, new edible films and coatings have
been developed with the addition of various and edible herbs, antimicrobial compounds to preserve
fresh fruits and vegetables [89]. Edible coatings to prevent loss of firmness and moisture. They control
maturation, development and respiratory rate. Edible coatings prevent oxidative browning and decrease
growth of microorganism in fruits and vegetables for example, Cassava, Cucumber, and Cherries etc.,
[47]. Edible coatings or edible films are contributed to enhance the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by
reduction of moisture loss solute migration and gas exchange etc.; as well as by reducing the
physiological disorders. Edible coatings have high potential to control browning, discolour activity, off
flavour, microbial activity of fruits and vegetables and to extend shelf life. The types of edible coatings
are given in the fig
Hydrocolloids:

Hydrocolloids are originated from animals, vegetables, microbial or synthetic, they are
hydrophilic polymers. They have hydroxyl group and may be polyelectrolytes such as Alginate,
Carrageenan, Pectin, Carboxy Methyl Cellulose, Xanthan gum and Gum Arabic. they are used widely in
coating forming solution to coat and control the colour, texture, flavour and shelf life of fruits and
vegetables. Generally, all hydrocolloids are partially or completely dissolve in water and principle use of
this is to increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase (continuous phase) i.e., gelling agent thickness.
They act as an emulsifier due to this stabilising effect. They are divided into two classifications

Polysaccharide-based,

Protein-based

Polysaccharide-based:

Polysaccharides are the group of polymeric carbohydrates with inherent characteristics such as
biocompatibility, biodegradability and non-toxicity towards living organisms. These properties give them
a greater advantage for use in food packaging, mainly in the form of edible coatings and films. Recently,
polysaccharides have been also investigated to obtain bioactive and sensor materials as a component of
active and intelligent packaging. Their use as primary packaging can potentially replace conventional
packaging materials, partially or totally, which can reduce the overall use of synthetic materials. Due to
their protective functions, inherent or designed with the addition of antimicrobial, antioxidant, or other
biologically active components, polysaccharide-based materials may simplify the total packaging
structure.
Biopolymers have multiple film-forming mechanisms. Some mechanisms include electrostatic,
hydrophobic or ionic interactions or other intermolecular forces such as covalent bonds (e.g., disulfide
bonds and crosslinking).they are mainly suitable for food packaging applications, the preparations of
these films should include conditions and processes appropriate to the food process which comes under
pH modification, salt addition, heating, enzymatic modification, drying, use of food-grade solvents, or
reactions with other food-grade chemicals.

It is well known that a combination of more than two packaging materials is sometimes necessary to
provide the best packaging solution for certain food products.

Protein-based coating

Edible films from animal and plant proteins, like wheat, gluten, collagen, corn zein, soy, casein,
and whey protein and their properties and formation was of recent interest due to their numerous
functional properties. Functional properties can be defined as ‘‘those physical and chemical properties
that influence the behaviour of proteins in food systems during processing, storage, cooking and
consumption’’. stated that ‘‘the physico-chemical properties that influence functional behaviour of
proteins in food include their size, shape, amino acid composition and sequence, net charge, charge
distribution, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, structures (secondary, tertiary and quaternary), molecular
flexibility/ rigidity in response to external environment (pH, temperature, salt concentration), or
interaction with other food constituents’’. it is reported that edible protein coatings provided a method
of extending postharvest storage of fruits and vegetables. Protein films are hydrophillic in nature
possessing poor water vapor barrier property , but exhibit better oxygen, carbon dioxide barrier
properties and mechanical properties than polysaccharide films.

Lipid-based coating

Lipids gives good barrier properties for the food material, however, films including only lipids
are generally too brittle. The fatty acids mostly used for this purpose are waxes, nonhydrogeneted
vegetable oils, fatty alcohols and fatty acids whose carbon atom number changes from 14 to 18.
Chitosan-lipid based films show better efficiency to moisture transfer when the lipid is uniformly
incorporated in the matrix. It shows the importance of the morphological arrangement of the lipid
within thechitosan matrix.

Composite coating

Composite films or coatings define where multiple biopolymers have been combined to result with
beneficial properties. Carbohydrate, protein, and lipids have been preferred for developing such
systems. Binary films and coatings have been prepared from multiple combinations including protein-
protein, carbohydrate-carbohydrate and protein-carbohydrate. Similarly, ternary films coatings have
been prepared by protein-protein-carbohydrate combinations. In addition, several active ingredients
including antimicrobial compounds are loaded to these systems for the preparation of functional films
and coatings.

Wax coating

Waxes are esters of higher fatty acid with monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons and few free
fatty acids. It is used to modify the internal atmosphere and to reduce water losses of fruits and
vegetables. Waxes are used only in tiny amounts. It may turn white on the surface of fruits or
vegetables if they have been subjected to excessive heat and/or moisture. This whitening is safe and
non -toxic. Commodities that may have coatings applied include apples, avocados, bell peppers,
cantaloupes, cucumbers, eggplants, grapefruits, lemons, limes, melons, oranges, parsnips, passion fruit,
peaches, pineapples, pumpkins, rutabagas, squash, sweet potatoes, cassavas, turnips and yucca.

Shelf life extension of cassava chips

Cassava is commonly called Manihot esculenta. it is the largest source of food carbohydrates in the
tropical regions. it is cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible
starchy tuberous root and a good source of carbohydrates.The nutritional composition of cassava is
important because it is the main component of the root, which is consumed in less-developed countries.
The root contains significant amounts of carbohydrates and fiber. In addition, it has significant
percentages of minerals like calcium, iron, and phosphorus; and vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). It also contains large amounts of amino acid like arginine, glutamic acid,
and aspartic acid . Deep-fat frying is one of the conventional operations in the preparation of a variety of
fried foods, which is used worldwide to create desirable flavors and textures in foods . The sensory
characteristics of most deep-fried foods derive from the formation of a composite structure that gives a
crispy, porous, oily outer layer and a moist, cooked interior . Frying is commonly used in the food
industry to provide a variety of food products with high consumer acceptance although high-fat
contents contribute to obesity and cardiovascular disease. When food absorbs fat, it can change the
composition, texture, size, and shape of the food, leads in a loss of nutrients, specifically vitamins . There
is growing interest in methods that could minimize oil uptake and reduce the fat content of fried foods.
Materials and methods

India is one of the major cassava producing country in the world but still, we are far behind in
the processing of cassava. Knowing about this fact research has been conducted to extend the shelf life
of cassava by using rice bran wax. In this chapter, the material used and methods adopted for this
investigation are described in detail. The overview of this chapter is given below.

3.1 Methodology

3.2 Procurement of raw material

3.3 Refining of crude rice bran wax

3.4 Characterization of refined rice bran wax

3.5 Preparation of Edible coating emulsion

3.6 Coating on cassava

3.7 Storage Studies

3.8 Statistical Analysis

he equipment, materials, and methods adopted for the study “Utilization of rice bran wax as edible
coating and its effect on shelf life extension in cassava chips” are described elaborately. The study was
conducted at Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu during the period of
2020-2021.

1 Methodology Rice bran wax based edible coating is prepared and the shelf life of deep fat fried
cassava chips was analyzed. The methodology adopted for this study is represented in Figure
Refining of crude rice bran wax

The refining of rice bran wax involves in several steps like deflating, refining and filtration. The
raw material (crude rice bran wax) was obtained from SKM poorna oil industry erode. The obtained
rice bran wax kept in temperature of 20℃ -25℃ at relative humidity of 57.5-88.3% in polyethylene
cover and subjected to further analysis.

I. Defatting
II. Refining
III. Filtration

Deflating

It is the process of removing oil by compressing the bran in which 20% -70% of bran oil
were removed. After deflating the crude rice bran wax were subjected to solvent extraction
method for removal of excess oil in crude rice bran wax in which it is subjected to 50 g of rice
bran wax were taken In filter paper in soxhlet apparatus with 350 ml of n-hexane 90%at 60℃.
The obtained rice bran wax were cooled in room temperature. These residues (50g) was again
refluxed with 350ml of isopropanol for further extraction of oil at 85℃ for 45 min, thus oil
content is removed from the crude wax.

Refining

The Isopropyl alcohol treated wax was subjected to bleaching which removes excess
resinous matter. The 50g of wax taken in round neck bottom flask and 150ml of
Isopropyl alcohol were added. The 10% of sodium borohydride were added in the round bottom
flask with the help of syringe. The solution is prepared by dissolving 0.5g of sodium borohydride
crystals in 10 ml of water for the period of 20 to 30 min. A reddish brown color resinous
materials appeared during the addition of sodium borohydride solution. Reflux action was
continued for another 70-80 min followed by cooling the contents to ambient temperature.

Filtration

After cooling the obtained rice bran wax was filtered using membrane filtration. Then it
is kept under vacuum pump for the filtration. Then the product is subjected to dry in shade. The
obtained yellowish white wax cake is washed with Isopropyl alcohol and distilled water to
remove the odor from the wax. The result product is yellowish white powder which is stored in
the refrigerator for the preparation of edible coating emulsion preparation

Characterization of refined rice bran wax

The physical parameters like color, moisture content, melting point, acid value, saponification
value, iodine value were analyzed for crude rice bran wax, defatted rice bran wax and refined wax

Color
 In order to understand the physical changes, visual appearance the (color) of the crude rice bran
wax, defatted rice bran wax and refined rice bran wax were noted with the help of Hunter lab color flex
meter (Color Flex EZ colorimeter). When the beam of light on the sample and gathering the energy
reflected when this beam falls on the product. The values obtained as ‘L’, ‘a’ and ‘b’

I. ‘L’ - lightness to darkness

II. a - greenness to redness
III. b - blueness to yellowness

the changes observed during refining varies front dark brown to light yellow. The total color change
during refining can be calculated by

∆ E=√( Lo−L) 2+( ao−a)2+(bo−b)2

Moisture content

It is the amount of water content present in the sample, the moisture content is noted for the
crude rice bran wax, deflated rice bran wax and pure rice bran wax were noted. Which is done by hot air
oven method in which the 2g sample were placed at 130±1℃ for 1hr. after taking the sample it is kept
in desiccators and cooled and weighed for crude wax, defatted wax and refined wax. The final
moisture content were calculated by

Moisture content % = ((𝑊𝑖−𝑊𝑓) ÷𝑊𝑖) 100

where, Wi: Initial weight of the sample (g)

Wf: Final weight of the sample (g)

Melting point

The lowest temperature at which the solid form changes to liquid form. The melting point is
calculated by capillary tube method. In which the samples were crushed into a fine powder and filled in
a thin-walled capillary tube, which is sealed from one end. The capillary tube were dipped in the water
filled water and also the thermometer is also dipped which is attached to the capillary tube. The beaker
is heated gently and the temperature is maintained. The temperature was noted down when the wax
starts melting. This method is done for the all samples.

Acid value

It is the measurement of the number of base required to neutralize the acid present in thew
sample. The wax consists of fatty acid which gives the acidic value.

The sample was weighed (1g) and transferred to a 250 ml conical flask followed by addition of
20 ml neutralized ethanol into it. Phenolphthalein of 2-3 drops was added to the solution prior to
titration as an indicator. The solution was then titrated against 0.1 N KOH solution with continuous
shaking. The endpoint was noted when the color turns to pale pink
 56.1×V × N
AV = W

where V: Volume of standard KOH (ml)

N: Normality of KOH (N)

W: Weight of the sample taken (g)

Saponification value

Saponification is the process of conversion of fat, oil or lipid into soap and alcohol by the action
of aqueous alkali. Soaps are salts of fatty acid , which turn into carboxylic acids. Usually sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide were used for this reaction

About 2g of wax was taken in a round bottom flask and dissolved with 25ml of 0.1N KOH. Then it
was refluxed using water condenser for half an hour for occurring hydrolysis. The resulting solution was
allowed to cool and titrated against 0.5N HCl (4.106 ml of HCl in 100ml of distilled water) by adding 2-3
drops of phenolphthalein. The volume of HCl required to obtain endpoint (dark color) was noted. Blank
was also run without a sample to determine saponification value

56.1×( B−S)
Saponification Value=
w

where

B: volume of HCl used for blank (ml)

S: volume of HCl used for sample (ml)

W: Weight of the sample taken (g)

Iodine value

The iodine value is the mass of iodine in grams consumed by 100g of samples it is useful in the
determination of amount of unsaturated fats, oils and waxes.

For performing the experiment reagents such as 0.1N sodium thiosulphate solution (2.4820g of sodium
thiosulphate in 100ml distilled water), 15% KI (15g of potassium iodide in 100ml of distilled water),
Hanus solution (4.12g of iodine in 250ml of glacial acetic acid with 2-3 drops of bromine water) and
starch indicator were used. About 0.5gm of wax was weighed in an iodine flask and dissolved it in 10ml
chloroform. Hanus solution of 25 ml was added to the solution and mixed well. Then it was allowed to
stand in dark for half an hour. 15%KI solution and 100ml of distilled water were added to the cooled
solution. The solution was shaken thoroughly and titrated against 0.1N sodium thiosulphate until a
yellow solution turns colorless. A few drops of the starch indicator was added to the solution and the
color changes were observed from colorless to blue color. This solution was again titrated against 0.1N
sodium thiosulphate until the blue color disappears.

(B−S)× N ×12.69
Iodine Number =
w

Where

B: ml of thiosulphate used for blank

S: ml thiosulphate for sample

N: Normality of thiosulphate solution