PAPER NO.

CT 63
SECTION 6

CERTIFIED
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGISTS
(CICT)

RESEARCH METHODS

STUDY TEXT

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KASNEB SYLLABUS

RESEARCH METHODS

GENERAL OBJECTIVE
This paper is intended to equip the candidate with the knowledge, skills and attitude that will enable
him/her to design and carry out research on information systems

LEARNING OUTCOMES

A candidate who passes this paper should be able to:

 Identify and analyse problems for which research is required
 Identify the major types of research designs
 Formulate clearly defined research objectives and research questions
 Analyse key issues and themes from existing literature
 Conduct research
 Present research findings
 Apply ethics in research

CONTENT

1. Introduction to research
 Meaning of research
 Types of research
 Significance of research
 The research process
 Challenges in carrying out research
 Types of research designs
 Format of research project
 Research methodology

2. The research problem

 Problem identification
 Salient features of a good problem statement
 Background and context of the problem
 Problem statement
 Research objectives: General and specific objectives
 Research questions
 Research hypothesis/formulation of hypothesis
 Development of theoretical/conceptual framework

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3. Literature review
 Meaning and importance of literature review
 Theoretical review and Empirical review
 Critical review of major issues
 Theoretical and conceptual framework

4. Research methodology
 Target population
 Sampling techniques and sample size
 Data collection
 Data collection method
 Reliability and validity of data

5. Analysis and presentation of findings

 Analysis of findings
 Presentation of findings
 Testing of hypothesis
 Summary, conclusions and recommendations
6. Format of research project
 Preliminaries
 Content chapters
 Referencing - APA format
 Appendices

7. Issues in research
 Ethical considerations in research
 Implementation of research recommendations

8. Emerging issues and trends

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Course Outline

Topic One : View of Research Methods

1.1: Concepts of research 1.2: The purpose of

research 1.3: Objectives of research

1.4 Criteria of Good Research 1.5: Steps in

conducting research

Topic Two: Types of Research

2.1: Applied research

2.2: Basic Research

2.3: Quantitative research

2.3: Qualitative

Topic Three: Selecting and defining a research problem

3.1: Problem formulation – What is a research Problem /why the need for this? 3.2: What are the

criteria for selecting a problem?

3.3: Identifying Keywords 3.4: Define the

topic

3.5: Formulate the topic

3.6: Qualities of an effective Research Topic 3.4: Evaluating

problems

Topic Four: Information Resources

4.1: Printed sources

4.2: Electronic Resources (e-resources Literature Review

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Topic Five: Literature review

5.1: What is literature review?

5.2: Why the need for literature review?

5.3: How to carry out a literature review?

Topic Six: Research Design

6.1: Case Study Design

6.2 Experimental Design

6.3 Descriptive Design

6.5 Correlational design

6.6: Cross Cultural design

6.7: Qualities of effective Research Design

6.8: Guidelines in Selecting a research Design

Topic Seven: Sampling

7.1: Population

7.2: Guidelines in Population

7.3: Sampling Techniques

7.4 Sampling Design

Topic Eight: Data Collection Instruments

8.1: Questionnaires

8.2: Interview

Topic Nine: Data Presentation, analysis and Interpretation

Topic Ten: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Topic Eleven: References

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11.1: How to cite or quote references

Reading List

1. Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: methods and Techniques, 2nd rev. ed,

New Delhi, New Age International (P) Ltd, 2004

2. Kombo, Donald Kisilu and Delno L.A. Tromp. Proposal and thesis writing.

Nairobi: Paulines Publications, 2006

3. Mugnda, O.M and Mugenda A.G RESEARCH Methods: Qualitative and Qualitative

Approaches. Nairobi: Act Press, 1999

4. Orodho, A.J. and Kombo, D.K. Research Methods. Nairobi: Kenyatta University,

Insitute of Open Learning, 2002

Teaching methods

Lectures on various aspects of:

 Research Methods

 Seminars

 Group work/ Discussions

 Regular Cats and assignments

 Exams

Teaching Tools

 Whiteboard

 Information resources (printed and e-resources)

 Computer

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TOPIC ONE: Introduction, Definition of Terms and Concepts

Lecture Objectives-

At the end of this topic the student should be able to:

1. Understand the concept and meaning of research from different scholars;

2. Give an explanation of the purpose of research;

3. Understand the objectives of research.

4. Understand the steps in conducting research

Topic One: The concept of Research

Introduction

A human being can/tries to understand the world through everyday occurrences and

generalizations.

- Trial and error;

- Logical reasoning;

- Planned, structured, systematic, methodological investigation is what we call

research.

A more efficient and effective approach to expand knowledge however is the conduct

of special, planned, structured, systematic investigation a process known as research.

Definition of research

a) Research is an activity undertaken by people in order to find things out in a

systematic way thereby increasing their knowledge.

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 b) Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study

and analysis of the situational factors.

c) Research is an exhaustive study, investigation or experimentation that follows

some logical sequence.

Research can be defined as a set of systematic investigative activities designed to

survey, observe and clearly portray the status quo of education and other social settings

as well as the need and way of working towards continuous improvement of the

educational or social process (UNESCO, 1993).

In other words research is best conceived as the process of arriving at dependable

solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and

interpretation of data.

It is a most important tool for advancing knowledge promoting progress and enabling

human beings to relate more effectively to their environment accomplish their purposes

and resolve their conflicts. There are a number of specific forms that research can take

depending on the unique characteristics of the subject or topic under investigations.

However in a general sense, all research is oriented towards one or both ends i.e. The

extension of knowledge and/or the solution of a problem.

The term research means to look for, examine, investigate or explore. Orodho and

Kombo (2000) define research as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to

problems through the planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

Many writers describe research as a systematic process of investigating a problem.

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Tuchman (1978) describes research as a systematic attempt to provide answers to

questions.

Keywords in these definitions include: process, systematic, collection, analysis and

interpretation. Research can therefore be defined as a systematic process of collecting,

examining and interpreting data.

Characteristics of research

a) The data is collected systematically.

b) Data is analyzed systematically

c) There is a clear stated purpose to find things out.

Purpose of research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to the questions through the application

of scientific procedures. These procedures have been developed in order to increase

likelihood that the information gathered will be relevant to questions asked and will be

reliable and unbiased. There are four reasons for conducting research:

1. to explore and in the process describe and /or resolve some problems;

2. to review the existing theory and factual knowledge in a particular field.

This call for thorough content review e.g. an atom is the smallest particle of an
element. As people continued to do research, they came up with other results.
For example an atom can be split yet previously it was said it was not possible.
3. Theory and idea changes time by time;

4. to construct something that is useful. For example, to create a focused

information system/ to come up with an information system that can empower

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 people or to conduct a project of automation of library operations and

information services using open source software;

5. to explain or clarify complex phenomenon For example, what is justice?

Information seeking behaviour of information science student, lawyers, doctors?
There are some terms/ concepts that are very difficult to explain.

Objectives of Research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. For

example, become familiar with basic facts of an event or occurrence;

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group. For example, it involves providing detailed accurate picture with new

data that contradicts past data, create a set of categories or classification types

or clarify a sequence of steps or document a process;

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else;

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. For example

testing a theory, extending theory to new topics, supporting or reputing existing

theory or hypothesis. Linking certain issues/ topics with general principle.

Criteria of Good Research

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be

used;

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2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit

another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the

continuity of what has already been attained.

3. The Procedural Design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results

that are as objectives as possible;

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design

and estimate their effects upon the findings;

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and

the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of

the data should be checked carefully;

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and

limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis;

7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a

good reputation in research and in person of integrity.

In other words, the qualities of a good research are:

1. Good research is systematic. Research attempts to solve problems whether

social, economical, political, and cultural or health- related in a systematic way.

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a

specified sequence in accordance with the well defined at of rules;

2. Good research is logical. Implies that research is guided is guided by the rules

of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of

great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a

part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some

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 premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical

reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. It

employs carefully designed procedures;

3. Good research is empirical. It is based on observable experience./ empirical

evidence It demands accurate observation

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be

verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decision.

Steps in conducting research

Research is systematic because it follows certain steps that are logical in order. These

steps are:

1. Understanding the nature of the problem to be studied and identifying the

related area of knowledge;

2. Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt with

the problem;

3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid

decisions;

4. Analyzing data appropriate to the problem; drawing conclusions and making

generalizations.

Questions

Q1. What is research?

Q2. Explain the significant of research in modern time?

Q3. What do Kenyan’s ought to do in order to develop and sustain a

research culture?

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Q3 Distinguish between Basic Research and applied research.

Q4 Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.

Q4. Write short notes on:

1. Purpose of research;

2. Objectives of research;

3. Qualities of a good research.

Topic Two: Types of Research

Lecture objectives

At the end of th lecture you should be able to:

1. Identify types of research;

2. Explain basic research and applied research;

3. Discuss the qualitative research and quantitative research;

4. Discuss five ways in which people acquire knowledge.

Research can be classified from different perspectives:

Applied research

Applied research is pragmatic/practical and its purposes are more specific and are

generally aimed at solving practical problems or at the discovery of new knowledge

that can be utilized immediately in actual real world situations e.g. automation of

students registration system. Applied research aims at findings a solution for an

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immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/ business organization. It is the

research which is undertaken so that the knowledge obtained or research finding can be

used to solve a specific problem. On the whole, completed studies in information

sciences have been mainly of an applied nature.

Basic Research/ Fundamental

Basic research refers to studies conducted to achieve a fuller understanding of a

phenomenon without consideration of how findings will be applied. These include

studies undertaken primarily to acquire knowledge for its own sake. Such studies are

sometimes called pure research or theoretical research. Basic research is derived

from fundamental intellectual problems. It tends to be of an original and theoretical

nature. Basic research is mainly concerned with generations and with the formulation of

a theory. In many cases no experiments are carried .For example, studies undertaken to

acquire knowledge /academic reasons/purpose, master of philosophy (MPHIL) or

DPHIL. Universities are known for generation of knowledge yet doctors prefer research

for solving specific problems. If people have no knowledge, we cannot be developed.

The largest achievement is giving opportunities for more people to acquire knowledge

through research.

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative

research aims at measuring relationships between variables systematically and

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statistically. Quantitative research relies on the principle of verifiability i.e.

confirmation, proof, collaborations, or Knowledge emerges from direct observation.

The researcher‘s value, interpretation and feeling are not considered. Quantitative

research focuses on measurement i.e. the assignment of numerical events according to

rules. The numbers are specified, for example, sex, male or female. Quantitative

research is applicable under the following conditions:

1. When the research incorporates the statistical (how many?) element, designed

to quantify the extent to which a target group is aware or, thinks this, believes

that or is inclined to behave in a certain way;

2. When control of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected

and in-depth investigation of particular topics; For example in finding out the

effect, control of one phenomenon of interest is needed;

3. when data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process);

4. When the scenario is artificial, for instance, in a laboratory.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a form of research that involves description. It is concerned with

qualitative phenomenon. Qualitative research seeks to describe and analyze the culture

and behaviour of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being

studied. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human

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behavior (i.e. why people think or do certain things).This type of research aims at

discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the

purpose. Qualitative research uses the natural setting, for instance, a classroom setting

and not a laboratory. This means the scenario is not artificial. Qualitative research relies

on a research strategy that is flexible and interactive. This includes interviewing, focus

groups and questionnaires. Qualitative research is appropriate under the following

conditions:

1. When the subject matter is unfamiliar. For example, when one wants to know

the causes and effects of a certain phenomenon and the answer is unfamiliar to

the researcher. For example, The effect of free primary education on school

accessibility and retention or the effect of price increases on commodity

consumption;

2. When meaning rather than frequencies are sought. For example when analyzing

the effect of abortion on education, the research may be more interested in why

students procure abortions and the effect abortion has on the education. The

emphasis will be on the causes and impact on abortion;

3. when flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of the unexpected

and in depth investigation of particular topics. For example in fining out the

effect of abortion on education, the researcher may interview those who have

carried out an abortion and are willing to be interviewed. Focus group

discussions may be used.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitude,

opinions and behaviour.

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TOPIC THREE: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Introduction

The first concrete steps in the scientific research process, is to formulate the specific

problem that is to be examined clearly. A research problem, in general refers to some

difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or

practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Statement of the problem

A problem statement is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the

research. It introduces the broad aim of the research or the reasons or contributions of

the research problem in ideal situations. The research problem involves narrowing

down our general interest in a research topic in order to focus on a particular research

problem which is small enough to be investigated. A research problem:

1. Captures the challenges faced in the implementation of the research problem;

2. It is a problem of the research written in a form of a statement;

3. It then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied;

4. It usually starts with a brief introduction.

The researcher identifies the problem by asking a series of questions of questions. Such

as the following

1. What is it you wish to find out?

2. What is the context you would be investigation?

3. Why do you wish to investigate in this topic?

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 4. What importance does it have either theoretically or practically?

5. What (if anything) have others researchers said or done about these issues?

Defining the research problem

In research process in general the first and foremost steps happens to be that of

selecting and properly defining a research problem.

A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible/

liable to research.

The components of a research problem may be stated as follows:

1. There must be individual or groups which have a difficult or a problem.

2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained. If one want nothing, one cannot

have a problem

3. There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining objectives

one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available

to a researcher for he/she has no choice of means she or he can not have a

problem.

4. There must be some environment to which some difficult pertains. (e.g. Specific

area. i.e. Information retrieval, Programming) a broad context.

Criteria for selecting a problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations to keep

in mind. These help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you will

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remain motivated. These considerations are interest, magnitude, measurement of

concepts, level of expertise, relevance, availability of data and ethical issues.

1. Interest- interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a

research problem. A research endeavour is usually time- consuming and

involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. For example, if you

select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it could become extremely

difficult to sustain the required motivation, and hence its completion as well as

the amount of time taken could be affected.

2. Magnitude/extent- you should have sufficient Knowledge about the research

process to be able to visualize the work involved in completing the proposed

study. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear. It is

extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and

resources at your disposal.

3. Measurement of concepts- if you are using a concept in your study, make sure

you are clear about its indicators and their measurement. For example, if you

plan to measure the effectiveness of information retrieval promotion program,

you must be clear as to what determines effectiveness and how it will be

measured. Do not use concepts in your research problem that you are not sure

how to measure.

4. level of expertise- make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the

task you are proposing. Allowing for the fact that you will learn during the

study and may receive help from your research supervisors and others, but

remember you need to do most of the work yourself.

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 5. Relevance- selects a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure

that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or

is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the

study.

6. Availability of data- if your topic entails collection of information from

secondary sources (e.g published reports, books,etc) before finalizing your

topic, make sure that these data are available and in the format you want.

7. Ethical issues- another important consideration in formulating a research

problem is the ethical issues involved. In the course of conducting a research

study, the study population may be adversely/negatively affected by some of the

questions (directly or indirectly);deprived of an intervention, expected to share

sensitive and private information. How ethical issues can affect the study

population and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly

examined at the problem formulation stage.

Define the topic

The topic which is undertaken for study must be carefully be selected. The following

points may be observed by researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject of

research.

1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally taken/ chosen, for it will be a

difficult task to throw any new light in such a case).

2. Controversial subjects should not become the choice of an average researcher;

3. To narrow or too vague problem should be avoided;

4. The cost involved and the time factor should be taken into account;

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 5. Do not select topics where you require research permits unless you are sure of

acquiring the permits because you require a lot of time, copies of proposals or

passports.

Steps in the formulation of a research problem

This marks the beginning of a research study and is the most crucial and difficult part

of the research journey on which the quality of the entire project depends. A brief

review of the relevant literature helps enormously/ very much in broadening this

knowledge base. The process of formulating a research problem consists of a number of

steps. This involves :

1. Identifying and stating the problem in specific terms. To do research, you

must have a problem you want to investigate. It could be something that bothers

you. Something you have noticed but cannot get an explanation for, e.g. - How

come most librarians are ladies?. Is this accidental or are there reasons for this

situation?. What is it that really interest me as a professional? For example , in

identifying an area of study, a student in the department of Information Sciences

may be interested/ puzzled on topics like, collection management, scholarly

publishing, Information programming, Information Systems and design, library

automation open source software , library 2.0 tools among others. Before you

begin to do research, you must have a clear idea what you want to do.

2. Identify Keywords for the topic. The researcher should then narrow down to

the real aspect puzzling him/ her and express it in specific keywords. These

Keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the

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 research. For example if the researcher is puzzled about information retrieval,

the key words may be Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC).

3. Define the topic. It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subs rears. Out

of this list select issues or sub areas about you are passionate. That is, after

identifying the Keywords the researcher wants to concentrate or, he/she has to

define the topic. Defining the topic involves analyzing selected keywords

keenly. Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied.

For example programming, C, C++, Java, HTML, PHP, Visual Basic, etc.This

is because your interest should be the most important determinant for selection,

even though there are other considerations which have been discussed in the

previous section. Considerations in selecting a research problem, one way to

decide what interests you most is to start with the process of elimination. Go

through you‘re your list and delete those sub areas in which you are not very

interested. You will find that towards the end of this process, it will become

very difficult for you to delete anything further. You need to continue until you

are left with something that is manageable considering the time available to you,

you level of expertise and other resources needed to undertake the study. Once

you are confident that what you have selected you are passionate about and can

manage, you are ready to go to the next step.

4. Formulate the topic. After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher

should formulate it. For example, provision information services in libraries

and information centers. The researcher should search for articles and other

materials relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the research

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 develop clarity over selected topic selected. This will also assist the research in

the formulation of the research problem later on.

Note. To achieve this, you review the literature related to the problem to know what

other researchers have done and discovered and to identify the possible methodology

for

conducting the research.

Topic selection

1. Identify what interest or puzzles are in an area of study.

2. Identify keywords for your study

Challenges encountered in topic selection

1. choosing a topic that is too wide.

2. Choosing a topic that is too complex.

3. Poor timing

4. Limited accessibility to materials and respondents.

Conclusion

When you have decided on a topic or general problem, refine it and state specific

objectives, literature review should make it easy for you to do this after which you will

be in a position to consider how to collect the data or evidence that you require.

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The initial question is not which methodology but what do I need to know and why,

only then you ask what is the method, way to collect data of information and when I

have this information. What will happen with it?

Source of research problems.

a) Statements by prominent people that are stated without proof or passed as the

truth. For example, Kenyans do not read much or some people are poor because

they are lazy. They don‘t work hard enough.

b) Discussion with fellow students, work mates, lecturers etc. A person may

suggest an idea to you. You may argue on a point. Want to investigate

it.Lecturers, practitioners in the field may suggest a research idea to you.

c) Reading past research projects or reports of other people. They give

suggestions for further research. May show gaps that, there is need for

researching on. You may doubt a finding in the research and want to try it out

by doing similar research. This is called Replication; Common in Physical

Sciences.

d) Personal preferences, e.g. Areas where you have written good term

papers/essays etc.

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 e) Brainstorming. Tell a group of people, your. General idea about what you want

to research. Let them comment on the idea. Discuss the comments. Choose the

idea that looks best.

f) Reading. How do I know that my research topic is good?. Reading around

the area you are interested.

Question

1. Choose a suitable research topic in information sciences e.g libraries, record

mgt, IT, or Media studies.

2. Write the aim of the study

3. State specific objectives of the study

4. Write a statement of the problem

5. Write research questions.

6. Discuss the major factors that you would take into account when choosing a

topic for a research project in the information sciences field.

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TOPIC FOUR: INFORMATION SOURCES

PRIMARY SOURCES

Definition:

Primary sources are original materials. They are from the time period involved and
have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation. Primary sources are original
materials on which other research is based. They are usually the first formal appearance
of results in physical, print or electronic format. They present original thinking, report a
discovery, or share new information.

Examples include:

 Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from
the time under study);
 Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
 Diaries;
 Internet communications on email, listservs;
 Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
 Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
 Letters;
 Newspaper articles written at the time;
 Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
 Patents;
 Photographs
 Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
 Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty,
constitution, government document);
 Speeches;
 Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);

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  Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
 Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures,
musical scores, buildings, novels, poems).
 Web site.

SECONDARY SOURCES

Definition:

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. Generally, they are
accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and
evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather
commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what some define as a secondary
source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is everything.

Examples include:

 Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);

 Biographical works;
 Commentaries, criticisms;
 Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);
 Histories;
 Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);
 Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline);
 Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
 Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
 Web site (also considered primary).

TERTIARY SOURCES

Definition:

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary

and secondary sources.

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  Almanacs;
 Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
 Chronologies;
 Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
 Directories;
 Fact books;
 Guidebooks;
 Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
 Manuals;
 Textbooks (also be secondary).

Electronic Book

An e-book (short for electronic book and also known as a digital book, ebook, and
ebook) is an e-text that forms the digital media equivalent of a conventional printed
book, sometimes restricted with a digital rights management system. an e-book, as
defined by the oxford dictionary of english, is "an electronic version of a printed book
which can be read on a personal computer or hand-held device designed specifically for
this purpose."[1] e-books are usually read on dedicated hardware devices known as e-
readers or e-book devices. personal computers and some cell phones can also be used to
read e-books.

Read and makes notes Mugenda and Mugenda. Research methods. (2003)
Page 32-37 sources of literature.

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TOPIC FIVE: LITERATURE REVIEW
5.0 Introduction
Literature Review is an attempt to identify, locate and put together /synthesis completed
research articles, books and other materials about the specific problems of a research
topic.
Literature Review enables a research to establish a relationship between a specific
research problem and the greater topic. Discuss about related research should be
appropriate/right for the nature and scope of the planned study. Cited studies ought to
be examined critical rather than nearly mentioned. Sources of important related
findings should be also be noted.
In summarizing the literature, closely related study should be grouped and discussed
collectively rather than individually.

5.1 Benefits of Literature Review

1. Literature reviews narrower down and more clearly define a research problem;

2. Reviews overlooked conclusions and facts that ought to be taken into

consideration before a research project is actually initiated;

3. Suggests new approaches to the planning of investigations;

4. Covers the methodology that was used successfully by other research workers;

5. Helps in determination of the degree to which particular problem has already

being investigated;

6. Assist to investigate or to develop firm understanding of theoretical implications

of proposed enquires.

5.2 PLANNING A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Identify-After selecting the study topic define the terminology for example
Information Retrieval, Other authors may use information searching. Ask
yourself if you have a clear meaning of what is Information retrieval. Find out
whether other information professionals might use different terms.

27
2. Define Parameters- For example,

(a) Language- are you searching documents written in Kiswahili, English,

French etc.;

(b) Geographical Location- Do you want document published in Kenya or

US;

(c) Time- period, do you want documents published from- 19 onwards or

2000 onwards.

Note. When you choose a topic with a lot of literature you limit by the year.

(d) Types of material-journals, books, reports, technical reports, thesis,

government reports, etc. make a decision on what type of materials to
use.

(e) List possible search terms-synonyms – controlled vocabulary for

example, Thesaurus, Sears subject lists, library of congress schedules,
DDC, Encyclopedias, and Dictionary etc. It may be help to consult
Thesaurus for ideas or LC subject headings to see what terms are
preferred. For example ― The performance of manual Indexing and
Online Databases in Information Retrieval‖.

Break the Topic to search terms for example,

Information retrieval;
Online databases;
Manual Indexing;
Indexes,etc .
Next do alphabetical arrangement of the terms:
Electronic databases;
Information Retrieval;
Information Searching;
Manual Indexes;
Online Databases;

28
 Online searching.
(f) Select the source - Tools and Sources of Information used in
information Sciences which includes archival catalogues, finding Aids,
indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, books, thesis, dissertations,
Government & Research Reports, Newspapers, Magazines, Handbooks,
Internet.

Note
Newspaper might not be appropriate because no much research has been
done. The indexes, bibliographies and catalogues will provide you with
information about which information resources is available. But to
obtain the material relating to your area of interest you have to find out
what is in the stock

Seminar Topic
Identify suitable sources that you would use to conduct a study of the selected in topic
three. Write a literature review for the study.

29
Topic Six: Research Design
6.0 Introduction
A research design is a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or
program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypothese and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. A
research design is the strategy or approach that you are going to use in your study in
order to gather the information you need for your research. This strategy or design can
also be called your study method. Orodho (2003) defines it as the scheme, outline or
plan that is used to generate answers to research problems. A research design can be
regarded as an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance with the research purpose. It is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint for collection,
measurement and analysis of data (Kothari, 2003)

6.1 The Function of a research design

Research design has two functions:
The first relates to the identification and/or development of procedures and logistical
arrangements required to undertake a study.

The second emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their
validity, objectivity and accuracy. For example, Suppose you want to find out the
effectiveness of a marriage counseling service by an institution- that is, the extent to
which the service has been able to resolve the martial problems of its clients. In
studying such relationships you must understand that in real life there are many outside
factors that can influence the outcome of your intervention. For example, during visits
to your institution for counseling your client may get a better job. If some of the martial
problems came about because of economic hardship, and if the problem of money is
now solved, it may be a factor in reducing the martial problems. On the other hand, if

30
a client loses his/her job, the increase in the economic problems may either intensify or
lessen the martial problems, that is, for some couples a perceived financial threat may
increase martial problems, whereas for others, it may create more closeness between
partners. In some situations, an improvement in a marriage may have every little to do
with the counseling received, coming about almost entirely because of a change in
economic circumstances. Other events such as the birth of a child to a couple or a
couple‘s ‗self- realisation‘, independently arriving at, may also affect the extent and
nature of martial problems

6.2 Types of Research Designs

There are various types of research designs or methods available. The method you use
will depend on your topic, and the kind of data you want to collect. Your research
method can also be influenced by the time that you have for your study. Some of the
methods (designs) take a long time.
Some of the available designs methods include the following.
Experimental Design;
Case study Design;
Survey;
Descriptive Design;
Cross cultural research Design;
Correlational Design.
We shall only consider the first three because they are the most commonly used and
your research is likely to use one of the three. You can read about the others. A list of
research books and papers has been provided for this purpose.

(a) Experimental Design

This is a method of research which is very common and popular with the
physical/natural sciences. For example, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, etc. However, it is
also used in the social sciences. Psychology is one social science that uses this method
a lot. It can and has been used also in library science.

31
In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which receives
the treatment or a control group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two
groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare their performance. In this
design cause and effect can be certain be easily determined.
Example:
A researcher at KEMU wanted to find out if giving user education to students has any
effect on use of the library. To find out, he/she chose to use the experimental research
design. (Method)
From a list at the Deans Office, he found the Diploma students were 1,000
(population);
He decided to select out of the 1.000 students, a sample of 100 students. He used the
simple random sampling;
He allocated 50 of the students to the experimental group and 50 to control through
simple random method;
He gave the experimental group (50 students) a 2 week course on user education
(Introduction of planned change or manipulation on one of the variables);
The control group got no tuition (Course on user education);
After the two week course, he gave both the experimental and control group a test
which required them to use the library to answer a set of questions;
After the test, he marked the test and compared the mean score of both groups
(Measurement);
After the tests were marked, the mean score of the students who were given user
education was higher than those who were not.
At the beginning of the research, the researcher hypothesis was that, User education
improves a student‘s use of the library. Therefore his/her hypothesis was confirmed by
the results.
Control of variable (extraneous variables)
The researcher was aware that the following variables can affect the results of the
study:
(a) Students marks
(b) Students‘ year of study 1st and 2nd

32
(c) Gender.
(d) Subject of study.
To control the above variables:
The researcher chose students who had score A- in their KCSE for both experimental
and control group
Chose only first years for both control and experimental group. (Control for (b).
Both experimental and control group had equal proportions of boys and girls. Control
for gender

The experimental Design involves the following procedures (steps):

Defining or proposing a theoretical hypothesis. You may for example pose the
hypothesis that: ― People with higher levels of education use library more than those
with lower level‖;
Selection of samples from known population. In research, we use sample rather than
populations. There are good reasons for this;
Allocation of samples to different experimental conditions. That is experimental group
and control group;
Introduction of planned change on one or more variables;
Measurements i.e. observe what happens on one of the variables e.g. the manipulated
variable;
Control of extraneous/ inappropriate variables. That is, variables that may interfere with
the results of the study. Or variables the researcher is not interested in.

(b) Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth of investigation of an individual, group, institution or
phenomenon in its real life context. Case study method is best for getting an in-depth
understanding of the unit or issue under investigation. Case study generates answers to
―why‖ and ―what‖ questions. A case study seeks to describe a unit in detail, in context
and holistically. It is a way of organizing educational data and looking at the object to
be studied as a whole. Most cases studies are based on the premise. In a case study, a
great deal can be learned from a few examples of the phenomenon under study. For

33
example, The impact of pay as you eat on education. A case study of KEMU. A study
of KEMU can allow an in-depth investigation of the problem at hand. It will bring
about deeper insights and better understanding of the problems faced by students. Case
studies can also be used to isolate the important variables in a problem in order to study
them in a bigger study. You should use case study design if you intend to analyze an
issue in detail. Ensure that you have justified why you selected a case study. Data for
case studies can be collected through use of questionnaires, interviews, or observation
or a combination of both

(c) Survey
Survey research is popular because it allows a researcher to collect a large amount of
data from a sizeable population in an economical way. Since in a survey, a
representative sample is chosen, the survey is considered more authoritative than for
example the case study. The common method (tool) for collecting data in survey
research is the questionnaire. People are nowadays familiar with surveys because
newspapers keep on frequently reporting on one survey or other e.g. a survey of HIV
awareness in a particular country. Surveys to measure the popularity of politicians e.g.
Kibaki, Kalonzo, Raila etc. This is a form of survey called an opinion poll. For
example, if election are called today, whom would you vote for? Kibaki, Kalonzo,
Raila, etc.Some examples of survey research include:

(i) Public Opinion Survey e.g.

(a) Do Kenyans want a presidential or parliamentary system of Government?
(b) Should same- marriages be legalized in Kenya?
(c) Should corporal punishment in schools be reintroduced?
This category also includes political popularity rating.
This is a common type of survey particularly in the West. This is done to find out the
opinion of the public on an important issue before decisions are made on the issue.

(ii) Market Survey

34
This is done to establish whether there is a need for a particular product or service
before it is design and launched.
Market survey tries to establish whether there is a demand for a particular product and
also the size of the market. That is, is the market big enough to sustain the product or
service?
(iii) Educational Survey
This tries to establish educational facilities in an area, country etc. e .g. - number of
home science workshops; Libraries in an area in a country.
- The qualification of teachers e.g.Pl, ARTS Graduates and their distribution in the
country.
iv) Demographic Survey
No of men, women
Ages e.g. what numbers of people are below 12, over 18, over 60 etc?
(v) Economic survey
Surveys, distribution of income e.g. Number of Kenyans below poverty line, those
living in permanent houses, those who are between 5-10 thousand, over 10,000 etc.

Qualities of effective Research Design

They are systematic and logical. They effectively address the questions raised in the
study. Based on this design the researcher can construct questions that will solicit the
desired information;
They contribute to accurate and fair interpretation of results;
They clarify to the researcher the respondents and the means by which the study will be
conducted;
They contribute to deeper insights and better understanding of research topic.

35
Topic Seven: Sampling

SAMPLING
Researchers usually collect data from samples, not whole populations.
There are good reasons why data is collected from sample rather than population.
It would take a long time to collect data from every possible case or group member
(population) researchers operate on a limited time frame.
It would also be too expensive to collect data from every possible case. Researcher
operates from a specified budget.
If a representative sample is chosen, the results will just be as accurate as would have
been the case if the population had been studied.
Results of the study may be needed quickly. In research the term ―population‖ does not
necessarily mean people. It simply means the total number of cases or elements from
which a sample is taken. Population therefore may refer to cows, tables, bottles, cars,
libraries etc. For example: all public libraries in Kenya contribute a population.
Too expensive to test a whole population of a product. For e.g. Test quality of glasses
by subjecting them to pressure. Some will break. Choose a sample rather than subject
all glasses produced in a day to pressure.

If you chose 10 of them for a study, that is a sample. An individual public library such
as Kenya National Library Services Library(KNLS) is a case or element.
Sampling techniques
There are two types sampling techniques:
(a) Probability sampling and (b) Non probability sampling
Under each of these sampling types, there are a number of sampling techniques.
Probability Sampling
This is the type of sampling where each case, element or member of a population has an
equal chance of being selected. Probability sampling is the best technique for choosing

36
a representative sample, because each member in that population has an equal chance
of being selected. The sample you choose therefore using probability sampling is likely
to be representative.
Five main techniques can be used to select a probability sample. These are:
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi-Stage

(a) Simple Random Sampling

This is the most commonly used sampling technique. It is the best technique
to use if the population from which the sample is to be taken has uniform
characteristics, (Homogeneous). This is often achieved by giving every member of
population a number and using a table of random numbers to select individuals for the
sample. For example, Information sciences whether male or female does not affect you
sample. There are two ways of choosing a random sample.
(a) You write each member of a population on a piece of paper, roll the paper and put
them in a plate. Mix the papers thoroughly and with your eyes closed, pick from the
plate until you have your desired number that comprises the sample.
(b) Use of a table of random. If a list exists of all the members in a population, you can
use a table of random numbers to pick a sample.. For Example: Suppose KEMU
registered 1,000 first year students in 2009 and you wanted to interview them to find
out why they chose KEMU as their University. You feel you do not have time to
interview all of them and you decide to interview 100 of them. The 100 students is your
sample.
To choose a sample representative of the 1000 first years, using a table of random
numbers, follow the following procedure.
(i) Get a list of the registered 1000 students from the registrar (or Dean of Students).

37
(ii) Get a table of random numbers. These are given in research or statistics books.
They are generated using a computer. The following is an extract from a table of
random numbers.
62 72 18
19 68 26
47 01 55
53 86 78
57 99 96
41 66 54
5 98 71
15 22 95
(iii) Close your eyes and move a pencil along/across the number and Stop.
(iv) The number at or near your pencil point is the number you start with. Suppose your
pencil stopped at 47.
(v) Student number 47, 53, 57, 41, 51, 15, 72 etc, get selected until you achieve your
sample size of 100 first years. Random numbers table can be used down or across the
numbers.
Note also any number that is outside your sample size, is ignored. For
Example in our example a number such as 147 will be ignored because we are selecting
up to 100.
If a number appears again after it has already been selected, the second number is
ignored, e.g. 47, ------47.

(b) Stratified Random Sampling

The population is divided into groups stratum so that the units within each stratum
areas are alike as possible. A random sample is often drawn from each stratum. Often
the same sampling fraction is used in each stratum. For example, if a 10%I sample is
required from a population consisting of 300 members of staff., 500 science students
and 600 Arts students. Then the sample could be made up of staff members , 50science
and 60 students Arts students. In some cases, simple random sampling would not give
you a representative unbiased sample. If the population from which you are choosing

38
the sample has identifiable subgroups that are likely to vary in the variable being
studied, then a simple random sample would not be suitable. If for example a library
manager wanted to do a study in his library to identify the training needs of the
employees in the library, he would first need to identify the subgroups that form his
employees. There will be for example cleaners, clerical staff, supervisors, heads of
departments, security guards etc. To get a representative view of the training needs,
each of these subgroups need to be represented.
In this case, he should choose a stratified sample consisting of each of the subgroups.
From each subgroup; a simple random sample is chosen.
The total sample will consist of the subgroup samples. The number chosen from each
subgroup should be proportional to their total number in the organization.
Example:
Suppose in Library X, there are 100 non-professional staff and 200 professional staff.
Suppose the library manager wanted to know the views of the staff on a newly
introduced staff incentive scheme. He has no time to interview all the 300 staff
members (population). Re can choose a stratified random sample consisting of both
professional and non-professional staff.
Non-professional Proportion in the organization
100 33.3%
Professional
200 66.7%

Suppose the library manager wanted a sample of 100 out of the 300 staff population.
33.3% of sample should be non-professionals and 66.7% should be professional.

Subgroup Proportion Number in Sample

Non-professionals
200 33.3% 33
Professional
200 66.7% 67
Total 100

39
The 33 non-professionals and the 67 professionals can be chosen from the subgroup
using the simple random method.
Stratified sampling is the preferred method when the population has subgroups (or is
heterogeneous).
The subgroups are considered to have important and different characteristics in relation
to the study.

│(c) Systematic Sampling

This is the sampling method to use if you are to select your sample at regular intervals
from your sampling frame (A sampling frame is a complete list of all the cases in the
population from which your sample will be drawn). If for example you want to study a
sample of school libraries in Kiambu District, your sampling frame is a list of all
school libraries in Kiambu District.
Systematic sampling works as follows: -
(1) Use a list of all the cases from which you want to choose a sample. You can create a
list if none is available. Name the first case on the list 0, 1, 2, 3 ______ etc.
(2) Decide on the interval to use; Either the 3 case, case, 6th case, every even number,
odd number etc. Select the first case, using a random number.
(3) Go down the list until you have the number you want for your sample.

Note that systematic sampling is not a suitable method to use if there is a characteristic
repeated at regular intervals within the sampling frame.
Suppose for example you wanted a sample of users of KEMU Library to study their
information needs. You get a 1ist of users from the librarian. You decide to choose
every 4th user on the list.
Suppose every 4th user on the list is a postgraduate student!
Then your sample will consist of postgraduate students and it will be a biased sample.
The information needs of postgraduate students are different from those of
undergraduates.
There is also cluster and multi-stage sampling. You are unlikely to use any of these.
Read about them.

40
Non-probability Sampling
All the techniques discussed earlier are all probability sampling
However, there are cases where the researcher may choose a sample using their own
subjective judgment. This then becomes a non-probability sample.
Suppose a researcher wanted to find out the causes of staff unrest leading to work
stoppage in libraries in Kenya. In the particular year three libraries in Kenya
experienced staff strikes. If the researcher chose a random sample, there is a chance that
none of the three libraries will be in the sample.
In this case, the researcher will not get the information he requires. In this case
probability sampling is not suitable.
In this case the researcher uses non-probability sample and makes a purposive decision
to study the three libraries that had staff strikes.

Types of non-probability Sampling

(a) Purposive or judgmental sampling.
The guiding principle in purposive sampling is to select cases that will give you the
most information. This for example, extreme cases are chosen e.g. excellent companies
chosen for study. They are extreme because they are excellent.
Also critical cases can be the basis for which a case or cases are chosen as samples. The
researcher would like to know if it happens there, (e.g. strike) will it happen in other
similar organizations?
If library X has problems automating, will this also happen in other libraries? Will other
libraries experience similar problems in automation?

(b) Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a technique used when it is difficult to identify members of the
population you want to research, e.g.
- People who are members of the free masons and other secret societies.
- Kenyans who have a drug problem and are receiving treatment for it.
- Husbands who are battered by wives.

41
- Christians who consult witchdoctors.
- People who are working and also claiming unemployment benefits in countries that
have these benefits.
Remember there are no lists of such people and they don‘t advertise themselves.
The only way to get a sample such people is to make contact with one or
two cases.
The one case leads you to say, two others, who lead you to others and so on until the
desired sample is reached or more cases, are revealed.

The first known case 1

Started with one
case. Now
you have a sample of ten

2
3 1
1
0
0
0
9
4 o
5 0
8 0
6
7
0
0
0
0
The chief problem with this case is getting that first case contact. This is difficult.
0
0
0
(c) Convenience Sampling
0
This is selecting a sample that is easy to get, e.g. using your classmates as a sample0of
0
University students. It is easy for you to collect information from your classmates, e.g.
0
easy to distribute a questionnaire to them and collect it after class. 0
A researcher doing market survey can stand at the door of a supermarket and interview
customers as they enter or leave the supermarket. The researcher may want for, e.g. to
know what consumers think about ―New Omo with power foam‖. The problem here is

42
that that would not be a representative sample of Kenyan Consumers because only the
rich shop at supermarkets (Smallest pack of Sugar is 2kg. Cooking Oil is in 3 litres and
5 litres containers).

Problem with non-probability sampling in general is that they are not representative.
The results got from the samples cannot be generalized to the population.
However, there are special circumstances in which non-probability sampling may be
chosen by a researcher
Non-probability samples are also useful for generating data that can be used as the basis
for a bigger more representative study. In this case they become pilot studies for future
studies.

43
Topic Eight: Data Collection Instruments
8.0 Introduction

The means, techniques and frames of references by which researchers approach and
carry out enquiry are known as research methodology. Decision has to be made about
which methods are best for particular purposes and then data collecting instrument must
be designed to do the job. The extent of your data collecting will be influenced by the
amount of time you have and funds available. The choice of tools used in gathering
data for the study largely depends on their efficiency and accuracy. A researcher aims
to collect reliable and valid data. This will depend on the research tools chosen and how
they are constructed. Several tools exist, each with its advantages and disadvantages
depending on the type of the study to which they are applied. There are six major
methods of collecting information or data:

(a) Self- completion Questionnaire

(b) Face to Face or personal Interviews

(i) Individual

(ii) Group

(c) Telephone interview

(d) Observation.

(e) Experimentation

(f) Document analysis/ review

8.1 Self- Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a list of questions that are designed to gather certain information

(data). According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2005) a questionnaire is a written
or printed list of questions to be answered by a number of people, especially to collect
statistics or as part of survey. Kothari (1990) defines a questionnaire as a set of
structured questions relating to the research study dispatched to the respondents who
are expected to write down their reply in the spaces provided in the questionnaire.

44
Microsoft Encarta reference Library (2005) refers questionnaire as a set of questions
used to gather information in a survey, or the printed paper that contains the questions.
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by
respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers. Questionnaire is the most commonly or
widely used method for collecting information. There are two types of questionnaires:

(a) Open

(b) Closed (also called structured).

(a) Open
1. Do you think libraries should charge a fee for use of their services?

Why?-------------------------------------------------------------

2. Do you think abortion should be legalized?

(b) Closed
1. Does your library open on weekends?

(a) Yes

(b) No

2 Which of the following would you vote for president in 2012.

a) Raila Odinga

b) Kalonzo Musyoka

c) Mwai Kibaki

d) Musalia Mudavadi

e) None of the above

A questionnaire has certain advantages and disadvantages as a method (tool) of

collecting data.

45
8.1.1 Advantages of questionnaires

The researcher found this instrument appropriate due to the following reasons

a) Relatively cheap to administer. An inexpensive and faster way of conducting

research to many members of the target population, especially if they are widely
scattered.

b) Can cover a wide geographical area. Researcher can gather large amounts of
data from many subjects very inexpensively.

c) They are se1f administered (especially when mailed).

d) Minimize embrassement about answering personal question. Can be made

anonymous.

e) Easy to interpret (especially the closed type A,B,C etc.)

f) They are impersonal and do avoid some of the problems of personal interview.
Some respondents with crucial information may not be at ease in an interview
room consequently leading to much valuable information being left out

g) Are flexible and can be completed at the respondents own time. Respondents
had enough time to ponder their answers. Respondents can refer to other
information sources and therefore give a more careful thought answer since the
responses are not required immediately.

h) Respondents answer questions at their convenience unlike in interviews that are

timed. Documents and other individual may be consulted- to be reminded on
something.

i) It is economical in terms of time and travelling costs.

j) Questionnaires enabled the collection of information from respondents who

were busy and could not be reached for interviews.

46
8.1.2 Disadvantages

Questionnaires have some disadvantages which includes;

a) Questionnaires response rate is low thereby threatening their viability as a sole

tool. That is it suffers from a low return rate. Some respondent‘s don‘t respond
to the questionnaire. For example you sent 100 questionnaires and you get back
only 10. The non- response may be an important group- they may be the people
who you will like to here from.

b) There is no assurance the questions were understood. Therefore chances of

misinterpretation are usually very high since the researcher is not there to
paraphrase the questions. i.e Some answers may be not satisfactory e.g
occupation may not be clearly defined therefore some questions may not be
answered

c) There is no assurance that the addressee (i.e. the one you sent it to) is the one
who answered. Difficulties in clarifying that the responses are from the chosen
or selected respondents. e.g. Boss may give secretary to respond. In some case
the wrong person may complete the questionnaire.

d) Good questionnaires are difficult to construct. Great care is needed to ensure

that the questions are easy to understand and answer. Consider the level of rhe
education to ensure that they are understood.

e) No chance of probing interesting leads especially in close type. Yes/No.

f) You can only research on literate people.

g) The answers may not be spontaneous and dependence of each other because the
response may have had the opportunity to read all of the questions before
beginning to answer all of them.

Structure of a questionnaire

Depending on what you are researching and the level, a questionnaire can be simple or
complex.

Usually a question has the following sections:

47
1. Transmittal note

- This gives the purpose of the research.

- Identifies the researcher.

- Aim is to motivate the respondent to answer your questionnaire

- Transmittal note is often in letter form.

2. General Information (Respondent Personal Data)

- Name - Education level

- Age - Marital status etc.

- Gender

3. Main body of the questionnaire

This is the section with the questions. It should be divided into sub-sections

according to the areas the questions are covering.

How to construct a good questionnaire

The following are some hints you should bear in mind. They will improve your
questionnaire construction.

a) Get the beginning right. Catch the interest of the respondent at the beginning.

(What do they say about first impression);

b) Keep it short and simple (KISS);

c) Use simple rather than complex words;

d) Avoid bias in questions;

That is questions which suggest you favour a certain answer e.g. don‘t you

find it odd that libraries should be open over the weekend?

Also avoid use of controversial words.

48
e) Avoid ambiguous questions. These are questions that can be interpreted by the

respondent in more than one way;

f) Arrange your questions from simple to complex, general to specific;

g) Include a self- addressed stamped envelop if you wish returned by post.

8.2 Interviews

Introduction

Interviewing is a commonly used method of collecting information from people. In

many walks of life we collect information through different forms of interaction with
others. Any person- to- person interaction between two or more individuals with a
specific purpose in mind is called an interview.The Microsoft Encarta Library (2005)
defines interviews as a meeting for asking questions. It is a meeting during which
somebody is asked questions by another party for example a researcher. Personal
interview is an oral administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule.
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), an interview refers to a two way
purposeful conversation initiated by the interviewer to solicit information that is
relevant to some research purpose from the respondents. An interview is that which
involves verbal questioning or the administration of an interview schedule, which is a
kind of questionnaire and then recording their replies. In this case therefore, the
interviewer requires having good interpersonal or communication skills.

Interviews are therefore face to face which includes structured and unstructured or
telephone interviews. Interview needs maximum cooperation from respondents to
obtain accurate information. On the one hand, interviewing can be very flexible, when
the interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions as they come to mind around the
issue being investigated and on the other hand it can be inflexible, when the
investigator has to keep strictly to the questions decided beforehand.

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8.2.1 Advantages

a) It provides for an in-depth data which is not possible using a questionnaire,

since the interviewer can probe the interviewee at personal levels while assuring
him/her of security and confidentiality

b) Possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.

c) The interviewer is able to clarify confusing questions thus ambiguities that may
arise are countered meaning the responses are guided hence reliable.

d) More flexible than questionnaires

e) Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent
by honest and personal interaction.

f) You can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research.

g) Through the interviews, the interviewer is provided with immediate feedback

therefore saving the agony caused by unnecessary delays experienced in the
questionnaires whose responses are equally low

h) The interviewer in also able to obtain clarifications from the interviewee just in
case certain responses are unclear for instance, if I got you right, you talked
about…could you explain in a little more detail?

i) Through interviews researcher can get more information by using probing

questions.

j) Interviews are also suitable since it enables the researcher to capture the
interviewee‘s non-verbal cues which may be very instrumental in the researcher
especially in showing the attitude and feelings or emotions of an individual
about the current situation. Non-verbal cues are again loud enough to tell the
interviewer whether the respondent is sincere in their answers or otherwise.

k) Interviews yield higher response rates.

8.2.2 Disadvantages

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Interviews also have some disadvantages which includes;

a) Interviews are more expense because you have to travel to where the
interviewee is;

b) If an enabling environment is not set for discussion, much information may be

left out as the interviewer‘s success in obtaining the required information using
this method fully depends on how best he/she can persuade the interviewee to
open up and be sincere;

c) Since it is easier to ask questions interviews tend to be misused to get factual

responses which could be obtained more accurately through other methods;

d) It requires a high level of skill. That is communication and interpersonal survey;

e) Researcher who is conducting the interview needs to be trained to avoid bias;

f) Interviews involves smaller samples because they are time consuming and
bigger sample is a constraint;

g) Sometimes the respondents were not willing to give appointments for the
interviews;

h) Interviewees could not answer certain questions due to security concerns.

Face-to face or personal interview

Advantages

1. Many of disadvantages of self- completion question will be overcome;

2. Reminders can be given. For example T.V. programs;

3. The method can be combined with observation especially when accurate data on
height, weight etc are required;

4. The interviewer can control the circumstances under which the answers are
given. For example No one else influence the respondent

Disadvantages

It is expensive. For example to train people to help you., to get people to be

interviewed, sometimes several trips to interview one person can be made.
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Telephone interviews

Advantage

Cheaper and quicker than face to face interviews.

Disadvantages

1. It is restricted to telephone/ mobile phone subscribers;

2. The respondents can suspect that you want to use the information in selling
data;

3. It is easy for the respondent to refuse to cooperate or terminate the interviewer

prematurely.

There two typesof the interview method

These are: (a) Group interviews

(b) Individual interviews

(a) Group interview.

This is where the researcher gets the respondents chosen for his/her study and
interviews them in one place.

This method of collecting data also has advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:

a) It saves time. A lot of data can be collected in one go.

b) It is more economical than face to face individual interview.

c) Results reflect group behavior and consensus.

d) As with brainstorming, it can be productive and produce many views on the

issue under investigation.

Disadvantages:

a) Can intimidate and suppress individual differences.

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 b) Can popularize opinion and intensify group loyalties (e.g. group comprising of

c) different tribes)

d) Promotes conformity

e) Is vulnerable to manipulation by an influential and skilful member.

(b) Individual Interview

This is-a one-to-one interview between the researcher and the respondent. The
researcher prepares a number of questions which acts as a guide during the interview.

As with group interview, this method of collecting data has its advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages

1. Permits in-depth free responses.

2. Flexible and adaptable.

3. One is able to get impressions of the respondent‘s home, office, gestures, tone of
voice.

4. A lot can be learnt by observing the respondents non-verbal communications.

Disadvantages

1. Is expensive and time consuming.

2. May intimidate and annoy respondents.

3. May provoke bias, antagonism due to differences of race, sex, socio economic status
between interviewer and respondent.

8.3 Observation

Introduction

Observation is one way to collect primary data. Observation is a purposeful, systematic

and selective way of watching way and listening on an interaction or phenomenon.
There are many situations in which observation is the most appropriate method of data
collection, for example, when you want to learn about the interaction in a group,

53
ascertain the functions performed by a worker or study the behaviour or personality
traits of an individual. It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate
information cannot be elicited by questioning, because respondents either are not co-
operative or are unaware of the answer because it is difficult for them to detach
themselves from the interaction.

Observation is used for example to establish how people use facilities or how the
behaviour rather than asking questions. Observation is one of the best methods of
collecting data (Information). Observation as a method of collecting data is very
popular in the physical Sciences. It is used a lot in Physics, Biology, and Chemistry etc.
For e.g. - Crops are grown in different soils, clay, sandy, loam and you observe and
record what happens to the plants. Another example is to put solid X in liquid Y and
observe what happens and record. A lot can be learnt by directly observing the world
around us. One way of observing and gathering information is for you the librarian to
put yourself in the place of users and observers what happens. One way in which the
librarian can put himself in the place of users is to call his library (not identify himself)
and ask for certain information from the library. You can learn a lot of what users go
though by this method. For example

a) How prompt are calls answered?

b) Is the correct information given or not?

c) How polite/otherwise are the staff?

d) How accurate are the answers to questions?

Observation can also be used to note user preferences for certain places in the library
e.g. single tables, corner tables,

8.3.1 Advantages

a) It gives accurate and first hand information;

b) It is reliable. For example you record the results as you observe;

54
 c) It gives direct response. That is, it provides the researcher with a direct
experience of a library service either through direct observation or on the
receiving end e.g. posing as a user of the service.

d) Avoids bias form respondents which is possible with other methods e.g.
questionnaire. With observation, there can be no bias because you are the one
observing what is going on.

8.3.2 Disadvantages

a) Can be time consuming. For example observing 150 students. Sometimes you
sit waiting for an activity to happen so that you can observe. It may take time
for the activity to happen. For example you may go to a library and you want to
observe the procedure for reserving materials in their particular library. For 2,
10, hours, a whole day, no user comes and requests to reserve some material.

b) People behave differently when they know they are being observed. If your
observers make it obvious they are observing something, people being observed
may begin to behave differently;

c) It can be very expensive. For example for big groups;

d) Sometimes so much could be happening that the researcher has no time to

record;

e) If you are using a number of research assistants as observers, there will be

differences in the way they record what they observe and even in what they
observe;

f) We often witness the same occasion but observe different things. We

sometimes ―see‖ what we want to see;

g) Dependent on external factors.

Some hints on using the observation method,

55
 a) Be clear from the start on what you are going to observe. Unless you do this,
you may end up with plenty of useful information but one which obscures your
original objective.

b) Use a form for recording your observations.

c) It makes recording and improves uniformity where several observers are used. It
also makes interpretation easy.

d) Analyze results as research progress. If you delay until end, you may not
understand some of the things you recorded.

e) Train observers.

8.4 Published sources

Documentary sources for example;

1. census population data;

2. united Nation year book

3. Annual Budget;

4. Various records on accidents;

5. Financial matters within an organization are commonly used in research.

Advantages

1. Cheap way of conducting research in terms of funds, time and other;

2. Less time is spent looking for data;

3. Sometime it gives accurate information.

8.5 Survey Method

This is another method of collecting data for research

56
This is where a researcher selects respondents from a telephone directory and then calls
all the identified respondents.

This method of collecting data, like the others, has its advantages and disadvantages.

8.4.1 Advantages (Strong points of the tool)

1. Can be contacted anytime — day or night.

2. Permits unlimited call-backs. One can call back for clarification.

3. Respondent is at ease at their home or office. Likely to be more frank.

4. Can cover a wide geographical area

5. Avoids some of the interpersonal problems that can arise with contact e.g. in face-to-
face interview, for e.g. Respondent may dislike interviewer. This is not so with
telephone contact. Respondent doesn‘t now whether you are black or white, short or
tall. Ugly or beautiful.

6, Can save time.

7. Can be conducted even with the illiterate.

8. Possibility of probing for interesting leads.

9. Has a high response rate.

8.4.2 Disadvantages

1. Not all telephone numbers are listed in directories. These cannot be contacted. These
are estimated to be about 25%. For e.g. VIPs, Business people, etc.

2. Not everyone has a telephone. Most serious in developing countries.

3. Can be viewed as intruding on home privacy.

Can also be confused with salesmen.

4. Rules out some of the advantages of face-to-face interview for e.g. visual
impressions of the home.

5. Some of the members identified may not understand your language.

57
Topic Nine: Measurement scales
Scales of measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical properties.
The most widely used classification of measurement. The most widely used
classification of measurement scales are:

a) Nominal scale

b) Ordinal scale

c) Ratio scale

d) Interval scale

Nominal Scale

Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number /symbols. In order to label them,
the number are only used for purposes of identification and their order is of no
consequences.

Coding frame

Yes No

1 2

Note

The numbers are only for identification. The researcher is supposed to add the sum total
of No and Yes.

Ordinal Scale

Ordinal scales arise where item are related or ranked. For example, did you agree with
internet charges in KEMU library?

Coding Frame

58
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
disagree

1 2 3 4 5

Note

It is important when ranking the positive you give the highest e.g 5 and you go
downwards to lowest 1. For example, a researcher conducted an interview to 10 people
and the result for one question was as follows:

1,5,2,4,4,3,3,5,1,2= 30

n=30

x=n/n

x=3

Ordinal scale is frequently used in research related like qualitative phenomenon.

Ratio Scale

Ration scale have an absolute or true zero (0) of scale of measurement. Scale represents
the actual amount of variables. Measurement of equal measurement such as height,
distance, weight and others are all equal. For example,0----------10cm.

Interval scale

In the case of interval scale the intervals are adjusted according to some rules that had
been established as a base of making the unit equal. The units are equal only in as far as
one accept the assumptions, which the rule is based. Internal scale can have arbitrary
zero but not possible to fix absolute zero or origin of them. E.g temperature scale 60 C
is not twice as warm as 30 C. e.g Class marks

Data Presentation and Analysis

59
When data has been collected from the field using the various methods such
questionnaire, interview etc., the researcher is faced with a huge amount of data that
needs organization.

There are a number of techniques that a researcher can use to organize, summarize and
present the data in a report

Analysis of data requires of a number of closely related operations such as

establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data trough,
Coding, tabulation, drawing statistical inferences.

60
TOPIC TEN: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

(a) Sorting out the data

The first step in preparing to organize and interpret data is to sort the data.

Suppose you had used a questionnaire as your data collection instrument and one of
your questions was:-

(1) Do you use your KEMU library during weekends?

(A) Yes

(B) No.

The first step is to sort out those who answered ‗Yes‘ and those who answered

‗No‘.

You use Tally Marks.

Yes - 23

No - 12

The tally marks are in blocks of 5 for ease of counting.

(b) Tabulation

The next step is you may need to tabulate the data.

Tabulation is the process of putting the data in the form of Tables. Tables enable you
and those reading your report to see the data at a glance.. This helps understanding of
the data interpretation.

61
To use the example given above of use of the library at weekends.

Table 1: Use of the library at weekends

Yes 23

No 12

TOTAL 35

(c) Percentage Comparisons

Another way of presenting and organizing data is to work out percentages for the
various responses.

To use the above example, those who indicated that they use the library during
weekends are 23. Those who don not use the library on weekend are 12. This data can
be converted into percentages.

―Yes‖ - 23 = 23 x 100

35

= 65.7

= 66%

―No‖ - 12 = 12 x100

35

= 34.2%

= 34%

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The above information is shown on the table below:
Table 2: Use of the library at weekends

f %
Yes 23 66
No 12 34
TOTAL 35 100

(d) Bar Charts

Bar charts are a form of visual representation of data. With a Bar Chart, one is able to
see data and make comparison at a glance.

The length of the bar is propositional to the number (figure) represented.

Again, using the previous example:

Simple Bar Graph

Use of library on weekends

25 23
20
15 12
Library users
10
5
0
yes no

Figure1: Use of the library at weekends

A variation of the Bar Graph is compound (also called Component) Bar Graph.

Suppose the 23 students who use the library during the weekend are composed of boys
and girls. In the same example there are those who do not use the library. This
information cannot be shown by a simple Bar Graph. You need a compound Bar Graph.

63
Table 3: Use of Library on weekends Boys and Girls
Boys Girls Total
Yes 14 9 23
No 8 4 12

The above information can be visually illustrated in a Compound Bar Chart.

Use of Library on weekends Boys and

Girls

25
20
15 girls
10 boys

5
0
Yes No

Figure 2:Use of Library on weekends Boys and girls

a) (e) Pie Chart

b) A Pie chart is circle divided by lines into sections (like the slices of a cake or
pie) and hence the name Pie Chart. Each slice is proportional to the number or
figure it represents. To construct a pie chart, you work out the each section
(slice) would be proportional to bearing in mind that whole circle is 360°.

64
 c) Let’s use our example.
d) Use Library Yes = 23
e) Total = 35
f) Therefore = 23 x360
1. 35
ii. = 238°
g) No = 12 x 360
1. 35
ii. = 122°
h) Using a protractor, you measure 238 ° from centre of circle.
i) That segment represents:
j) ‗Yes‖ i.e. those who use the library.
k) You also measure 122 which will represent ―No‖.

Use of Library over the weekend

34%
1
2
66%

Figure 3: Use of library over the weekend

65
TOPIC 11: PROJECT /REPORT WRITING
Introduction

A project has a title. The Title states what the study is about. The title should be clear
and brief. The layout of a project or a report should be as follows. The preliminary
pages at the very beginning, the main text and end matter.

Title selection
The word title refers to heading, label or tag:
- Identify keywords for the title;
- Reflection on the key issues;
- Formulate the title;
- Evaluation i.e. the independent and dependent variables are identified.

Qualities of an effective title

- should be brief and specific;
- It should portray the objectives of the study;
- It should be clear and unambiguous;
- It should reflect a relationship between independent and dependent variables;
- It should portray an issue that is researchable.

Parts of a research Project

(A) PRELIMINARY PAGES
In each preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements. There should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and
illustrations (e.g. figures, graphs, charts) if any given in our project/report. This helps
the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the
required information in the project /report.

66
Abstract is also part of preliminary pages and is written in single spacing.

Chapter One

(B) THE MAIN TEXT

The main body of the text should be presented in a logical sequence and in appropriate
chapters. The main text of the report should have the following parts.

Introduction: The introduction should contain a clear statement of the aim and
objectives of the research and an explanation of the methodology adapted in
accomplishing the research. This section is also called ―Background to the study‖. It is
part of the Introduction Chapter of the project which is Chapter One. This is an
important part of the project. It should aim to achieve the following:
(a) Tell the reader why you think the study you are about to do is important and worth

doing;

(b) This section should also show a clear link between the current study (your study)
and

other studies that have been done;

(c) As such you should undertake a brief literature review to show the link between
your

study and others in the particular area.

Research Aim and Objectives

Research objectives are what the study aims to achieve at the end. Research objectives
guide your study.

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Aim: reflects the aspiration and expectations of the researcher. In other words, the aim
is an intention or goal of what the researcher wants to achieve sometimes they are
referred to as long term objectives.

Objectives are intentions or purposes which are stated in measurable terms. The
objectives are specific statements relating to the defined or stated aim. Objectives are
also operational. They will be carried out by the researcher to accomplish the aim of the
study.

Qualities of good objectives

a) They are specific;
b) They are measurable – i.e. they can be evaluated;
c) They are focused- They should narrow down to the various aspects of
the problem;
d) They are operational- stated in action words e.g. identify, determine,
and examine;
e) They are realistic or achievable.
Research Questions

These are the questions the study will attempt to answer. They are the issues that you
want to find answers to at the end of the study. Some scholars argue that when you
have research objectives, you do not need research objectives — and vice versa.
However, it is also argued that for a higher level research e.g. for Masers and
particularly PhD, both are necessary. i.e. research objectives and research questions.

68
Chapter Two

Literature Review

This is usually Chapter two, of the proposal.

Literature review is an examination of the literature related to you research topic. You
search for the literature related to your topic from books, journals, other research
projects and also from the internet. As you write and comment on this literature, you
should do the following:

a) Show how your present study relates to previous published research.

b) What research gap does your present study aim to fill? What is your study
attempting to do that other studies have overlooked, omitted etc.

c) Assess objectively the strengths and weaknesses of previous studies in relation

to yours, including areas of omissions, and show how your study will address
these.

d) Show where past research supports your arguments and where past research is
contrary to your arguments.

The purpose of reviewing the literature and writing a literature review is to:

(a) Show that you are familiar with the literature related to your topic;

(b) You are aware of the key theories in your research topic;

(c) Show the link between your study and past research;

(d) Avoid duplication of research by acquainting yourself with what has been done in
that

Area;

69
(e) Helps to further refine your research questions and objectives;

(f) Helps to discover research strategies, approaches and techniques that are appropriate

for your study.

Chapter Three

Research Methodology

This is usually Chapter three of the research project/ proposal.

This section of the proposal shows how the study will be carried out.

It is a detailed account of the method to be used to carry out the study.

This chapter has the following sub-sections:

(a) Study Area

You describe the area where the study takes place; Geographical area. Give any other
socio-economic factors that may have a bearing to the study.

(b) Study Sample

Who are the people who will take part in the study; i.e. who are your respondents.

(c) Sampling technique

How will the sample be chosen. i.e. how will your study group be chosen. There are
various methods of choosing a sample. Each has its advantages and disadvantages for
particular studies.

(d) Research Tools

70
These are the instruments that you will use to collect data. Common research tools
include questionnaires; interview (group and individual), telephone surveys and
observation.

In this section, you therefore state which research tools you will use.

You can use one or a combination of tools. It is considered a good idea if a combination
tools is used; technique called Triangulation

(e) Data Analysis

In this section, you explain how the data that you will collect will be analyzed.

The above are the major contents (components) of typical research proposal. However,
remember that sometimes finding bodies give you a guide on how they want those
writing proposals to them to use.

Drawing Conclusions

Conclusion should be presented at the end of the text as the final. Some conclusion
should be in the form of new materials, perceived as addition to the field of knowledge.
In some case the extend to which conclusion over turn or challenge the previous beliefs
should be brought out.

Recommendation

Recommendation for further work should be identified and stated.

(C) THE END MATTER

It is the end of the report; appendices should be listed in respect of all technical data.
For example questionnaires, sample information, research permits, mathematical
derivations and others.

Bibliography; bibliography of sources consulted should also be given i.e lists of

books, journals, periodicals, reports and others referred information sources should be
presented.

Index; (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of
the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should

71
invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it
works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

THE STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PROJECT/REPORT

Research project is arranged as follows:

Chapter One

1.0 - Introduction/background to study

1.1 - Statement of the problem

1.2. - Aim of the study

1.3 - Objectives of the study

1.4 - Scope of the study

1.5 - Limitations of the study

1.6 - Significance of the study

1.8 - Definition of operational terms

Chapter Two : Literature Review

2.0 - Introduction

2.1 - Research Topic. This can be broken into sub-topics; depending on the

research topic.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.0 - Introduction

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3.1 - Research Design

3.2 - Study Population

3.3 - Sampling methods

3.4 - Sampling Techniques

3.5 - Study sample

3.6 - Data Collection Methods

3.7 - Data collection Instruments

3.8 - Data collection procedure

Chapter Four: Data presentation, analysis and interpretation

4.0 - Introduction

4.1 - Data presentation, analysis and interpretation

Chapter Five: Summary of the Findings Conclusion and Recommendation

73