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Paper No. CT 63 Section 6: Contact 0707 737 890
Paper No. CT 63 Section 6: Contact 0707 737 890
CT 63
SECTION 6
CERTIFIED
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGISTS
(CICT)
RESEARCH METHODS
STUDY TEXT
RESEARCH METHODS
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
This paper is intended to equip the candidate with the knowledge, skills and attitude that will enable
him/her to design and carry out research on information systems
LEARNING OUTCOMES
CONTENT
1. Introduction to research
Meaning of research
Types of research
Significance of research
The research process
Challenges in carrying out research
Types of research designs
Format of research project
Research methodology
4. Research methodology
Target population
Sampling techniques and sample size
Data collection
Data collection method
Reliability and validity of data
7. Issues in research
Ethical considerations in research
Implementation of research recommendations
conducting research
2.3: Qualitative
3.1: Problem formulation – What is a research Problem /why the need for this? 3.2: What are the
topic
problems
7.1: Population
8.1: Questionnaires
8.2: Interview
3
11.1: How to cite or quote references
Reading List
1. Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: methods and Techniques, 2nd rev. ed,
2. Kombo, Donald Kisilu and Delno L.A. Tromp. Proposal and thesis writing.
3. Mugnda, O.M and Mugenda A.G RESEARCH Methods: Qualitative and Qualitative
4. Orodho, A.J. and Kombo, D.K. Research Methods. Nairobi: Kenyatta University,
Teaching methods
Research Methods
Seminars
Exams
Teaching Tools
Whiteboard
Computer
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TOPIC ONE: Introduction, Definition of Terms and Concepts
Lecture Objectives-
Introduction
A human being can/tries to understand the world through everyday occurrences and
generalizations.
- Logical reasoning;
research.
A more efficient and effective approach to expand knowledge however is the conduct
Definition of research
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b) Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study
survey, observe and clearly portray the status quo of education and other social settings
as well as the need and way of working towards continuous improvement of the
solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data.
It is a most important tool for advancing knowledge promoting progress and enabling
human beings to relate more effectively to their environment accomplish their purposes
and resolve their conflicts. There are a number of specific forms that research can take
However in a general sense, all research is oriented towards one or both ends i.e. The
The term research means to look for, examine, investigate or explore. Orodho and
problems through the planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
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Tuchman (1978) describes research as a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions.
Characteristics of research
Purpose of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to the questions through the application
likelihood that the information gathered will be relevant to questions asked and will be
reliable and unbiased. There are four reasons for conducting research:
1. to explore and in the process describe and /or resolve some problems;
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people or to conduct a project of automation of library operations and
Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. For
group. For example, it involves providing detailed accurate picture with new
data that contradicts past data, create a set of categories or classification types
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used;
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2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
3. The Procedural Design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and
the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
2. Good research is logical. Implies that research is guided is guided by the rules
of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of
great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a
part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
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premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decision.
Research is systematic because it follows certain steps that are logical in order. These
steps are:
the problem;
decisions;
generalizations.
Questions
research culture?
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Q3 Distinguish between Basic Research and applied research.
1. Purpose of research;
2. Objectives of research;
Lecture objectives
Applied research
Applied research is pragmatic/practical and its purposes are more specific and are
that can be utilized immediately in actual real world situations e.g. automation of
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immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/ business organization. It is the
research which is undertaken so that the knowledge obtained or research finding can be
studies undertaken primarily to acquire knowledge for its own sake. Such studies are
nature. Basic research is mainly concerned with generations and with the formulation of
a theory. In many cases no experiments are carried .For example, studies undertaken to
DPHIL. Universities are known for generation of knowledge yet doctors prefer research
The largest achievement is giving opportunities for more people to acquire knowledge
through research.
Quantitative research
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statistically. Quantitative research relies on the principle of verifiability i.e.
The researcher‘s value, interpretation and feeling are not considered. Quantitative
rules. The numbers are specified, for example, sex, male or female. Quantitative
1. When the research incorporates the statistical (how many?) element, designed
to quantify the extent to which a target group is aware or, thinks this, believes
and in-depth investigation of particular topics; For example in finding out the
Qualitative research
qualitative phenomenon. Qualitative research seeks to describe and analyze the culture
and behaviour of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being
studied. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
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behavior (i.e. why people think or do certain things).This type of research aims at
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose. Qualitative research uses the natural setting, for instance, a classroom setting
and not a laboratory. This means the scenario is not artificial. Qualitative research relies
on a research strategy that is flexible and interactive. This includes interviewing, focus
conditions:
1. When the subject matter is unfamiliar. For example, when one wants to know
the causes and effects of a certain phenomenon and the answer is unfamiliar to
the researcher. For example, The effect of free primary education on school
consumption;
2. When meaning rather than frequencies are sought. For example when analyzing
the effect of abortion on education, the research may be more interested in why
students procure abortions and the effect abortion has on the education. The
and in depth investigation of particular topics. For example in fining out the
effect of abortion on education, the researcher may interview those who have
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TOPIC THREE: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Introduction
The first concrete steps in the scientific research process, is to formulate the specific
A problem statement is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the
research. It introduces the broad aim of the research or the reasons or contributions of
the research problem in ideal situations. The research problem involves narrowing
down our general interest in a research topic in order to focus on a particular research
The researcher identifies the problem by asking a series of questions of questions. Such
as the following
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4. What importance does it have either theoretically or practically?
5. What (if anything) have others researchers said or done about these issues?
In research process in general the first and foremost steps happens to be that of
A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible/
liable to research.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained. If one want nothing, one cannot
have a problem
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available
to a researcher for he/she has no choice of means she or he can not have a
problem.
4. There must be some environment to which some difficult pertains. (e.g. Specific
in mind. These help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you will
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remain motivated. These considerations are interest, magnitude, measurement of
involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. For example, if you
select a topic which does not greatly interest you, it could become extremely
difficult to sustain the required motivation, and hence its completion as well as
study. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear. It is
extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and
3. Measurement of concepts- if you are using a concept in your study, make sure
you are clear about its indicators and their measurement. For example, if you
measured. Do not use concepts in your research problem that you are not sure
how to measure.
4. level of expertise- make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the
task you are proposing. Allowing for the fact that you will learn during the
study and may receive help from your research supervisors and others, but
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5. Relevance- selects a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure
that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or
is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the
study.
topic, make sure that these data are available and in the format you want.
sensitive and private information. How ethical issues can affect the study
The topic which is undertaken for study must be carefully be selected. The following
research.
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally taken/ chosen, for it will be a
4. The cost involved and the time factor should be taken into account;
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5. Do not select topics where you require research permits unless you are sure of
acquiring the permits because you require a lot of time, copies of proposals or
passports.
This marks the beginning of a research study and is the most crucial and difficult part
of the research journey on which the quality of the entire project depends. A brief
review of the relevant literature helps enormously/ very much in broadening this
must have a problem you want to investigate. It could be something that bothers
you. Something you have noticed but cannot get an explanation for, e.g. - How
come most librarians are ladies?. Is this accidental or are there reasons for this
automation open source software , library 2.0 tools among others. Before you
begin to do research, you must have a clear idea what you want to do.
2. Identify Keywords for the topic. The researcher should then narrow down to
the real aspect puzzling him/ her and express it in specific keywords. These
Keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the
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research. For example if the researcher is puzzled about information retrieval,
3. Define the topic. It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subs rears. Out
of this list select issues or sub areas about you are passionate. That is, after
identifying the Keywords the researcher wants to concentrate or, he/she has to
define the topic. Defining the topic involves analyzing selected keywords
keenly. Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied.
For example programming, C, C++, Java, HTML, PHP, Visual Basic, etc.This
is because your interest should be the most important determinant for selection,
even though there are other considerations which have been discussed in the
decide what interests you most is to start with the process of elimination. Go
through you‘re your list and delete those sub areas in which you are not very
interested. You will find that towards the end of this process, it will become
very difficult for you to delete anything further. You need to continue until you
are left with something that is manageable considering the time available to you,
you level of expertise and other resources needed to undertake the study. Once
you are confident that what you have selected you are passionate about and can
4. Formulate the topic. After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher
and information centers. The researcher should search for articles and other
materials relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the research
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develop clarity over selected topic selected. This will also assist the research in
Note. To achieve this, you review the literature related to the problem to know what
other researchers have done and discovered and to identify the possible methodology
for
Topic selection
3. Poor timing
Conclusion
When you have decided on a topic or general problem, refine it and state specific
objectives, literature review should make it easy for you to do this after which you will
be in a position to consider how to collect the data or evidence that you require.
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The initial question is not which methodology but what do I need to know and why,
only then you ask what is the method, way to collect data of information and when I
a) Statements by prominent people that are stated without proof or passed as the
truth. For example, Kenyans do not read much or some people are poor because
b) Discussion with fellow students, work mates, lecturers etc. A person may
suggestions for further research. May show gaps that, there is need for
researching on. You may doubt a finding in the research and want to try it out
Sciences.
d) Personal preferences, e.g. Areas where you have written good term
papers/essays etc.
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e) Brainstorming. Tell a group of people, your. General idea about what you want
to research. Let them comment on the idea. Discuss the comments. Choose the
Question
6. Discuss the major factors that you would take into account when choosing a
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TOPIC FOUR: INFORMATION SOURCES
PRIMARY SOURCES
Definition:
Primary sources are original materials. They are from the time period involved and
have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation. Primary sources are original
materials on which other research is based. They are usually the first formal appearance
of results in physical, print or electronic format. They present original thinking, report a
discovery, or share new information.
Examples include:
Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from
the time under study);
Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
Diaries;
Internet communications on email, listservs;
Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
Letters;
Newspaper articles written at the time;
Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
Patents;
Photographs
Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty,
constitution, government document);
Speeches;
Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);
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Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures,
musical scores, buildings, novels, poems).
Web site.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Definition:
Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. Generally, they are
accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and
evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather
commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what some define as a secondary
source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is everything.
Examples include:
TERTIARY SOURCES
Definition:
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Almanacs;
Bibliographies (also considered secondary);
Chronologies;
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
Directories;
Fact books;
Guidebooks;
Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
Manuals;
Textbooks (also be secondary).
Electronic Book
An e-book (short for electronic book and also known as a digital book, ebook, and
ebook) is an e-text that forms the digital media equivalent of a conventional printed
book, sometimes restricted with a digital rights management system. an e-book, as
defined by the oxford dictionary of english, is "an electronic version of a printed book
which can be read on a personal computer or hand-held device designed specifically for
this purpose."[1] e-books are usually read on dedicated hardware devices known as e-
readers or e-book devices. personal computers and some cell phones can also be used to
read e-books.
Read and makes notes Mugenda and Mugenda. Research methods. (2003)
Page 32-37 sources of literature.
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TOPIC FIVE: LITERATURE REVIEW
5.0 Introduction
Literature Review is an attempt to identify, locate and put together /synthesis completed
research articles, books and other materials about the specific problems of a research
topic.
Literature Review enables a research to establish a relationship between a specific
research problem and the greater topic. Discuss about related research should be
appropriate/right for the nature and scope of the planned study. Cited studies ought to
be examined critical rather than nearly mentioned. Sources of important related
findings should be also be noted.
In summarizing the literature, closely related study should be grouped and discussed
collectively rather than individually.
4. Covers the methodology that was used successfully by other research workers;
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2. Define Parameters- For example,
Note. When you choose a topic with a lot of literature you limit by the year.
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Online searching.
(f) Select the source - Tools and Sources of Information used in
information Sciences which includes archival catalogues, finding Aids,
indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, books, thesis, dissertations,
Government & Research Reports, Newspapers, Magazines, Handbooks,
Internet.
Note
Newspaper might not be appropriate because no much research has been
done. The indexes, bibliographies and catalogues will provide you with
information about which information resources is available. But to
obtain the material relating to your area of interest you have to find out
what is in the stock
Seminar Topic
Identify suitable sources that you would use to conduct a study of the selected in topic
three. Write a literature review for the study.
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Topic Six: Research Design
6.0 Introduction
A research design is a plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or
program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypothese and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. A
research design is the strategy or approach that you are going to use in your study in
order to gather the information you need for your research. This strategy or design can
also be called your study method. Orodho (2003) defines it as the scheme, outline or
plan that is used to generate answers to research problems. A research design can be
regarded as an arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance with the research purpose. It is the conceptual
structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint for collection,
measurement and analysis of data (Kothari, 2003)
The second emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their
validity, objectivity and accuracy. For example, Suppose you want to find out the
effectiveness of a marriage counseling service by an institution- that is, the extent to
which the service has been able to resolve the martial problems of its clients. In
studying such relationships you must understand that in real life there are many outside
factors that can influence the outcome of your intervention. For example, during visits
to your institution for counseling your client may get a better job. If some of the martial
problems came about because of economic hardship, and if the problem of money is
now solved, it may be a factor in reducing the martial problems. On the other hand, if
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a client loses his/her job, the increase in the economic problems may either intensify or
lessen the martial problems, that is, for some couples a perceived financial threat may
increase martial problems, whereas for others, it may create more closeness between
partners. In some situations, an improvement in a marriage may have every little to do
with the counseling received, coming about almost entirely because of a change in
economic circumstances. Other events such as the birth of a child to a couple or a
couple‘s ‗self- realisation‘, independently arriving at, may also affect the extent and
nature of martial problems
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In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental group which receives
the treatment or a control group which does not receive treatment. Assuming the two
groups were initially equivalent, the researcher can compare their performance. In this
design cause and effect can be certain be easily determined.
Example:
A researcher at KEMU wanted to find out if giving user education to students has any
effect on use of the library. To find out, he/she chose to use the experimental research
design. (Method)
From a list at the Deans Office, he found the Diploma students were 1,000
(population);
He decided to select out of the 1.000 students, a sample of 100 students. He used the
simple random sampling;
He allocated 50 of the students to the experimental group and 50 to control through
simple random method;
He gave the experimental group (50 students) a 2 week course on user education
(Introduction of planned change or manipulation on one of the variables);
The control group got no tuition (Course on user education);
After the two week course, he gave both the experimental and control group a test
which required them to use the library to answer a set of questions;
After the test, he marked the test and compared the mean score of both groups
(Measurement);
After the tests were marked, the mean score of the students who were given user
education was higher than those who were not.
At the beginning of the research, the researcher hypothesis was that, User education
improves a student‘s use of the library. Therefore his/her hypothesis was confirmed by
the results.
Control of variable (extraneous variables)
The researcher was aware that the following variables can affect the results of the
study:
(a) Students marks
(b) Students‘ year of study 1st and 2nd
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(c) Gender.
(d) Subject of study.
To control the above variables:
The researcher chose students who had score A- in their KCSE for both experimental
and control group
Chose only first years for both control and experimental group. (Control for (b).
Both experimental and control group had equal proportions of boys and girls. Control
for gender
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example, The impact of pay as you eat on education. A case study of KEMU. A study
of KEMU can allow an in-depth investigation of the problem at hand. It will bring
about deeper insights and better understanding of the problems faced by students. Case
studies can also be used to isolate the important variables in a problem in order to study
them in a bigger study. You should use case study design if you intend to analyze an
issue in detail. Ensure that you have justified why you selected a case study. Data for
case studies can be collected through use of questionnaires, interviews, or observation
or a combination of both
(c) Survey
Survey research is popular because it allows a researcher to collect a large amount of
data from a sizeable population in an economical way. Since in a survey, a
representative sample is chosen, the survey is considered more authoritative than for
example the case study. The common method (tool) for collecting data in survey
research is the questionnaire. People are nowadays familiar with surveys because
newspapers keep on frequently reporting on one survey or other e.g. a survey of HIV
awareness in a particular country. Surveys to measure the popularity of politicians e.g.
Kibaki, Kalonzo, Raila etc. This is a form of survey called an opinion poll. For
example, if election are called today, whom would you vote for? Kibaki, Kalonzo,
Raila, etc.Some examples of survey research include:
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This is done to establish whether there is a need for a particular product or service
before it is design and launched.
Market survey tries to establish whether there is a demand for a particular product and
also the size of the market. That is, is the market big enough to sustain the product or
service?
(iii) Educational Survey
This tries to establish educational facilities in an area, country etc. e .g. - number of
home science workshops; Libraries in an area in a country.
- The qualification of teachers e.g.Pl, ARTS Graduates and their distribution in the
country.
iv) Demographic Survey
No of men, women
Ages e.g. what numbers of people are below 12, over 18, over 60 etc?
(v) Economic survey
Surveys, distribution of income e.g. Number of Kenyans below poverty line, those
living in permanent houses, those who are between 5-10 thousand, over 10,000 etc.
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Topic Seven: Sampling
SAMPLING
Researchers usually collect data from samples, not whole populations.
There are good reasons why data is collected from sample rather than population.
It would take a long time to collect data from every possible case or group member
(population) researchers operate on a limited time frame.
It would also be too expensive to collect data from every possible case. Researcher
operates from a specified budget.
If a representative sample is chosen, the results will just be as accurate as would have
been the case if the population had been studied.
Results of the study may be needed quickly. In research the term ―population‖ does not
necessarily mean people. It simply means the total number of cases or elements from
which a sample is taken. Population therefore may refer to cows, tables, bottles, cars,
libraries etc. For example: all public libraries in Kenya contribute a population.
Too expensive to test a whole population of a product. For e.g. Test quality of glasses
by subjecting them to pressure. Some will break. Choose a sample rather than subject
all glasses produced in a day to pressure.
If you chose 10 of them for a study, that is a sample. An individual public library such
as Kenya National Library Services Library(KNLS) is a case or element.
Sampling techniques
There are two types sampling techniques:
(a) Probability sampling and (b) Non probability sampling
Under each of these sampling types, there are a number of sampling techniques.
Probability Sampling
This is the type of sampling where each case, element or member of a population has an
equal chance of being selected. Probability sampling is the best technique for choosing
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a representative sample, because each member in that population has an equal chance
of being selected. The sample you choose therefore using probability sampling is likely
to be representative.
Five main techniques can be used to select a probability sample. These are:
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi-Stage
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(ii) Get a table of random numbers. These are given in research or statistics books.
They are generated using a computer. The following is an extract from a table of
random numbers.
62 72 18
19 68 26
47 01 55
53 86 78
57 99 96
41 66 54
5 98 71
15 22 95
(iii) Close your eyes and move a pencil along/across the number and Stop.
(iv) The number at or near your pencil point is the number you start with. Suppose your
pencil stopped at 47.
(v) Student number 47, 53, 57, 41, 51, 15, 72 etc, get selected until you achieve your
sample size of 100 first years. Random numbers table can be used down or across the
numbers.
Note also any number that is outside your sample size, is ignored. For
Example in our example a number such as 147 will be ignored because we are selecting
up to 100.
If a number appears again after it has already been selected, the second number is
ignored, e.g. 47, ------47.
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the sample has identifiable subgroups that are likely to vary in the variable being
studied, then a simple random sample would not be suitable. If for example a library
manager wanted to do a study in his library to identify the training needs of the
employees in the library, he would first need to identify the subgroups that form his
employees. There will be for example cleaners, clerical staff, supervisors, heads of
departments, security guards etc. To get a representative view of the training needs,
each of these subgroups need to be represented.
In this case, he should choose a stratified sample consisting of each of the subgroups.
From each subgroup; a simple random sample is chosen.
The total sample will consist of the subgroup samples. The number chosen from each
subgroup should be proportional to their total number in the organization.
Example:
Suppose in Library X, there are 100 non-professional staff and 200 professional staff.
Suppose the library manager wanted to know the views of the staff on a newly
introduced staff incentive scheme. He has no time to interview all the 300 staff
members (population). Re can choose a stratified random sample consisting of both
professional and non-professional staff.
Non-professional Proportion in the organization
100 33.3%
Professional
200 66.7%
Suppose the library manager wanted a sample of 100 out of the 300 staff population.
33.3% of sample should be non-professionals and 66.7% should be professional.
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The 33 non-professionals and the 67 professionals can be chosen from the subgroup
using the simple random method.
Stratified sampling is the preferred method when the population has subgroups (or is
heterogeneous).
The subgroups are considered to have important and different characteristics in relation
to the study.
Note that systematic sampling is not a suitable method to use if there is a characteristic
repeated at regular intervals within the sampling frame.
Suppose for example you wanted a sample of users of KEMU Library to study their
information needs. You get a 1ist of users from the librarian. You decide to choose
every 4th user on the list.
Suppose every 4th user on the list is a postgraduate student!
Then your sample will consist of postgraduate students and it will be a biased sample.
The information needs of postgraduate students are different from those of
undergraduates.
There is also cluster and multi-stage sampling. You are unlikely to use any of these.
Read about them.
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Non-probability Sampling
All the techniques discussed earlier are all probability sampling
However, there are cases where the researcher may choose a sample using their own
subjective judgment. This then becomes a non-probability sample.
Suppose a researcher wanted to find out the causes of staff unrest leading to work
stoppage in libraries in Kenya. In the particular year three libraries in Kenya
experienced staff strikes. If the researcher chose a random sample, there is a chance that
none of the three libraries will be in the sample.
In this case, the researcher will not get the information he requires. In this case
probability sampling is not suitable.
In this case the researcher uses non-probability sample and makes a purposive decision
to study the three libraries that had staff strikes.
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- Christians who consult witchdoctors.
- People who are working and also claiming unemployment benefits in countries that
have these benefits.
Remember there are no lists of such people and they don‘t advertise themselves.
The only way to get a sample such people is to make contact with one or
two cases.
The one case leads you to say, two others, who lead you to others and so on until the
desired sample is reached or more cases, are revealed.
2
3 1
1
0
0
0
9
4 o
5 0
8 0
6
7
0
0
0
0
The chief problem with this case is getting that first case contact. This is difficult.
0
0
0
(c) Convenience Sampling
0
This is selecting a sample that is easy to get, e.g. using your classmates as a sample0of
0
University students. It is easy for you to collect information from your classmates, e.g.
0
easy to distribute a questionnaire to them and collect it after class. 0
A researcher doing market survey can stand at the door of a supermarket and interview
customers as they enter or leave the supermarket. The researcher may want for, e.g. to
know what consumers think about ―New Omo with power foam‖. The problem here is
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that that would not be a representative sample of Kenyan Consumers because only the
rich shop at supermarkets (Smallest pack of Sugar is 2kg. Cooking Oil is in 3 litres and
5 litres containers).
Problem with non-probability sampling in general is that they are not representative.
The results got from the samples cannot be generalized to the population.
However, there are special circumstances in which non-probability sampling may be
chosen by a researcher
Non-probability samples are also useful for generating data that can be used as the basis
for a bigger more representative study. In this case they become pilot studies for future
studies.
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Topic Eight: Data Collection Instruments
8.0 Introduction
The means, techniques and frames of references by which researchers approach and
carry out enquiry are known as research methodology. Decision has to be made about
which methods are best for particular purposes and then data collecting instrument must
be designed to do the job. The extent of your data collecting will be influenced by the
amount of time you have and funds available. The choice of tools used in gathering
data for the study largely depends on their efficiency and accuracy. A researcher aims
to collect reliable and valid data. This will depend on the research tools chosen and how
they are constructed. Several tools exist, each with its advantages and disadvantages
depending on the type of the study to which they are applied. There are six major
methods of collecting information or data:
(i) Individual
(ii) Group
(d) Observation.
(e) Experimentation
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Microsoft Encarta reference Library (2005) refers questionnaire as a set of questions
used to gather information in a survey, or the printed paper that contains the questions.
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded by
respondents. In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers. Questionnaire is the most commonly or
widely used method for collecting information. There are two types of questionnaires:
(a) Open
(a) Open
1. Do you think libraries should charge a fee for use of their services?
Why?-------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Closed
1. Does your library open on weekends?
(a) Yes
(b) No
a) Raila Odinga
b) Kalonzo Musyoka
c) Mwai Kibaki
d) Musalia Mudavadi
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8.1.1 Advantages of questionnaires
The researcher found this instrument appropriate due to the following reasons
b) Can cover a wide geographical area. Researcher can gather large amounts of
data from many subjects very inexpensively.
f) They are impersonal and do avoid some of the problems of personal interview.
Some respondents with crucial information may not be at ease in an interview
room consequently leading to much valuable information being left out
g) Are flexible and can be completed at the respondents own time. Respondents
had enough time to ponder their answers. Respondents can refer to other
information sources and therefore give a more careful thought answer since the
responses are not required immediately.
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8.1.2 Disadvantages
c) There is no assurance that the addressee (i.e. the one you sent it to) is the one
who answered. Difficulties in clarifying that the responses are from the chosen
or selected respondents. e.g. Boss may give secretary to respond. In some case
the wrong person may complete the questionnaire.
g) The answers may not be spontaneous and dependence of each other because the
response may have had the opportunity to read all of the questions before
beginning to answer all of them.
Structure of a questionnaire
Depending on what you are researching and the level, a questionnaire can be simple or
complex.
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1. Transmittal note
- Gender
This is the section with the questions. It should be divided into sub-sections
The following are some hints you should bear in mind. They will improve your
questionnaire construction.
a) Get the beginning right. Catch the interest of the respondent at the beginning.
That is questions which suggest you favour a certain answer e.g. don‘t you
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e) Avoid ambiguous questions. These are questions that can be interpreted by the
8.2 Interviews
Introduction
Interviews are therefore face to face which includes structured and unstructured or
telephone interviews. Interview needs maximum cooperation from respondents to
obtain accurate information. On the one hand, interviewing can be very flexible, when
the interviewer has the freedom to formulate questions as they come to mind around the
issue being investigated and on the other hand it can be inflexible, when the
investigator has to keep strictly to the questions decided beforehand.
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8.2.1 Advantages
c) The interviewer is able to clarify confusing questions thus ambiguities that may
arise are countered meaning the responses are guided hence reliable.
e) Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent
by honest and personal interaction.
h) The interviewer in also able to obtain clarifications from the interviewee just in
case certain responses are unclear for instance, if I got you right, you talked
about…could you explain in a little more detail?
j) Interviews are also suitable since it enables the researcher to capture the
interviewee‘s non-verbal cues which may be very instrumental in the researcher
especially in showing the attitude and feelings or emotions of an individual
about the current situation. Non-verbal cues are again loud enough to tell the
interviewer whether the respondent is sincere in their answers or otherwise.
8.2.2 Disadvantages
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Interviews also have some disadvantages which includes;
a) Interviews are more expense because you have to travel to where the
interviewee is;
f) Interviews involves smaller samples because they are time consuming and
bigger sample is a constraint;
g) Sometimes the respondents were not willing to give appointments for the
interviews;
Advantages
3. The method can be combined with observation especially when accurate data on
height, weight etc are required;
4. The interviewer can control the circumstances under which the answers are
given. For example No one else influence the respondent
Disadvantages
Advantage
Disadvantages
2. The respondents can suspect that you want to use the information in selling
data;
This is where the researcher gets the respondents chosen for his/her study and
interviews them in one place.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
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b) Can popularize opinion and intensify group loyalties (e.g. group comprising of
c) different tribes)
d) Promotes conformity
This is-a one-to-one interview between the researcher and the respondent. The
researcher prepares a number of questions which acts as a guide during the interview.
As with group interview, this method of collecting data has its advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages
3. One is able to get impressions of the respondent‘s home, office, gestures, tone of
voice.
Disadvantages
3. May provoke bias, antagonism due to differences of race, sex, socio economic status
between interviewer and respondent.
8.3 Observation
Introduction
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ascertain the functions performed by a worker or study the behaviour or personality
traits of an individual. It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate
information cannot be elicited by questioning, because respondents either are not co-
operative or are unaware of the answer because it is difficult for them to detach
themselves from the interaction.
Observation is used for example to establish how people use facilities or how the
behaviour rather than asking questions. Observation is one of the best methods of
collecting data (Information). Observation as a method of collecting data is very
popular in the physical Sciences. It is used a lot in Physics, Biology, and Chemistry etc.
For e.g. - Crops are grown in different soils, clay, sandy, loam and you observe and
record what happens to the plants. Another example is to put solid X in liquid Y and
observe what happens and record. A lot can be learnt by directly observing the world
around us. One way of observing and gathering information is for you the librarian to
put yourself in the place of users and observers what happens. One way in which the
librarian can put himself in the place of users is to call his library (not identify himself)
and ask for certain information from the library. You can learn a lot of what users go
though by this method. For example
Observation can also be used to note user preferences for certain places in the library
e.g. single tables, corner tables,
8.3.1 Advantages
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c) It gives direct response. That is, it provides the researcher with a direct
experience of a library service either through direct observation or on the
receiving end e.g. posing as a user of the service.
d) Avoids bias form respondents which is possible with other methods e.g.
questionnaire. With observation, there can be no bias because you are the one
observing what is going on.
8.3.2 Disadvantages
a) Can be time consuming. For example observing 150 students. Sometimes you
sit waiting for an activity to happen so that you can observe. It may take time
for the activity to happen. For example you may go to a library and you want to
observe the procedure for reserving materials in their particular library. For 2,
10, hours, a whole day, no user comes and requests to reserve some material.
b) People behave differently when they know they are being observed. If your
observers make it obvious they are observing something, people being observed
may begin to behave differently;
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a) Be clear from the start on what you are going to observe. Unless you do this,
you may end up with plenty of useful information but one which obscures your
original objective.
c) It makes recording and improves uniformity where several observers are used. It
also makes interpretation easy.
d) Analyze results as research progress. If you delay until end, you may not
understand some of the things you recorded.
e) Train observers.
3. Annual Budget;
Advantages
This method of collecting data, like the others, has its advantages and disadvantages.
5. Avoids some of the interpersonal problems that can arise with contact e.g. in face-to-
face interview, for e.g. Respondent may dislike interviewer. This is not so with
telephone contact. Respondent doesn‘t now whether you are black or white, short or
tall. Ugly or beautiful.
8.4.2 Disadvantages
1. Not all telephone numbers are listed in directories. These cannot be contacted. These
are estimated to be about 25%. For e.g. VIPs, Business people, etc.
4. Rules out some of the advantages of face-to-face interview for e.g. visual
impressions of the home.
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Topic Nine: Measurement scales
Scales of measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical properties.
The most widely used classification of measurement. The most widely used
classification of measurement scales are:
a) Nominal scale
b) Ordinal scale
c) Ratio scale
d) Interval scale
Nominal Scale
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number /symbols. In order to label them,
the number are only used for purposes of identification and their order is of no
consequences.
Coding frame
Yes No
1 2
Note
The numbers are only for identification. The researcher is supposed to add the sum total
of No and Yes.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales arise where item are related or ranked. For example, did you agree with
internet charges in KEMU library?
Coding Frame
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Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
disagree
1 2 3 4 5
Note
It is important when ranking the positive you give the highest e.g 5 and you go
downwards to lowest 1. For example, a researcher conducted an interview to 10 people
and the result for one question was as follows:
1,5,2,4,4,3,3,5,1,2= 30
n=30
x=n/n
x=3
Ratio Scale
Ration scale have an absolute or true zero (0) of scale of measurement. Scale represents
the actual amount of variables. Measurement of equal measurement such as height,
distance, weight and others are all equal. For example,0----------10cm.
Interval scale
In the case of interval scale the intervals are adjusted according to some rules that had
been established as a base of making the unit equal. The units are equal only in as far as
one accept the assumptions, which the rule is based. Internal scale can have arbitrary
zero but not possible to fix absolute zero or origin of them. E.g temperature scale 60 C
is not twice as warm as 30 C. e.g Class marks
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When data has been collected from the field using the various methods such
questionnaire, interview etc., the researcher is faced with a huge amount of data that
needs organization.
There are a number of techniques that a researcher can use to organize, summarize and
present the data in a report
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TOPIC TEN: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
The first step in preparing to organize and interpret data is to sort the data.
Suppose you had used a questionnaire as your data collection instrument and one of
your questions was:-
(A) Yes
(B) No.
The first step is to sort out those who answered ‗Yes‘ and those who answered
‗No‘.
Yes - 23
No - 12
(b) Tabulation
Tabulation is the process of putting the data in the form of Tables. Tables enable you
and those reading your report to see the data at a glance.. This helps understanding of
the data interpretation.
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To use the example given above of use of the library at weekends.
Yes 23
No 12
TOTAL 35
Another way of presenting and organizing data is to work out percentages for the
various responses.
To use the above example, those who indicated that they use the library during
weekends are 23. Those who don not use the library on weekend are 12. This data can
be converted into percentages.
―Yes‖ - 23 = 23 x 100
35
= 65.7
= 66%
―No‖ - 12 = 12 x100
35
= 34.2%
= 34%
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The above information is shown on the table below:
Table 2: Use of the library at weekends
f %
Yes 23 66
No 12 34
TOTAL 35 100
Bar charts are a form of visual representation of data. With a Bar Chart, one is able to
see data and make comparison at a glance.
25 23
20
15 12
Library users
10
5
0
yes no
A variation of the Bar Graph is compound (also called Component) Bar Graph.
Suppose the 23 students who use the library during the weekend are composed of boys
and girls. In the same example there are those who do not use the library. This
information cannot be shown by a simple Bar Graph. You need a compound Bar Graph.
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Table 3: Use of Library on weekends Boys and Girls
Boys Girls Total
Yes 14 9 23
No 8 4 12
25
20
15 girls
10 boys
5
0
Yes No
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c) Let’s use our example.
d) Use Library Yes = 23
e) Total = 35
f) Therefore = 23 x360
1. 35
ii. = 238°
g) No = 12 x 360
1. 35
ii. = 122°
h) Using a protractor, you measure 238 ° from centre of circle.
i) That segment represents:
j) ‗Yes‖ i.e. those who use the library.
k) You also measure 122 which will represent ―No‖.
34%
1
2
66%
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TOPIC 11: PROJECT /REPORT WRITING
Introduction
A project has a title. The Title states what the study is about. The title should be clear
and brief. The layout of a project or a report should be as follows. The preliminary
pages at the very beginning, the main text and end matter.
Title selection
The word title refers to heading, label or tag:
- Identify keywords for the title;
- Reflection on the key issues;
- Formulate the title;
- Evaluation i.e. the independent and dependent variables are identified.
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Abstract is also part of preliminary pages and is written in single spacing.
Chapter One
Introduction: The introduction should contain a clear statement of the aim and
objectives of the research and an explanation of the methodology adapted in
accomplishing the research. This section is also called ―Background to the study‖. It is
part of the Introduction Chapter of the project which is Chapter One. This is an
important part of the project. It should aim to achieve the following:
(a) Tell the reader why you think the study you are about to do is important and worth
doing;
(b) This section should also show a clear link between the current study (your study)
and
(c) As such you should undertake a brief literature review to show the link between
your
Research objectives are what the study aims to achieve at the end. Research objectives
guide your study.
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Aim: reflects the aspiration and expectations of the researcher. In other words, the aim
is an intention or goal of what the researcher wants to achieve sometimes they are
referred to as long term objectives.
Objectives are intentions or purposes which are stated in measurable terms. The
objectives are specific statements relating to the defined or stated aim. Objectives are
also operational. They will be carried out by the researcher to accomplish the aim of the
study.
These are the questions the study will attempt to answer. They are the issues that you
want to find answers to at the end of the study. Some scholars argue that when you
have research objectives, you do not need research objectives — and vice versa.
However, it is also argued that for a higher level research e.g. for Masers and
particularly PhD, both are necessary. i.e. research objectives and research questions.
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Chapter Two
Literature Review
Literature review is an examination of the literature related to you research topic. You
search for the literature related to your topic from books, journals, other research
projects and also from the internet. As you write and comment on this literature, you
should do the following:
b) What research gap does your present study aim to fill? What is your study
attempting to do that other studies have overlooked, omitted etc.
d) Show where past research supports your arguments and where past research is
contrary to your arguments.
The purpose of reviewing the literature and writing a literature review is to:
(a) Show that you are familiar with the literature related to your topic;
(b) You are aware of the key theories in your research topic;
(c) Show the link between your study and past research;
(d) Avoid duplication of research by acquainting yourself with what has been done in
that
Area;
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(e) Helps to further refine your research questions and objectives;
(f) Helps to discover research strategies, approaches and techniques that are appropriate
Chapter Three
Research Methodology
This section of the proposal shows how the study will be carried out.
You describe the area where the study takes place; Geographical area. Give any other
socio-economic factors that may have a bearing to the study.
Who are the people who will take part in the study; i.e. who are your respondents.
How will the sample be chosen. i.e. how will your study group be chosen. There are
various methods of choosing a sample. Each has its advantages and disadvantages for
particular studies.
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These are the instruments that you will use to collect data. Common research tools
include questionnaires; interview (group and individual), telephone surveys and
observation.
In this section, you therefore state which research tools you will use.
You can use one or a combination of tools. It is considered a good idea if a combination
tools is used; technique called Triangulation
In this section, you explain how the data that you will collect will be analyzed.
The above are the major contents (components) of typical research proposal. However,
remember that sometimes finding bodies give you a guide on how they want those
writing proposals to them to use.
Drawing Conclusions
Conclusion should be presented at the end of the text as the final. Some conclusion
should be in the form of new materials, perceived as addition to the field of knowledge.
In some case the extend to which conclusion over turn or challenge the previous beliefs
should be brought out.
Recommendation
It is the end of the report; appendices should be listed in respect of all technical data.
For example questionnaires, sample information, research permits, mathematical
derivations and others.
Index; (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of
the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should
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invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it
works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
Chapter One
2.0 - Introduction
2.1 - Research Topic. This can be broken into sub-topics; depending on the
research topic.
3.0 - Introduction
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3.1 - Research Design
4.0 - Introduction
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