UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan

SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Department of Social & Behavioral Sciences

Intro. to Political Analysis

PRELIMS COVERAGE

Module No.01
Title/Topic / INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL ANALYSIS
Reading
Overview / Politics is an essentially contested concept because the term has a number of
Introduction acceptable meanings and definitions. It has been defined in such different ways as
the exercise of power, the exercise of author, the making of collective decisions, the
allocation of scarce resources, the practice of deception and manipulation amongst
others (Heywood 2004:4).
Conception of politics means the process of forming an idea of what politics
is all about. There are different conceptions of politics because scholars tend to
define politics base on their perceptions or field of study.
Politics has been a point of debate in the Philippine setting because people
believe that those who are in the position are abusing their power for their own
selfish motives.
In this module, students will be able to learn the concepts of politics as they
are directed towards analyzing political issues confronting a community.
Learning At the end of the topic, students should be able to:
Objectives: 1. Explain what is political analysis and possibly relate it to the concept of
good governance;
2. Identify and apply the different methodologies in the conduct of
political analysis;
3. Critically evaluate different areas of political activities that can be
subjected to political analysis;
4. Define and analyze aspects of politics and international studies from a
variety of perspectives.
Discussion / How politics has been conceptualized and understood by different scholars and
Analysis: traditions. Politics as the art of government?

Politics has been conceptualized as the art of government.

Chancellor Bismarck is reputed to have conceived politics as the art of
government, the exercise of control within society through the making and
enforcement of collective decision. According to Heywood (2004:5) this is a
classical definition of politics, developed from the original meaning of the term in
Ancient Greece. This is the traditional view of the discipline which focus on the
personnel and machinery of government. This conception of politics offers a highly
restricted view of politics. It centered on the machinery of government and engaged
in by limited and specific group of people.
Politics as Public affairs
The earliest conception of politics belonged to the Greeks, who viewed
politics as matters in the public realm as against the private realm. This conception
moves beyond the narrow realm of government to what is thought of as public
affairs. In other words, the distinction between an essentially public and private
sphere of life. The public realm was view as morally superior to the private realm.
Their primary interest was in the moral purposes that decision makers ought to
pursue to realize the public or common good of all members of the state i.e. the
conformity of ideas and actions with perfect goodness. This view of politics is often
traced back to the work of Aristotle. According to Aristotle man by nature is a
political animal by which he meant that, it is only within a political community that
human beings can live the good life(Heywood 2004:8). Therefore, what the
statesman is most anxious to produce as a moral character in his follow citizens is a
disposition of virtue and performance of virtuous attribute. The institutions of the
states are regarded as public in the sense that they are responsible for the collective
organization of community life. While civil society which consist of the institutions
such as the family, church, private business, trade unions amongst others are private
in the sense that they are set up and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their
own interest rather than those of the larger society(Heywood 2004:8).

Criticism
Politics cannot be restricted to only the public realm. Decisions that occur in
the private realm largely affect the public realm. Politics as public affairs has been
portrayed as a form of unwanted interference.

Politics as the operation of the state

Weber defined politics as the operation of the state. This conception is
concerned with politics been associated with the activities of the state because
traditionally, the state has been the center of political analysis. Weber argued that
the modern state can only be defined in terms of the means peculiar to it, namely the
use of physical force. A human community that claims the monopoly of the
legitimate use of force within a given territory. Weber posited that politics should be
equated with activities of the state because it is an administrative structure which use
force to compel obedience and the monopoly of force is embodied in the military
and police force to the extent that the state exercise sovereignty over its territory.

Politics as power.
This conception is rather than confining politics to a particular sphere, view
politics at work in all social activities. This conception was summed up in Harold
Laswell book “Politics” when he defined politics as who get what, when and how.
From this perspective, politics is about diversity and conflict, but the essential
ingredient is the existence of scarcity. Politics can therefore been seen as the means
through which struggle is conducted.

Politics as collective decision and action

This conception of politics viewed politics as a matter of reaching collective
decisions and taking collective actions. Miller (2002) defined politics as the process
whereby a group of people, whose opinions or interest are initially divergent, reach
collective decisions which are generally, regarded as binding on the group, and
enforced as common policy. Assumptions from this conception is that all societies
must contain diversity and scarcity is also inevitable characteristics of all societies.

Politics as the determination and execution of public policy

David Easton and Laswell are the proponent of this conception of politics.
Politics can be seen as struggle among varied interest or people and decision makers
decide the allocation of valves among the people and also decide who gets what and
how. Emphasis is on how decisions are made and carried out for the society rather
than on the state structures as the sole center of political life. Proponents of this
conception are also concerned with the implementation of public policies once they
are made because a policy not implemented or cannot be implemented is a non
policy. The assumption of this conception are; Political decision affect the vast
4number of members of the society; Politics deals with acceptable decisions which
do not require force and Political activities take place outside state structures.

Politics as relation and conflict among different classes in the society.

According to Marx, every society is interlocked in a struggle between two
broad classes in the society. These classes are differentiated in terms of their
relations to mode of production in society. Those who own and control the means of
production constitute the class of oppressors (Bourgeoisies) and the “have not”
belonged to the class of the oppressed. Political activity centers on the struggle
between these two classes for supremacy. Marx believed the oppressed class will be
victorious and will establish a socialist society where all men will be equal.

Criticism
Marx’s predictions has not materialized. Socialist state such as USSR
collapsed because it could not sustain itself. China has also opened its window to the
market economy.

Politics as compromise and consensus

This conception view politics as a particular means finding and resolving
conflict through compromise, negotiation, conciliation and building of consensus
rather than through force. However, if this fails and military conflict or any kind of
violence erupts as a consequence, then politics can be said to have been rejected or
failed. Bernard Crick (2002:21) is an advocate of this position. He defined politics
as the only possible solution to the problem of order. This conception of politics
limits politics to a particular kind of politics, rather than politics per se. if we talk
about politics when agreements are reached and compromise made then it would
seem to be very limited activity.

References:
Cricks, B (2000) In Defenece of Politics. Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin.
Heywood, A. (2004)Politics. New York: Palgrave Foundations.
 Miller, D. (1987). “Politics.” In: The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought.
Miller, D. (Ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. 430-431.
Osaghae, E. (1988). Political Analysis. Ibadan: University of Ibadan External
Studies Programme.
https://www.edouniversity.edu.ng/oerrepository/articles/introduction_to_political_a
nalysis_lecture_notes.pdf

Quiz ESSAY. Answer the following briefly.

1. Explain in your own understanding the basic concepts of political analysis.
Relate your answers with real-life experiences.
2. Explain the relationship of politics and government. What makes politics a
government?
3. What is the relationship of politics and public affairs? Which component of
public affairs can be connected to politics? Explain extensively.
Assignment Study the matrix below and fill out the data needed. NOTE: Your answers
should be based on your understanding of the concepts presented.
Connection of the following: Reflect here your explanation on the connection of the two
1.Politics as the operations of
the state

2.Politics as power

3. Politics collective decision

and action

4.Politics as Determination
and Execution of Public
Policy
5.Politics as Compromise and
concensus

Prepared by:

MARLOWE T. PEREZ, MPA

*************************************************************************************
*************
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Department of Social & Behavioral Sciences

Intro. to Political Analysis

PRELIMS COVERAGE
Module No.02
Title/Topic/Reading Development of Political Analysis
Overview/Introduction Overview;
1. What is political analysis
2. Historical development of political analysis
3. Traditional political analysis
4. Modern political analysis.
Learning Objectives: At the end of the topic, students should be able to;
1. Define political analysis;
2. Explain the development of political analysis;
3. Explain traditional method of political analysis and their short comings and;
4. Explain modern political analysis and identify its strength and challenges
Discussion/Analysis: What is Political Analysis?
Political analysis can be defined as the various methods, theories, concept and
approaches employed by a political scientist to summarize and explain various
themes, political experience, events, political issues and phenomena. Political
analysis entails the process of investigating issues or events, decisions and
challenges by systematically organizing this information into categories and then
establishing a relationship between these data for the basic objective of
explanation and subsequently prediction (Osaghae,1988).
 In political science, the state is the main focus of analysis because it is the highest
form of human organization and the center of power. It is from the state that
citizens and non-citizens derive their political and social existence.

Development of political analysis

The dating of political analysis can be traced back to the works of Greeks and other
western philosophers. In the 19th century, political analysis relied on the historical,
descriptive and philosophical narrations. The work of Aristotle also revealed
primitive empirical analysis especially his classification of authority. However, in
the 20th century new development emerged such as (1) the emergence of several
new states especially those resulting from the fall of empires and kingdoms as well
as the independence of new states in Asia and Africa. (2) The spread of social
sciences outside the western hemisphere. Therefore, the available tools of analysis
could no longer explain the problem confronting societies. It for this reason that
the behavioralist mounted attack on the old traditional way of analysis based on
the following critique.
1. Traditional method of analysis were static and non-explanatory
2. Traditional analysis was conservative and concerned with how to maintain
loyalty to the rulers.
3. Traditional analysis were culture bound
4. The need to shift emphasis from government institution to man as the object of
political power.

From the 20th century modern political analysis dominated the mode of political
analysis. It places emphasis on man /human behavior. Modern political analysis
embodies the behavioral school. Behavioralism sees man as a social being. It
analyses political behavior using the canons of science by observing patterns and
regularities in human behavior with a view to predict them. Behavioralism as an
approach has a number of strength;
1. It is able to shift emphasis away from institution of government to man
2. It is able to place emphasis on human behavior
3. It is able to develop medium and long range theories
4. It enhances some degree of predictability.

The behavioral school in spite of the above strength has also have challenges
1. It is accused of ahistorical
2. There is the absence of generally acceptable laws, theories and concept
3. Lack accurate measurement tools
4. Replication is difficult to achieve.

Desired Activity: Activity No. 02: ESSAY. Briefly answer the following:
1. Define political analysis.
2. Explain the development of political analysis.
3. Explain traditional method of political analysis and their short comings.
4. Explain modern political analysis and identify its strength and challenges.
 Prepared by:
MARLOWE T. PEREZ, MPA
*************************************************************************************
**************

UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Department of Social & Behavioral Sciences

Intro to Political Analysis

PRELIMS COVERAGE

Module No.03
Title/Topic/Reading Importance and Forms of Political Analysis
Overview/Introduction Overview:
1. Importance of political analysis
2. Types or forms of political analysis
3. Relationship between the types of political analysis.
Learning Objectives: At the end of the topic, students should be able to;
1. Explain the importance of studying political analysis;
2. Identify the types of political analysis and;
3. Determine the relationship between the types of political analysis.
Discussion/Analysis: Importance of political analysis in the study of political science
According to Osaghea (1988) political analysis has three main goals;
1. To know what is important in politics
2. To know what is valuable
3. To know what is real or true by systematically subjecting our guesses,
impressions, popular belief, even rumors to verification.

Types of political analysis

There are four forms of political analysis. These are;
1. Normative
2. Semantic
3. Empirical and
4. Policy analysis

Normative analysis
The normative analysis deals with the application of reason to human ends
(Apter, 1977: 50). The normative type of political analysis ask questions of
values and Seeks to identify what is good or better with a view of recommends
what we ought to value.

Criteria for evaluating normative analysis

According to Osaghae (1988), the viewpoints which provide the criteria for
evaluating the quality of normative analysis are;
1. Naturalism
2. Intuition and
3. Subjectivism
Empirical analysis
Empirical analysis seeks to identify observable phenomena in the real world
with a view to establishing what is rather than what ought to be. The key
element of empirical approach to the study of politics is comparative analysis.

Types of empirical analysis

1. Deductive reasoning: theories are first deduced from principles before being
tested.
2. Inductive approach starts with empirical observation from which explanatory
generalization are generated.

Semantic analysis
Semantic analysis is also called conceptual analysis. It is concerned with
clarifying the meaning of concepts.

Ways of carrying out semantic analysis

First, appealing to an authority whose definitions is widely accepted. This is

called nominal definition.

Second, in the case of concepts colored by ideological consideration, one can

devise certain indices according to which it can be defined. This is called
operationalization of concept.

Policy analysis
Policy analysis involves the search for policies or course of action which will
take us from the present state to that which will bring desired and satisfactory
results.

Relationship among the four types of political analysis

 The four forms of political analysis are not used independently of each other.
Normative claims are based on empirical knowledge. Conversely, a great deal of
empirical analysis presupposes some normative assumptions. Policy analysis
makes use of both normative and empirical analysis. Underlying all analysis is
semantic analysis.

Summary
One basic responsibility of political scientists is to be able to analyze events as
they occur in polity. Political analysis helps us to know what is important,
valuable, and real or true in politics. Types of political analysis are; Normative,
empirical, semantic and policy analysis. The four types of political analysis are
not used independently of each other.

Desired Activity: Activity No. 03: Essay. Briefly answer the following:

1. Explain the importance of studying political analysis.

2. Identify the types of political analysis.

3. Determine the relationship between the types of political analysis.

Prepared by:
MARLOWE T. PEREZ, MPA
*************************************************************************************
***************
 UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION
Department of Social & Behavioral Sciences

Intro. to Political Analysis

PRELIMS COVERAGE
Module No.04
Title/Topic/Reading THE LANGUAGE OF INQUIRY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE
Overview/Introduction Concepts are generally accepted ideas, meaning or characteristics associated with
certain events, processes, conditions, behavior, action and situation. In political
science, there is the lack of agreement among scholars on the basic concepts of
political science. Political scientist operationalize key concepts that are important
to their analysis.
Learning Objectives: At the end of the topic, students should be able to explain the following concept
necessary in political analysis;
Generalization, Hypotheses, Variables, Theories, Scientific laws, Classification,
Verifiability, Models, Methods, positivism, Research design, Explanations,
Prediction, Falsification, Induction, Deduction, Techniques and paradigms.
Discussion/Analysis: Concepts necessary in political analysis

1. Generalization: these are statements which describes general conditions or

properties of the things we are interested in. Generalization in natural sciences is
usually stated in law like terms. In social sciences, it is stated as probability rather
than law like because human behavior, societies and events differ in their
essentials across time and place.

2. Hypotheses: hypotheses is a statement of the relationships between two or

more variables when at least one is independent and one is dependent. These are
tentative explanations, statement or assertions that are formulated to be tested
and when tested and confirmed, takes on the views of the world (Apter, 1977:39).

3. Variables: a variable is a property that takes on different valves or assumes

different characteristics. Types of variables; the first is the dependent variable, 11
which is what is to be explained by another variable. Second, there is the
independent variable which explains the dependent variable. Third intervening
variables which link the independent to dependent variable. Parameters represent
the conditions within which the independent variable operate (Apter, 1977:31).

4. Theories: theories are generalized statements summarizing the actions of one

set of variables. These are explanations of uniformities that involve two or more
variables, i.e. those whose action the theory seeks to explain and the causal or
operating variable which effect changes in others; but which, even though widely
held, require empirical validation for confirmation. The role of theory in political
analysis is to give direction to political inquiry (Apter, 1977:31).

5. Scientific laws: these are statements of universal uniformity used as explanatory

characters and as predictive statements.

6. Methods: methods are ways of organizing theories for application to data. Some
types of method are comparative, configurational, historical, and simulatic (Apter,
1977:31).

7. Classification: is considered as the activity of grouping objects with perceived

similarities or attributes into two or more named classes.

8. Techniques: techniques link methods to the relevant data. They represent

various modes of observation and ways of recording empirical information (Apter,
1977:31).

9. Verifiability: a proposition is said to be verified when it has been checked or

tested by many specialists in the relevant field of study.

10.Systematic: knowledge is said to be systematic when it is organized into

intelligible pattern, or structure with significant relationships made clear.

11.Models: are simplified ways of describing relationships. Model can be

constructed from a paradigm, a theory, a method, or a technique (Apter, 1977:32).

12.Positivism: this refers to an approach that seeks to apply the scientific method
of the natural science to social phenomena.

13. Explanations: is the reduction of the unfamiliar to the familiar. In other words,
we explain an event by deducing from one or more statement.

14.Prediction: prediction basically has the same logical form as explanation but,
unlike explanation, it involves inferring future unknown occurrence from particular
 facts and laws that are already known.

15.Research design: a research design convert strategy into an operational plan for
fieldwork or an experiment. It is a prospectus or outline from which a research is
carried forward (Apter, 1977:32).

16.Falsification: this is a doctrine of science that claims that there is no way we can
know what is true among competing explanations of the world. Rather we can
know what is false. The process of science therefore is the progressive elimination
of what is false.

17.Induction: this is the practice of inferring from generalization from past

occurrences which then shape expectations for the future. Induction starts with
empirical observation from which explanatory generalization are generated.

18.Deduction: starts with deducing theory first from principles before being tested.

19.Paradigm: a paradigm is a framework of ideas that establishes the general

context of analysis. It is a concept for understanding the framing and structuring of
knowledge production in the natural sciences. It combines a mixture of
philosophical assumptions and criteria of valid knowledge.

Desired Activity: Activity No. 04:

Write in paragraph form your personal and simple analysis of the current
Philippine politics.

Prepared by:
MARLOWE T. PEREZ, MPA
*************************************************************************************
***************