Unit 3:

A. Types of writing

INTRODUCTION

When you are trying to decide what type of writing you want to do, you need to think
about a couple of things. You are going to want to think about what you want to say and
who you are saying it to. Your specific topic affects what type of writing fits, and your
audience also plays a major role in how you deliver what you want to say.
Think of your piece of writing as a road trip. On this road trip you've decided which way
you want to go, how you are going to get there, and with whom you are traveling.
Where you're going is your topic, how you're getting there is your type of writing, and
who you're going with is your audience. Whether it be fiction or non-fiction, once you
have chosen what you want to talk about and who you are writing for, you need to
decide which of the four writing avenues to take.

Narrative Writing Descriptive Expository Persuasive Writing

Writing Writing
1.Narrative writing 1.Descriptive 1.Expository 1.Persuasive
is a type of writing writing is a style of writing is a subject- writing, unlike
in which the author writing which oriented writing expository writing,
places himself as a focuses on style, in which the contains the
character, or not, describing a main focus of the opinions, biasness
and narrates the character, an event author is to tell you and justification of
story. or a place in great about a given topic the author.
detail. or subject, and 2.Persuasive writing
2.Novels, short
leaves out their is a type of writing
stories, poetry and 2. It is sometimes
opinions. which contains
biographies can all poetic in nature in
justifications and
fall into the which the author is 2.This is one of the
reasons to make
narrative writing specifying the most common types
someone believe in
category. details of the event of writing styles,
what the author
rather than just the which you always
3.Narrative writing believes in.
information of what see in textbooks and
often has situations 3.In persuasive
happened. “How To” articles.
like disputes, writing, the author
conflicts, action, 3.The author 3.Expository takes a stand and
motivational events, visualizes to you writing is usually in asks you to believe
problems and what he sees, hears, a logical order and their point of view.
solutions. tastes, smells and sequence.
feels. (5 senses)
Writing can broadly be classified into five major types:

1. Expository writing or explanatory writing is usually written

with the intent to inform and describe, it serves the purpose of conveying
information. Many texts written using this type of writing include key words like
first, after, then, next and last. While writing this text one must assume that the
reader has no prior knowledge of the subject and hence do his/her best to
describe the matter at hand. Most of the answers students write in their tests
should be written using this type of writing.
Key Points:
• Usually explains something in a process.

• Is often equipped with facts and figures.

• Is usually in a logical order and sequence.

• When You Would Use Expository Writing:

• Textbook writing.
• How-to articles.
• Recipes.

• News stories (not including opinion or editorial pieces).

• Business, technical, or scientific writing. Example:

Many people associate the taste of pumpkins

with fall. In October, companies from
Starbucks to McDonalds roll out their
pumpkin-flavored lattes and desserts. Here is
how to make an easy pumpkin pie using only
five ingredients.
First, make sure you have all of the ingredients.
This writing is expository because it is explaining. In this case, you can already tell
that the piece will be about how to make a pumpkin pie.

Non-example:
Everyone knows that the best part
about fall is all of the pumpkin-flavored
desserts. Pumpkin pie is the best fall
treat because it is not only delicious but
also nutritious. Pumpkin is filled with
vitamin A, which is essential for a
healthy, immune system and good
vision.

This is not expository because several opinions are

stated, such as “Pumpkin pie is the best fall
treat…” Although this excerpt contains a fact
about pumpkin containing vitamin A, that fact is
used as evidence to support the opinion. These
opinions make this an example of persuasive
writing.

2. Descriptive Writing: If one has to describe a topic or has to ‘paint a

picture’, the type of writing to be used should be descriptive writing. This type of
writing usually includes a variety of supporting information like colors smells and
other sensory details used to make the reader completely indulged in the scenario.
A good descriptive text should move smoothly from one point to the next. This
type of text creates an impression, an overall effect and a feeling or image about
the topic. It also has concrete and specific details to support the main impression
and includes sensory details like sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Most short
stories and novels are written with the intent to paint a picture and hence use this
type.
 Key Points:

• It is often poetic in nature

• It describes places, people, events, situations, or

locations in a highly-detailed manner.

• The author visualizes what he or she sees, hears,
tastes, smells, and feels.
When You Would Use Descriptive Writing:

• Poetry

• Journal or diary writing

• Nature writing
• Descriptive passages in Fiction

Example:

The iPhone 6 is unexpectedly light. While

size of its screen is bigger than those of the
iPhones that came before, it is thinner, and
its smooth, rounded body is made of
aluminum, stainless steel, and glass. The
casing comes in a whitish silver, gold, or a
color the company calls “space gray,” the
color of the lead of a pencil, with darker gray
accents.
 This is an example because it describes aspects of the
phone. It includes details such as the size, weight, and
material.

Non-example:

So, you just brought home a shiny new

smartphone with a smooth glass screen the
size of your palm. The first thing you will want
to do when purchasing a new cell is buy a
case. Cracking your screen is an awful
feeling, and protection is inexpensive when
you compare it to the costs of a new phone.

Even though this example uses adjectives, you can tell that
this is not an example of descriptive writing because the
purpose is not to describe the phone—it’s to persuade you
to buy a case.

3. Persuasive Writing: The type of writing used to give personal opinions

is called Persuasive writing, here the writer tries to convince the reader/listeners
with reasons and examples. This type of writing is meant to be perceived in a rather
hysteric way as it contains strong emotions. Most debates are written in this form, it
is essential to ensure that the writer has a strong opinion about the topic before
he/she starts writing, one also has to survey other opinions and inspect their
legitimacy, the final step before one can type out a draft is to ensure that find
examples and evidences to support the expressed views. The steps to writing an
argumentative essay is to give a brief introduction to the topic followed by the
notion the writer wants to follow, the next step is to tell people why the writer
believes in that notion, this should be done by giving examples, ideas and opinions.
The writer should also counter different opinions that opposes the notion that
he/she follows. The last part of the essay should be a brief conclusion. A good
practice is to revisit and revise your essay before submitting it so that the various
spelling and grammatical errors can be corrected.
 Key Points:

• Persuasive writing is equipped with reasons, arguments, and

justifications.

• In persuasive writing, the author takes a stand and asks you to

agree with his or her point of view.

• It often asks for readers to do something about the situation (this

is called a call-to-action).

When You Would Use Persuasive Writing:

• Opinion and editorial newspaper pieces.

• Advertisements.

• Reviews (of books, music, movie, restaurants, etc.).

• Letter of recommendation.

• Letter of complaint.

• Cover letters

Example:

Following the 2012 Olympic Games hosted in London,

the UK Trade and Investment department reported a
£9.9 billion boost to the economy. Although it is
expensive to host the Olympics, if done right, they can
provide real jobs and economic growth. This city
should consider placing a bid to host the Olympics.

This is persuasive writing because the author has a belief—that “this

city should consider placing a bid to host the Olympics”—and is trying
to convince others to agree.
 Non-example:

According to legend, the Olympics were founded by

Hercules. Now almost 100 countries participate in the
Games, with over two million people attending. So,
cities from Boston to Hamburg begin considering their
bid to be a host city more than 10 years in advance.

All of these statements are facts. Therefore, it’s expository. To be

persuasive writing, you must have an opinion that you’re trying to
persuade people of—then, of course, you will support that opinion with
evidence.

3. Narrative Writing:
Narrative writing, used to describe an event or tell a story. This type of writing is the most
emotionally extensive and engaging. It usually contains specific details and dialogue and
makes the reader want to know what comes next. It follows a flow of ideas and uses
transitions to link different events. A good narrative essay includes specific details to make
the incident come to life for the reader and focuses on creating a mental picture for the reader.

Key Points:
• A person tells a story or event.
• Has characters and dialogue.

• Has definite and logical beginnings, intervals, and endings.

• Often has situations like actions, motivational events, and

disputes or conflicts with their eventual solutions.

Examples of When You Would Use Narrative Writing:

• Novels

• Short stories

• Novellas

• Poetry

• Autobiographies or biographies

• Anecdotes

• Oral histories

Example:

“I don’t think that’s a good idea,” said Jaelyn.

“You never used to be such a girl!” retorted Orin,

pushing open the door.

Reluctantly, Jaelyn followed.

 This is a narrative because it’s telling a story. There are different
characters conversing, and a plot is unravelling.

Non-example:

Cutting Edge Haunted House holds the Guinness

World Record for the largest haunted house on earth.
It’s located in a district in Fort Worth, Texas known as
"Hell's Half Acre" in a century-old abandoned meat-
packing plant. The haunted house takes an hour to
complete, winding through horrific scenes
incorporating the factory's original meat-packing
equipment.

While this would serve as a worthy setting for a story, it would need a
plot before it could be called a narrative.

4. Analytical writing:
The writer should have extensive knowledge of the subject as this includes a critical analysis
of the topic, the main purpose of this writing is to inform the reader about the topic as well as
tell him/her about the writer’s opinion on the topic. A good analytical essay has clarity of
thought and adopts a rather persuasive style of writing. The texts we read on a daily basis
are a combination of the above-mentioned styles, for example, a novel is usually written
in a descriptive and narrative manner as it has to paint a picture and tell a story as well as
indulge the reader. A newspaper article can be written in argumentative, explanatory and
analytical way or a combination of these.

CONCLUSION
These are the five different types of writing that are generally used. There are many sub-
types of writing that may fall in any of those categories. A writer must know all these styles in
order to identify the purpose of his or her own writing and make sure it's something the
audience wants to read.
B. TOPIC: PARAGRAPH WRITING

INTRODUCTION -
A paragraph means a number of sentences grouped together and relating to one topic.
It is a group of related sentences that pertain to a single theme. A paragraph is a small
unit of composition. All the sentences in a paragraph reflect the same idea. A
paragraph may be short or long depending upon the amount of matter to be
expressed.
A paragraph may contain an opinion, a description of something, a story or
some information. It helps the reader to assimilate the contents easily
provided the paragraph is well-structured.
Essays, chapters and other prose compositions are broken into paragraphs to make the
reading of them easier. Generally, a new paragraph makes a change of topic. Any essay
or chapter when divided properly into paragraphs looks interesting and is easy to read.
How to write a paragraph:
These four essential elements can change a normal paragraph into a graceful
paragraph:
1: UNITY – Every paragraph has one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its
topic sentence, which is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. Decide which
point drives the rest and then write it as your topic sentence.

2: ORDER - Order refers to the way you organise your supporting sentences. In a well
organised paragraph, the readers follow along easily, aided by the pattern you have
established. Order helps the reader group your meaning and avoid confusion.

3: COHERENCE - Coherence is the quality that makes your writing understandable. One
of the best ways to achieve coherence is to use transition words. These words create
bridges from one sentence to the next. A point of view is an important ingredient for
coherency.

4: COMPLETENESS - Completeness means paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences

clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph is complete.

5. Usually, three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and concluding

sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be complete.

6. The concluding sentence or the last sentence of the paragraph should summarize
your main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences:
● The topic sentence
● Three supporting sentences
● The concluding sentences
Principles of Paragraph Structure:

1. UNITY
The first and most important principle to be observed in constructing a
paragraph is that of unity. Just as each sentence deals with one thought,
each paragraph must deal with one topic or idea and with no more than
one. In writing an essay, for example, every head, and every sub-head,
should have its own paragraph to itself and every sentence in the
paragraph must be closely connected with the main topic of the paragraph
itself. The paragraph and every part of it must be the expression of one
theme or topic.
2. ORDER
The second principle of paragraph construction is order — that is, logical
sequence of through or development of the subject. Events must be
related in the order of their occurrence, and all ideas should be connected
with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance or order.
3. VARIETY
A third principle of paragraph construction is variety; by which is meant
that, to avoid monotony, the paragraph of composition should be of
different lengths, and not always of the same sentence construction.
A useful way of understanding paragraph structure is to think of it as a
block that is divided into three sections: the beginning, the middle, and the
end.
A basic paragraph follows this structure:
Topic Sentence (TS) - the beginning
• Needs to state one idea clearly •
Useful Tip: Always put the most important information first! Supporting
Sentences (SS) - the middle
• Elaborates and explains the idea introduced in the topic sentence
• Provides evidence and examples
• Explains the evidence or example included - why is irrelevant?
TOPIC SENTENCE

“ By the grammar of a language is

meant either the relations born by
the words of a sentence and by
sentences themselves one to
another, or the systematized
exposition of these.”

In expository writing, a topic sentence is a sentence that summarizes the

main idea of a paragraph. It is usually the first sentence in a paragraph.
Also known as a focus sentence, it encapsulates or organizes an entire
paragraph. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a
paragraph, unacademic essays they often appear at the beginning. The
topic sentence acts as a kind of summary, and offers the reader an
insightful view of the writer’s main ideas for the following paragraph.
More than just being ampere summary, however, a topic sentence often
provides a claim or an insight directly or indirectly related to the thesis. It
adds cohesion to a paper and helps organize ideas both within the
paragraph and the whole body of work at large. As the topic sentence
encapsulates the idea of the paragraph, serving as a sub-thesis, it remains
general enough to cover the support given in the body paragraph while
being more direct than the thesis of the paper.

TIPS FOR TOPIC SENTENCE -

1. Make It Clear
A strong topic sentence includes clear, specific language and avoids the
use of vague, empty words.
For example, "Blueberries are good for you" is a weak topic sentence that
says very little, while "Blueberries provide essential nutrients" clarifies
what makes blueberries good for you and lets the reader know that those
essential nutrients will be explored in further detail.
2. Keep It Concise
Readers often find wordy topic sentences confusing and difficult to read,
but a tightly written topic sentence succinctly conveys its message.
For example, writing that "Boston is a cosmopolitan city" maintains reader
attention more easily than "Boston is a city with people from many parts
of the world," because it uses fewer words to express the same meaning.
3.Don't Be Boring
A compelling topic sentence captures the reader's attention and
encourages him to read further. Including interesting or surprising facts
within the topic sentence can spark readers' interest, as can unusual
grammatical structure, such as framing the topic sentence into a rhetorical
question.
4. Be Emphatic
Within persuasive paragraphs, effective topic sentences strongly indicate the
writer's position.
For example, the delivery of "Individuals should consider decreasing their sugar
consumption since it could lead to health problems" proves weak and sterile.
Conversely, "Individuals should limit their sugar consumption to avoid health
complications" comes across as more authoritative and confident in expressing
the health risks associated with sugar consumption.
5. Use Active Voice
William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White explain in "The Elements of Style" that
active voice, as opposed to passive voice, is more direct and forceful.
For example, "Discount travel search engines are used by travellers as an
efficient way to plan vacations" -- a topic sentence in passive voice -- has
less impact than "Travellers use discount travel search engines to
efficiently plan vacations," which is written in active voice. To check if your
sentence uses active voice rather than passive, make sure that the subject
of the sentence performs the action.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TOPIC SENTENCE:

1. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will

follow in the rest of the paragraph.
Weak example - People rarely give fire-fighters the credit they deserve for
such a physically and emotionally demanding job. (The paragraph is about
a specific incident that involved fire-fighters; therefore, this topic sentence
is too general.)
Stronger example - During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call
of duty. (This topic sentence is more specific and indicates that the
paragraph will contain information about a particular incident involving a
topic)

2. A good topic sentence contains both idea or opinion.

Weak example - In this paper, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate
among young professionals. (This topic sentence provides a main idea, but
it does not present a controlling idea, or thesis.)
Stronger example - The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a
cause for immediate concern. (This topic sentence presents the writer’s
opinion on the subject of rising suicide rates among young professionals.)

3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.

Weak example - In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or
non-academic document is considerably easier and of much higher quality
if you first construct an outline, of which there are many different types.
(This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but both
are buried beneath the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary
vocabulary. These obstacles make it difficult for the reader to follow.)
Stronger example - Most forms of writing can be improved by first
creating an outline. (This topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage
and simplifies the previous statement, making it easier for the reader to
follow.)

4. A good topic sentence does not include supporting details.

Weak example- Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons,
most importantly so we don’t allow the same team to win year after year.
(This topic sentence includes a supporting detail that should be included
later in the paragraph to back up the main point.)
Stronger example - Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of
baseball for many reasons. (This topic sentence omits the additional
supporting detail so that it can be expanded upon later in the paragraph.)

5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting

vocabulary.
Weak example- The military deserves better equipment. (This topic
sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but the language is
bland and unexciting.)
Stronger example- The appalling lack of resources provided to the military
is outrageous and requires our immediate attention. (This topic sentence
reiterates the same idea and controlling thesis, but adjectives such as
appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also
indicate the writer’s tone.)

CONCLUDING SENTENCE
This final sentence often summarizes the paragraph and re-states the topic
sentence. The conclusion is the end of the essay, and it is what the reader
will remember most. Since the conclusion paragraph is the last part of the
essay, writers must make a strong statement to leave a positive and
memorable impression.
Your conclusion should not :

• add a new idea just because you have thought of it at the end.
• repeat the exact same words.
• be a simple summary—avoid repeating what you have already said.
– A brief summary of your argument may be useful, but shorter
essays do not require a restatement of your main ideas.
• use phrases like “in conclusion,” “to conclude,” “in summary,” and “to
sum up.”
– Avoid being formulaic
– Readers can see that the essay is about to end
– Do not state the obvious
• apologize—do not undercut your authority
Your conclusion should :

• finish the essay and tell the reader where the writer has
brought them
• convey a sense of completeness and closure
• be direct and confident
• creatively restate the main idea/thesis of the essay
• remind your reader about the most important aspects of your
essay
• contain echoes of the introduction and body paragraphs
without listing the points covered in the essay
• create a broader implication of the ideas discussed
• leave your reader even more interested in your topic and
Ideas

FEW EXAMPLES ON PARAGRAPH WRITING:

Example 1
The most important problem in our city is its poor public transportation
system (Topic Sentence). Thousands of residents rely on the city’s buses
and taxis to travel throughout this large city, while the metro
transportation system’s daily schedules are totally reliable. A bus or taxi
that should arrive at 7:45 may not arrive until 8:00 or later. Moreover, it is
not unusual for a bus driver to pass up group of people waiting for the bus
because he wants to make up for lost time. Unfortunately, people often
end up going to work late or missing important appointments (Supporting
Sentence). In order for people to get to their destinations on time,
people must allow for waiting time at the bus and taxis stop (Concluding
Sentence).

Example 2
I’ve learned from experience that good friendships are based on a
delicate balance (Topic Sentence). When friends are on par, personally
and professionally, it’s easier for them to root for one another. It’s taken
me a long time to realize that not all my friends wish me well. Someone
who wants what you have and may not be able to handle your good
fortune. If you find yourself apologizing for your hard-earned raise or
soft-pedalling your long-awaited promotion, it’s a sure sign that a
friendship is off balance (Supporting Details). Real friends are secure
enough in their own lives to share each other’s successes - not
begrudge them (Conclusion).
Example 3
There are several possible reasons why my father is in excellent health,
even though he is over seventy years of age (Topic statement). First, he
is in excellent condition because he has stopped smoking cigarettes. He
quit smoking cigarettes since whenever he climbed stairs, he would
quickly stop several times and cough loudly. He also has good health as a
result of stopping eating the wrong kind of foods. For example, whereas
before he would eat fatty red meat and deep-fried dishes several times a
week. Nowadays he seldom does so. He is also in good physical shape,
for he exercises a lot. He swims three times a week at the local gym, and
on sunny days he prefers to walk rather than take the bus (Supporting
statement). In conclusion, my father is in better shape than some of his
children (Conclusion).

TIPS FOR WRITING A PARAGRAPH

1. Demonstrate your point.
2. The paragraph should be concise. It should focus on one central idea.
3. Try to make the ideas flow neatly in the paragraph.
4. Give your paragraph meaning.
5. Brainstorm supporting ideas. Choose 2-6 supporting ideas that do a
good
job supporting your topic.
6. Put your ideas in a logical order.
7. Make a draft first, then revise your draft and then submit the final piece.
8. Make sure your ideas in the paragraph are presented in a coherent
manner.
9. Use linking words often to achieve the effect of continuity.
10. Use varied sentence patterns in the sentence. For example, put a short
paragraph before a long one.
11.Always try to conclude your paragraph for completeness.

5 Mistakes in Writing a Paragraph

1. Too short.
Many students write too short paragraphs of 1-3 sentences. However, it
is wrong since a paragraph is an accomplished idea and it is impossible
to conclude something in 2-3 sentences. This volume can be used to
state some problem or idea and to accomplish it one needs to expand a
paragraph to at least 4-5 full complicated sentences. Short sentences are
not counted.
2. Too long.
Hence, writing too long paragraphs is also a mistake. Writing an essay,
students should remember that someone is going to read it. Usually,
after 8-9 sentences a realer loses the focus and fails to follow the idea.
Too long sentences frustrate a reader from the main point of the
paragraph and reading becomes boring and uninteresting.
3. No structure.
Absence of the structure can also become a problem. Students can
consider a paragraph as a very focused short essay, devoted to one small
idea. Therefore, the introductive sentence, several main body sentences
and the conclusive sentence are to be present in each paragraph.
4. Absence of a topic sentence.
Writing a paragraph, each student should think of one specific idea
he/she is going to discuss. A topic sentence in a paragraph is like a thesis
statement in the essay. It depicts the main idea of a unit. Students
should remember about it and make their essays focused on the topic
sentences. In such case, the paragraphs will be focused.
5. No focus.
Absence of a focus is another problem in writing a paragraph procedure.
If students do not structure the essay and do not follow this plan, each
paragraph can be a collection of some ideas, which are not related to
each other. However, if students create paragraphs of the required
length, have a topic sentence and structure their paragraphs
appropriately, the paragraph will be focused on some particular idea
automatically.
3. TOPIC: READING COMPREHENSION

What Is Reading Comprehension?

Reading comprehension is about understanding what you read. Of course, there's more
to it than that. When you comprehend what you are reading, you're not only understanding
the words and their meanings, but you are also understanding them enough to form
opinions, thoughts and reflections about what the words mean together.
Reading comprehension is like having a conversation with someone. If you do not
understand what the other person is saying, you will have no idea what they are talking
about and have nothing to say in return. No one wants to have that conversation! So, in
order to understand what you're reading, you have to follow certain steps.

Types of Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension is the ability to easily and efficiently read text for meaning. It
is the last step of the reading process taught to children, after they've learned phonics,
fluency, and vocabulary.

Five levels of reading comprehension can be taught to students.

1. Lexical Comprehension
2. Literal Comprehension
3. Interpretive Comprehension
4. Applied Comprehension
5. Affective Comprehension

To really understand these different levels, let's take a familiar text and see how different
types of questions probe different understandings of the same story.

The fairy tale Cinderella tells the story of a young girl, whose evil stepmother won't let
her go to the ball. Cinderella’s fairy godmother, however, magically whisks her off for
the night and Cinderella eventually marries her Prince Charming.
Why Reading Comprehension Is Important
Proper reading comprehension can be difficult, so why bother? Even though
learning how to properly read and comprehend texts is a complicated
process, it is a necessary skill to master, both for work and for pleasure.

You will need to know how to read and interpret all kinds of different texts—
both on the basic, literal level and on a more in-depth level—throughout your
schooling, in college, and in the working world (as well as in your recreation
time!). If we think about "reading" just as a literal or surface understanding of a
piece and "reading comprehension" as the complete understanding, a
person can only get by in the world on pure "reading" for so long.

Reading comprehension is essential for many significant aspects of daily

life, such as:

• Reading, understanding, and analyzing literature in your English classes

• Reading and understanding texts from your other class subjects, such as
history, math, or science

• Doing well on both the written and math sections of the SAT (or all five sections
of the ACT)

• Understanding and engaging with current events presented in written form, such
as news reports

• Properly understanding and responding to any and all other workplace

correspondence, such as essays, reports, memos, and analyses

• Simply taking pleasure in written work on your own leisure time

How to Improve Reading Comprehension: 3

Steps
Because reading comprehension is a skill that improves like any other, you can
improve your understanding with practice and a game plan.

Dedicate yourself to engaging in a combination of both "guided" and

"relaxed" reading practice for at least two to three hours a week. Guided
practice will involve structure and focused attention, like learning new
vocabulary words and testing yourself on them, while relaxed practice will
involve merely letting yourself read and enjoy reading without pressure for at
least one to two hours a week. (Note: if you already read for pleasure, add at
least one more hour of pleasure-reading per week.)

By combining reading-for-studying and reading-for-pleasure, you'll be able

to improve your reading skill without relegating reading time to the realm
of "work" alone. Reading is a huge part of our daily lives, and improving your
comprehension should never come at the cost of depriving yourself of the
pleasure of the activity.
So, what are some of the first steps for improving your reading comprehension
level?

Step 1: Understand and Reevaluate How You’re Currently

Reading

Before you can improve your reading comprehension, you must first understand
how you’re currently reading and what your limitations are.

Start by selecting excerpts from different texts with which you are unfamiliar—
text books, essays, novels, news reports, or any kind of text you feel you
particularly struggle to understand—and read them as you would normally. As
you read, see if you can notice when your attention, energy, or
comprehension of the material begins to flag.

If your comprehension or concentration tends to lag after a period of time, start

to slowly build up your stamina. For instance, if you continually lose focus at the
20-minute mark every time you read, acknowledge this and push yourself
to slowly increase that time, rather than trying to sit and concentrate on reading
for an hour or two at a stretch. Begin by reading for your maximum amount of
focused time (in this case, twenty minutes), then give yourself a break. Next
time, try for 22 minutes. Once you've mastered that, try for 25 and see if you can
still maintain focus. If you can, then try for thirty.

If you find that your concentration or comprehension starts to lag again, take a
step back on your timing before pushing yourself for more. Improvement
comes with time, and it'll only cause frustration if you try to rush it all at once.

Alternatively, you may find that your issues with reading comprehension
have less to do with the time spent reading than with the source material
itself. Perhaps you struggle to comprehend the essential elements of a text, the
context of a piece, character arcs or motivation, books or textbooks with densely
packed information, or material that is heavily symbolic. If this is the case, then
be sure to follow the tips below to improve these areas of reading
comprehension weakness.

Improving your reading comprehension level takes time and practice, but
understanding where your strengths and weaknesses stand now is the first step
towards progress.

Step 2: Improve Your Vocabulary

Reading and comprehension rely on a combination of vocabulary, context, and

the interaction of words. So, you must be able to understand each moving piece
before you can understand the text as a whole.

If you struggle to understand specific vocabulary, it's sometimes possible to pick

up meaning through context clues (how the words are used in the sentence or in
the passage), but it’s always a good idea to look up the definitions of words with
which you aren't familiar. As you read, make sure to keep a running list of
words you don't readily recognize and make yourself a set of flashcards
with the words and their definitions. Dedicate fifteen minutes two or
three times a week to and quizzing yourself on your vocab flashcards.

To get started, you'll need some blank index cards and a system to keep them
organized. These basic cards are an affordable option that are also available
in fun colours. You can keep them organized with plastic baggies or rubber
bands, or you can get an organizer. Alternatively, try these easy-flip
flashcards that include binder clips. Though we strongly recommend making
your own flashcards, you can also buy pre-made ones —the best option is
Barron's 1100 Words You Need to Know, a series of exercises to master key
words and idioms.

In order to retain your vocabulary knowledge, you must practice a combination

of practiced memorization (like studying your flashcards) and make a point
of using these new words in your verbal and written communication. Guided
vocabulary practice like this will give you access to new words and their
meanings as well as allow you to properly retain them.

Step 3: Read for Pleasure

The best way to improve your reading comprehension level is through practice.
And the best way to practice is to have fun with it!

Make reading a fun activity, at least on occasion, rather than a constant chore.
This will motivate you to engage with the text and embrace the activity as part of
your daily life (rather than just your study/work life). As you practice and truly
engage with your reading material, improvement will come naturally.

Begin by reading texts that are slightly below your age and grade
level (especially if reading is frustrating or difficult for you). This will take
pressure off of you and allow you to relax and enjoy the story.

• Brown Girl Dreaming by Jacqueline Woodson

• Aru Shah and the End of Time by Roksani Chokshi
• Ghost by Jason Reynolds
• The Westing Game by Ellen Rankin
• From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler by E.L. Konigsburg
• The Parker Inheritance by Varian Johnson
• I Am Malala by Malala Yousafzai
• Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone by J. K. Rowling

Once you feel more comfortable reading and practicing your comprehension
strategies (tips in the next section), go ahead and allow yourself to read at
whatever reading or age level you feel like. Even if you feel that you don't
understand some of the text right now—or even a large portion of it! —if you
enjoy yourself and give it your best shot, you'll find that your reading
comprehension levels will improve over time.
.
4. TOPIC: PRECIS WRITING
Precis (pray-see, pl. pray-seez) writing is a basic and very useful skill. It has been
variously referred to as 'abbreviation', 'subtraction', 'abstract', 'summary', and
'condensation'. The French gave it the name 'precis' - the pruning away of all that is
inessential. Definition: "A precis is a brief, original summary of the important ideas
given in a long selection. Its aim is to give the general effect created by the original
selection." It is a concise and lucid summary that forsakes all unnecessary details
(including illustrations, amplifications, and embellishments) in favor of reproducing
the logic, development, organization and emphasis of the original. Retaining the
substance of a fuller statement, it seeks to articulate other authors thoughts by
extracting the maximum amount of information and carefully conveying it in a
minimum number of words.

The Purpose:
Precis writing aims at intelligent reading and clear, accurate writing. It is a skill of
both analysis and genesis that critically questions every thought included and
excluded, each word used to express those thoughts, and the proportions and
arrangements of those thoughts - both in the original and in the precis. In its
exaction it mercilessly reveals an author's wordiness and looseness or thinness of
thought and construction. It should strengthen our style, our sense of proportion and
emphasis, and our sensitivity to word meanings and an author's viewpoint,

Guide to a Successful Precis:

1. Understand the essential facts or dominating idea of the passage

2. . 2. In your opening sentence express what the passage tends to show.

3. 3. With as few sentences as possible enlarge on the essential shown in

the opening sentence.

4. 4. Summarize only what the author says; do not add your own opinions.

5. As far as possible, use your own words.

6. 6. Ask whether the precis is clear to one who has not seen the original.

A precis is usually reduced to at least one-fourth of its original length and

frequently much more. How long it is will be determined by its purpose and
by the nature of the original.

PRELIMINARY TO PRECIS WRITING:

l. An abstract is a condensation of a passage, the important words, phrases,

and sentences containing the essential thoughts being worked as simply as
possible into sentences. It simply requires the ability to pick out essential
facts. Exercises in abstracting will involve underscoring the essential facts in
a passage and combining them into a single whole. (N.b.: Here 'abstract' is
used in its narrow sense to mean a digest or running summary.)

2. A paraphrase is a restatement of a difficult passage, stating clearly and

fully in language of the simplest sort just what the passage means. Because it
clarifies hidden meanings and obscure passages, it is usually longer than the
original." Precis writing involves the ability to paraphrase, but adds to it
concision, all the while being careful to not to lose or distort the original
meaning Exercising in paraphrasing might involve transposing poetry to
prose, explaining the meaning of proverbs, etc.

3. In precis writing it is necessary to say as much as possible in as few words

as possible." A word may substitute for a phrase and a phrase for a clause.
The concern is for the precise meaning or connotation of a word.

4. The proper use of the colon and semicolon in punctuation is an aid to

good precis writing.

5. Generally a precis should be written in reported or indirect speech. This

means a precis will be in third person, in the past tense. Exercises will
involve the change of direct speech to indirect speech.

6. A precis title must be cold and matter of fact, not attractive to the
imaginative mind. It is a precis of the precis.

Ask of your precis:

1. Are the opening sentences brief and to the point? Which is best?

2. Which opening sentence tends to show best what the passage expresses?

3. Do the sentence following the opening sentence amplify the essentials

shown in the opening sentence?

4. Which precis clarifies the author's best thoughts? Have additional

thoughts been added?
5. Is the precis clear to one who has not seen the original?

METHOD:

"It will be well to remember the object of precis writing: a brief and clear
summary - or precis - of what you have first carefully read. No words,
phrases, clauses, or sentences which are unessential to the thought of the
selection, are considered. Every unnecessary word is discarded until all that
you have left is the thought, the dominating ide4 of what you have read.
Then in your own words, give this thought as briefly and clearly as possible.
Your sentences must be carefully constructed. Do

not omit any essential articles, prepositions, or conjunctions.

First Reading:

1. Read every word slowly and carefully until you clearly understand the
sense of the passage.

2. Look up all unfamiliar words, phrases, and allusions

3. Identify the dominating ide4 the essential thought, of the passage. Ask if
this idea were omitted, would the fundamental meaning of the passage be
changed?

4. Determine what emphasis and space to give the thought in each section;
write a heading for each section.

Second Reading:

1. Underscore with a pencil the important facts containing the essential

thoughts. This is a process of differentiation between what is essential and
what is not. Generally, you will omit examples, illustrations, conversations,
and repetitions.

2. Reread your selections to see that they are wise and adequate.

3. Determine if your underscoring expresses the main ideas.

Final Reading:

Rapidly and intensely reread the origin, dwelling on the important facts
selected for a precis.

First Copy:

1. Close the book/original.

2. Write a summary of the thoughts as you remember them.

3. Compare with the original and correct, asking:

Did you retain the logical order and development of these thoughts?

Did you emphasize the dominant thought or erroneously emphasize a minor

thought?

Did you omit any necessary facts? names? dates? places?

Is your precis clear to one who has not seen the original?

Are your sentences clear and well-constructed?

Did you use third person and the past tense?

Did you punctuate and spell correctly?

Did you make any grammatical or rhetorical errors?

Final Copy:

l. Read your first copy through carefully.

2. Condense wherever you can, substituting single words for phrases and
phrases for longer clauses.

3. Use only simple figures of speech.

4. Clearly and concisely express the essential points.

5. Reduce verbiage while still making the point and retaining some of the
flavor and spirit of the original.

6. Be fair to the sentiments expressed, even if you don't agree with them.
 7. Rewrite neatly.

Do’s of Precis Writing

• Start your precis with the main idea so that reader can quickly understand
the essence of the precis
• He/she will know beforehand as to what should they expect in the written
precis
• While writing a precis, make a suitable environment where all the points
can be described and discussed equally.
• As the main idea or the essence is established, you can follow it up with
some methods, facts, points, etc
• As a precis is concise, compress it and make sure that the length is
available for you to retain the important data, keywords, and the concept
• Removing the irrelevant data or sentence is as important as writing the
relevant points
• Thus, identify the superfluous data and facts and keep the core idea of the
work only in the precis
• If you are mentioning anything related to history or any historical data than
make sure that it is written in the past tense only
• Also, remember to put the purpose as to why you are writing a precis in the
writing piece
• This will help the reader understand what you wrote in the precis

Don’ts of Precis Writing

• A precis writing is a formal way of writing a shorter form of the given

paragraph
• So, even though you have read and understood the Precis well, do not form
your own opinions
• You cannot insert your own remarks and criticism in a precis
• Always take the fact and data that is given in the paragraph only
• Also, during a precis writing, you cannot insert a question. If for any
reason you need to insert make it in the form of a statement.
• For a precis writing, avoid using contractions and abbreviations
• Write the full form of any given words only
• Avoid being jerky. This will show that you have not understood the
passage properly and have started writing a precis.