Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY

1) What are boiler troubles? Explain Scales and Sludge ii) Deposition of CaSO4:
formation. Solubility of CaSO4 decreases with increase in temperature.
Boiler troubles are 1) Priming & foaming 2) Sludge & Scales3) Caustic It is completely insoluble in super heated water.
embrittlement4) Boiler corrosion Hard scale formation takes place in high pressure boilers
Sludge & Scale formation iii) Hydrolysis of Magnesium salts:
In a boiler, water is continuously evaporated and converted into steam. Soft scale formation due to hydrolysis of Mg salts in high pressure boiler.
As a result the water becomes saturated due to increase in the MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg (OH)2↓ + 2HCl
concentration of dissolved impurities. Finally a stage is reached where iv) Presence of silica:
the ionic products of these salts exceeds their solubility product and are Even very small amounts of silica leads to deposits of Ca/Mg
thrown out as precipitates on the inner walls of the boiler. silicates(CaSiO3 & MgSiO3), which adheres firmly to the inner boiler
Sludge: walls. It is difficult to remove.
 Soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. Disadvantages of scale formation:
 Formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and are i) Wastage of fuel:
collected at the bends. Rate of heat transfer is greatly reduced due to poor conductivity of scales
 Formed by substances which have greater solubility in hot water than Overheating is required for steady supply of heat hence fuel consumption
in cold water, e.g., MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4, etc increases.
 Easily removed with wire brush ii) Lowering of boiler safety:
Disadvantages of sludge formation To supply steady heat overheating is required, which makes the boiler
 Sludges are poor conductors of heat, so they tend to waste a portion material weak &soft. Results in distortion of boiler tube & makes the
of heat generated. boiler unsafe to bear the high pressure.
 Excessive sludge formation disturbs the working of the boiler. iii) Decrease in efficiency of boiler:
 Sludge can be removed by using 1) Softened water 2) by blow down Deposition of scales in valves and condensers choke them partially&
operation i.e. drawing off a portion of the concentrated water. decreases the efficiency of boiler
Scales: iv) Danger of Explosion:
 Hard deposits firmly sticking to the inner walls of the boiler. Due to uneven expansion the thick scales gets cracked, results in
 Difficult to remove, even with the help of hammer & Chisel. formation of large steam & develops high pressure. It may cause
Formed due to: explosion of boiler.
i) Decomposition of Calcium bicarbonate: Removal of scales:
Ca (HCO3)2 CaCO3↓ + H2O+CO2  Mechanical/chemical method
Scale  Loosely adhering scales are removed with the help Scraper/wire brush
(Soft, formed mainly in low pressure boilers)  Brittle scales are removed by giving Thermal shocks
In high pressure boilers, CaCO3 is soluble due to formation of Ca (OH) 2  Loosely adhering scales are removed by frequent blow down operation
CaCO3 + H2O Ca (OH)2 + CO2↑ (frequently removing precipitates)

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
 Adherent & hard scales are removed by dissolving them by adding 3) Explain internal treatment methods for removal of
chemicals scales.
CaCO3 scales - 5-10% HCl
Internal treatment (Sequestration):
CaSO4 scales – EDTA
 In this method some chemicals reagents are added directly to the boiler
2) What is meant by Caustic embrittlement? water for removing dangerous scale forming salts.
Caustic embrittlement: The formation of brittle and in crystalline cracks  The chemicals convert the scale forming impurities into sludge or
in the boiler shell is called caustic embrittlement. more dissolved compounds.
 It is a type of boiler corrosion, caused by highly alkaline water in the  This method is generally followed by blow down operation.
boiler.
Important internal conditioning/treatment methods:
 In lime-soda process, it is likely that, some residual Na2CO3 is still
Carbonate conditioning:
present in the softened water
 This Na2CO3 decomposes to give NaOH and CO2 due to which the Reagent added is sodium carbonate.
boiler water becomes “Caustic”. In low pressure boilers scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium
 Na2CO3+ H2O → 2NaOH + CO2↑ carbonate to boiler water
 This very dilute caustic water flows into the minute hair cracks in the CaSO4 +Na2CO3 CaCO3↓ +Na2SO4
boiler, by capillary action. Sludge
 On evaporation of water, the dissolved caustic soda increases its Deposition of CaSO4 as scale doesn’t takes place and calcium is
concentration inside hair cracks. precipitated as loose sludge of CaCO3 which can be removed by blow
 This concentrated alkali dissolves iron of boiler as sodium ferroate. down operation.
 It causes embrittlement of boiler parts such as bends joints, rivets etc, Phosphate conditioning:
due to which the boiler gets fail. Reagent added is sodium phosphate.
Fe + NaOH → Na2FeO2 + H2 In high pressure boilers scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium
Insoluble soluble phosphate. It reacts with hardness of water forms non adherent, easily
Caustic embrittlement can be explained by considering following removable soft sludge of Ca / Mg phosphates.
electrochemical cell 3CaCl2 +2Na3PO4 Ca3 (PO4)2 ↓+ 6NaCl
(Anodic site) Conc NaoH || dil NaoH (Cathodic site) Sludge
H
Iron at Joints &bends Iron at Plane surface We can use different phosphates based on P of water
Anodic portion undergoes corrosion and gets dissolved.  Na3PO4 (alkaline in nature) is used when alkalinity is low.
Prevention methods:  Na2HPO4 (weakly alkaline) is used when alkalinity is sufficient.
 By using sodium phosphate as softening reagent in the external  NaH2PO4 (acidic) is used when alkalinity is high
treatment of boiler water. Calgon conditioning:
 By maintaining pH value of water and neutralization of alkali.
Reagent added is Calgon.
 By adding Tannin or lignin or Sodium Sulphate to block the hair
Calgon = sodium hexa meta phosphate
cracks thereby preventing the infiltration of caustic soda solution
The process involves the addition of calgon to boiler water.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
It prevents scale and sludge formation by forming highly soluble calcium
hexa meta phosphate complex compound with CaSO4.
Na2 [Na4(PO3)6] 2Na+ + [Na4(PO3)6]2-
2CaSO4 + [Na4(PO3)6]2- [Ca2(PO3)6]2- + 2 Na2SO4
Highly Soluble
complex ion

4) Describe the demineralization process of softening of

Cation exchange resin Anion exchange resin
hard water.
Process:
Ion exchange or deionization or demineralization process:
 The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column
 Principle: A reversible exchange of ions takes place between the
 The cation exchanger removes all the cations like Ca+2, Mg+2 from
stationary ion exchange phase and the external liquid mobile phase.
it
 Ion exchange resins are insoluble, cross linked, porous, high molecular  and equivalent amount of H+ ions are released from the column to
weight, organic polymers and the functional groups attached to the water.
chains are responsible for the ion exchange properties. 2RH+ + Ca2+ R2Ca + 2H+
 Ion exchange resins are generally copolymers of Styrene- divinyl 2RH + + Mg2+ R2Mg + 2H+
benzene
 Ion exchange resins are of two types  The hard water is now passed through anion exchange column,
 Cation exchange resins  which removes all the anions like SO4-2, Cl- from it
 Anion exchange resins  and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from the column to
Cation exchange resins (RH+): water.
R'OH- + Cl- R'Cl + OH-
 These are capable of exchanging H+ ions with the cations. - 2-
2R'OH + SO4 R'2SO4 + OH-
 It is mainly styrene divinyl benzene copolymer
 They have acidic functional groups like -SO3H, -COOH etc
 H+ and OH- ions are released from the cation exchange and anion
Anion exchange resin (ROH-)
exchange columns respectively get combined to produce water
 These are capable of exchanging OH - ions with the anions. molecule.
 It is nothing but a copolymer of styrene divinyl benzene H+ + OH- H2 O
 They contain basic functional groups like quartenary ammonium ion.
 On treatment with dil NaOH they have capability to exchange its OH - Water coming out from the exchanger is free from cations and anions
and is known as deionized or deminerealized water
ions with anions in the water

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
Regeneration of exhausted bed: 5) What is meant by Desalination of brackish water? How
 When the beds are getting exhausted (capacity to exchange H+ & it is carried out by Electro dialysis?
OH- ions are lost) then they are regenerated Desalination:The process of removing salts like sodium chloride from
 The exhausted cationic exchanger is regenerated by washing with the water is known as desalination.
acids like HCl, H2SO4 etc Commonly employed methods for desalination of brackish water are:
R2Ca2+ + 2H+→ 2RH+ + Ca2+ i) Electro dialysis ii) Reverse osmosis
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by washing with bases
i) Electrodialysis:
like NaOH
 It is a membrane process, during which ions are transported through
R'2SO42- +2OH - → 2R'OH- + SO42-
semi permeable membrane, under the influence of an electric
The columns are washed with deionized water and washings are
potential.
passed to sink or drain. Now they are ready for softening process.
Principle:
 When direct current is passed through saline water using electrodes,
salt ions present in saline water migrates towards their respective
electrodes through ion selective membrane, under the influence of
applied emf.
Apparatus: The electro dialysis unit consists of a chamber, two
electrodes a cathode and an anode. The chamber is divided into three
compartments with the help of thin, ion selective membranes which are
permeable to either cation or anion

Sea water Sea water Sea water

Demineralization of water Cathode - + Anode

Advantages
 Produce water of very low hardness (2ppm ) Na+ Cl-
 The process can be used to soften highly acidic or highly alkaline pos
waters.
 Water produced by this process water can be used in high
Membrane Membrane
pressure boilers
Disadvantages
Concentrated brine pure water Concentrated brine
 High capital cost and chemicals & equipment are costly
 If water contains turbidity efficiency of the process decreases.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
Process: 6) What is meant by Desalination of brackish water? How
 When direct electric current is passed through saline water, the Na +
it is carried out by Reverse Osmosis?
ions moves towards cathode (-ve pole) and the chloride ions moves Desalination: The process of removing salts like sodium chloride from
towards anode (+ve pole) through membrane. the water is known as desalination.
 The concentration of brine decreases in the central compartment, Commonly employed methods for desalination of brackish water are:
where as the concentration in outer compartments increases. i) Electro dialysis ii) Reverse osmosis
 Desalinated brine (pure water) is removed from time to time, while Reverse osmosis. (R.O)
concentrated one is replaced by fresh brine. Reverse osmosis is one of the membrane filtration processes. The process
 Ion selective membranes are employed for more efficient separation,
is used to remove salts and organic micro pollutants from water.
which has permeability for one kind of ions.
 Cation selective membrane (which possesses functional groups such Principle:
as RSO3-) is permeable to cations only. Osmosis: When two solutions of different concentrations are separated
 Anion selective membrane (possess functional groups such as by a semi permeable membrane, solvent flows from region of low
R4N+Cl-) is permeable to anions only concentration to region of high concentration. This is called Osmosis.
Electrodialysis cell: The Pressure developed on the membrane is called osmotic pressure.
 It consists of a large number of paired sets of rigid plastic membrane. If the pressure higher than osmotic pressure is applied on the
 Saline water is passed at a pressure of 5-6 kg m-2 between membrane concentrated side, then the solvent flows in reverse direction i.e from
pairs.
higher concentrated region to lower concentrated region. This is called
 Electric field is applied to the direction of water flow
reverse osmosis.
 Fixed +ve charges inside the membrane repel +ve charge ions (Na+)
and permits –vely charged ions.
 Fixed -ve charges inside the membrane repel -ve charge ions (Cl-)
and permits +vely charged ions.
 Alternative streams of pure water and brine water are obtained.
Advantages:
 It is a compact unit, economical.
 Best suited if electricity is easily available.

In this process pure solvent (water) is separated from its contaminants,

rather than removing contaminants from water. Sometimes it is also
called super/hyper filtration.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
Method: 10. Explain the different steps involved in Municipal water
 Reverse osmosis cell consists of a chamber fitted with a semi treatment.
permeable membrane above which, sea water or impure water is
taken. There are 2 steps
 Pressure (of the order 15-40 kg cm-2) is applied to the sea 1) Removal of suspended matter.
water/impure water. 2. Removal of microorganisms- Disinfection.
 The pure water is forced through the semi permeable membrane.
 The membrane consists of very thin films of cellulose acetate/ Type of impurity Process to be employed
superior membrane made of polymethacrylate and polyamide Floating matter( leaves, wood Screening
polymers, affixed to either side of the perforated tube. pieces)
Suspended (Clay, Sand) Plain sedimentation

Fine suspended inorganic matter Sedimentation with coagulation

Micro organisms & colloidal Filtration

impurities
Pathogenic bacteria Disinfection

1) Removal of suspended matter:

Screening:
 The raw water is passed through screens which contain large
number of holes where floating matter is retained.
Sedimentation:
 Suspended impurities are removed by allowing the water to stand
undisturbed for few hours (about 2-8 hr) in big tanks (5m deep).
Advantages:
 Due to force of gravity most of the particles settles down at the
 Removes ionic and non-ionic colloidal particles and high molecular
bottom of the tank.
weight organic matter.
 About 70-75% of the suspended matter can be removed.
 It removes colloidal silica
Sedimentation with coagulation:
 The life time of semi permeable membrane is high.
 Plain sedimentation can’t remove finely divided silica, clay and
 Membrane can be replaced within few minutes. organic matter.
 Low capital and operating cost & high reliability  Sedimentation with coagulation is a process of removing fine
particles by addition of chemicals (coagulants) before
sedimentation.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
 Commonly used coagulants are Alum (K2SO4 Al2 (SO4)3.24H2O), 2. Removal of microorganisms- Disinfection:
Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) etc. Removal of pathogenic (Disease causing microorganism) is known as
Al2 (SO4)3 + H2O → 2Al (OH)3 ↓+ 3 H2SO4 disinfection.
Al(OH)3 acts as flocculent (enormous surface area) and removes the a) Boiling
impurities either by neutralizing the charge or by adsorption and
When water is boiled the harmful bacteria and virus cannot survive at this
mechanical entrainment.
 Coagulant aids (lime, fuller’s earth, poly electrolytes) are added to temperature
increase the efficiency of the process. But this process can be applicable only on house hold, municipalities
 Generally coagulants are added in solution form with the help of cannot apply
mechanical flocculators for through agitation. b)Bleaching powder(CaOCl2):
 Substantial reduction of bacteria also takes place during this By adding bleaching powder disinfection of water is done
process. (O2 i.e. released by some coagulants destroys some CaOCl2+H2O → Ca (OH)2 + Cl2↑
bacteria, breaks up some organic compounds, partial removal of Cl2 +H2O →HCl + HOCl(Hypo chlorous acid which kills germs)
color &taste producing organisms.)
When bleaching powder is added to water first cl2 is liberated along with
Filtration: Ca(OH)2
 It is the process of clarification of water by passing the water
Cl2 reacts with water& forms Hcl&Hocl( Hypochlorous acid).
through a porous material, which is capable of retaining coarse
impurities on its surface & in the pores. [Porous material used – HOCl is a germicide which kills bacteria or germs present in water
filtering media, equipment used – filter] Limitations:
 Common materials used as filtering media: quartz sand(0.5- It is unstable, difficult to store
1.0mm),crushed anthracite(0.8-1.5mm), porous clay It introduces calcium in water which increases hardness of water when
 Slow sand filtration (2gal/Sqft/hr) is generally employed in used in excess
municipal water treatment. c) Addition of chlorine – (Chlorination)
 Process: Disinfection is done by addition of liquid chlorine or gaseous chlorine.
 A typical sand filter consists of a tank with abed containing fine
Chlorine produces hypochlorous acid [HOCl] which kills
sand (top layer), coarse sand, coarse gravel (bottom layer).
microorganisms.
 It is provided with inlet for sedimented water and under drain
channel at the bottom for exit of filtered water Cl2+H2O→HCl+HOCl
 Sedimented water is distributed uniformly over the bed and flows HOCl→ H+ +OCl-
slowly through various layers. HOCl → Kills Germs
 Rate of filtration slowly decreases due to retention of impurities in Initially it was found that nascent oxygen[o] from Hocl [Hypochlorous
the pores. acid] is killing the microorganisms, but later on two scientists found that
 Top layer is scrapped and replaced with clean sand to increase the Hocl is causing death of micro-organisms. Chlorine is good disinfectant
efficiency of process. at a PH of 6.5.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
Chlorination depends upon  Advantages: Break point chlorination gives idea of amount of
 Time of contact:Number of Micro-organisms destroyed by chlorine required to add for chlorination
chlorine per unit time is proportional to number of  It i) oxidizes completely organic matter, NH3 and reducing
microorganisms remaining alive. So death rate is maximum at agents, ii) removes colours in water, iii) destroys completely all
starting. the disease producing bacteria, iv) removes odour from water,
 Temperature of water:Higher the temperature, the rate of v) prevents if any growth of weeds in water.
reaction is faster & killing of microorganisms increase.  Disadvantages: If excess chlorine is added it leave residual or
 PH value of water:Lower the PH value ,the reaction is faster & a free chlorine which impart bad taste and odour
small contact period is required.  Dechlorination must be done in order to remove free chlorine.
Advantages:  Dechlorination: Dechlorination is done by passing SO2 &sodium
 Effective & economical sulphite.
 It requires very little space.
Disadvantages:
 Excess of chlorine produces unpleasant odour&taste.
 Free chlorine should not exceed 0.1-0.2ppm
 It is more effective below 6.5 &less effective at higher PH values.

Break point chlorination or Dip point (Free residual chlorine):

 The addition of sufficient amount chlorine to oxidize Organic
matter, reducing substances, free ammonia leaving behind free
chlorine killing pathogenic bacteria is called break point
chlorination.
 The addition of sufficient amount of chlorine to satisfy chlorine
demand is called break point chlorination
 When a graph is drawn between the added chlorine to residual
chlorine a dip or break is formed in the graph called break point
chlorination. d) By using chloramines
When chloramines are added into water they produce HOCl which act as
 The addition of chlorine at the dip or break is called as Breakpoint
germicide
chlorination. After this dip or break point chlorination, free
Chloramines can be prepared by passing chlorine gas into ammonia
residual chlorine is present.
chamber
 Usually all tastes and odors disappear at break point.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
Now a day’s municipalities are using this process. Short answer questions.
Cl2+NH3 →NH2Cl+HCl 1. Name the chief sources of water.
NH2Cl+H2O →HOCl + NH3 2. What are the different types of impurities present in water?
3. Distinguish between hard water and soft water?
e) Disinfection by ozone (OZONIZATION). 4. Define hardness of water.
By sending raw water through ozonizer, where the nacent oxygen 5. What are the different types of hardness?
liberated from ozone act as a germicide and kills the 6. What are the salts responsible for the temporary and permanent
microorganisms.Ozone is unstable so easily decomposes to hardness of water?
O3→O+O2 7. How hardness is expressed?
Disadvantages :Equipment is Expensive 8. Why do we express hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalents?
Advantages: It removes chlorine odour (smell) taste etc.if ozone is in 9. Mention common units used for expressing hardness of water.
excess, it is not harmful. 10. Why is Calgon conditioning is better than Phosphate
conditioning?
11. What is meant by softening of water?
12. What is the main advantage of reverse osmosis over ion exchange
process?
13. What are the requisites for potable water?
14. What is sedimentation with coagulation?
15. What is meant by break point chlorination?
16. What are the advantages of break point chlorination?
17. What is electro dialysis and reverse osmosis?

1. Name the chief sources of water.

A) The chief sources of water are rain water, surface water, ground
water& sea water.
2. What are the different types of impurities present in water?
A) Different types of impurities are
i) Dissolved impurities:
a) Inorganic salts

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
i) Cations: Ca+2,Mg+2, Na+,K+,Fe+2, Al+3 traces of Zn+2 etc 6. What are the salts responsible for the temporary and permanent
ii) anions: Cl-,SO42-, NO3-,HCO3-&sometimes F- &NO2- hardness of water?
b) Gases: CO2,O2, N2 oxides of N2&sometimes NH3,H2S A.Temporary hardness: Ca (HCO3)2, Mg (HCO3)2
c) Organic salts.
Due to presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Ca+2& Mg+2
ii) Suspended impurities
a) Inorganic: Clay and sand It is removed by mere boiling of water.
b) Organic: Oil globules, Vegetable and Animal matter Ca (HCO3)2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O + CO2↑
iii) Colloidal impurities: Finely divided Clay & Silica, Products from Mg (HCO3)2 → Mg (OH)2↓ + 2 CO2↑
organic waste Permanent hardness: CaCl2, MgCl2,CaSO4,MgSO4,FeSO4,Al2(SO4)3 etc
iv) Bacterial impurities: Bacteria, other microorganisms and other Due to presence of dissolved chlorides and sulphates (Cl- & SO4-2) of
forms of animal &vegetable life Ca+2& Mg+2
3. Distinguish between hard water and soft water?
It cannot be destroyed by boiling.
A) Soft water-which produces lather easily on shaking with soap due to
7. How hardness is expressed?
absence of calcium and magnesium salts
A. Generally the concentration of hardness of water is usually expressed in
Hard water- which doesn’t produces lather (forms white curd) or very
terms of equivalents of CaCO3.
less lather difficultly with soap due to presence of Ca+2& Mg+2
Equivalents of CaCO3 = [Mass of hardness x [Molecular weight of
4. Define hardness of water.
causing substance] CaCO3]
A) Hardness is defined as characteristic property of water that prevents
the lathering of soap. Molar mass of hardness causing substance
It is also defined as soap consuming capacity of water. 8. Why do we express hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalents?
It is mainly due to the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, which Reason for choosing CaCO3: It is most insoluble salt that can be
react with sodium salts of long chain fatty acids present in the soap to precipitated in water treatment.
form insoluble scums of calcium and magnesium soaps (don’t have This mode permits easy addition and subtraction of concentration of
detergent value) hardness causing constituents since its molecular weight is 100(equivalent
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → (C17H35COO) 2 Ca + 2NaCl mass=50).
Sodium stearate calcium stearate 9. Mention common units used for expressing hardness of water.
Soap (soluble) calcium soap (insoluble) A. parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L)
5. What are the different types of hardness? 10. Why is Calgon conditioning is better than Phosphate
A. There are two types of hardness conditioning?
1. Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness A. In Calgon conditioning, the added calgon forms soluble complex
2. Permanent hardness or non carbonate hardness compound with CaSO4, thereby it prevents the scale and sludge formation
Total Hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness in boiler. Since the complex formed is soluble, so it does not cause any
problem to the boiler.

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Engineering Chemistry UNIT-1-WATER CHEMISTRY
2CaSO4 + [Na4(PO3)6]2- [Ca2(PO3)6]2- + 2 Na2SO4 15. What is meant by break point chlorination?
Soluble complex A. It involves addition of sufficient amount chlorine to oxidize Organic
On the other hand, in phosphate conditioning, sodium phosphate is added matter, reducing substances, free ammonia leaving behind free chlorine
to boiler water so that precipitate of calcium phosphate is formed. killing pathogenic bacteria.
Although this precipitate is non adherent and soft yet it has to be removed The addition of sufficient amount of chlorine to satisfy chlorine demand is
by frequent blow down operation. called break point chlorination
3CaCl2 +2Na3PO4 Ca3 (PO4)2 ↓+ 6Nacl 16. What are the advantages of break point chlorination?
Sludge A. It i) oxidizes completely organic matter, NH3 and reducing agents,
Hence Calgon conditioning is better than Phosphate conditioning ii) removes colours in water, iii) destroys completely all the disease
11. What is meant by softening of water? producing bacteria, iv) removes odour from water, v) prevents if any
A. The process of removing hardness causing salts from water is called growth of weeds in water.
water softening. 17. What is electro dialysis and reverse osmosis?
12. What is the main advantage of reverse osmosis over ion exchange A. Electro dialysis: A process in which the ions of the salts present in
process? water are pulled out by passing direct current , using electrodes and a thin
A. Reverse osmosis removes all ionic, non ionic, colloidal and high rigid plastic membrane pair.
molecular weight organic matter Reverse osmosis: A process by which pure solvent is separated from its
13. What are the requisites for potable water? contaminants by using semi permeable membrane and applying high
A. Potable water: means the water which is safe to drink. pressure on concentrated side.
Essential requirements: The water should be
 clear
 Colorless and Odorless
 Pleasant in taste
 It should not have turbidity (not exceed 10 ppm)
 pH should be in the range of 7.0-8.5
 Free from gases like H2S & minerals like Pb, As, Cr & Mn salts
 Total hardness should be less than 500 ppm
 Free from disease producing bacteria
14. What is sedimentation with coagulation?
A. The process of removing fine suspended and colloidal impurities by
adding required amount of coagulant to water before sedimentation.

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