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Introduction to World Religion

and Belief Systems
Quarter 4 – Module 4
Dharmic Religions

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Introduction to World Religion and Belief Systems
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 4 – Module 4: Dharmic Religions

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First Edition, 2020

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ii
Introduction to World Religion
and Belief Systems
Quarter 4 – Module 4
Dharmic Religions

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
OVERVIEW

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 What I Need To Know 1
What Should I Expect 1
Things to Remember To Get Through 2

Lesson 1- Hinduism
What I Need To Know 3
What I Know 4
What's New 4
What Is It 5
What's More 14
What I Can Do 15
Post Assessment 15
What I Have Learned 16

Lesson 2 – Theravada Buddhism

What I Need To Know 17
What's In 17
What I Know 18
What's New 19
What Is It 19
What's More 30
What I Can Do 32
Post Assessment 32
What I Have Learned 33

Lesson 3 – Mahayana Buddhism

What I Need To Know 34
What's In 34
What I Know 35
What's New 36
What Is It 37
What's More 48
What I Can Do 49
Post Assessment 50
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 What I Have Learned 52

References 54

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 WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

This Module in Introduction to World Religion and Belief

Systems aims to enhance your knowledge on the world’s
greatest religion. It is also designed to help you
comprehensively learn not only about the fundamental
teachings and ritualistic practices, but also the historical
background, geographical context, and cultural milieu of
these profound religions.
This module has 3 parts or lessons. Lesson one (1)
discusses about Hinduism, Lesson two (2) on Theravada
Buddhism, and the last lesson, Lesson (3), is on Mahayana Buddhism.

Every part of the module contains activities and enhancement exercises

utilizing pictures, and illustrations which have been proven as effective instructional
materials in improving the writing skills of the students.

WHAT SHOULD I EXPECT

Learning Objectives: At the end of the module, the learners shall be able to:
1. describe Hinduism;
2. discuss the teachings or sacred scriptures of Hinduism;
3. recognize the Hinduism doctrines or beliefs;
4. describe the worship and observances of Hinduism;
5. explain the issues facing Hinduism;

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 THINGS TO REMEMBER TO
GET THROUGH

For the learners

Now that you are holding this module, do the following:
1. Read and follow instructions carefully in each lesson.
2. Take note and record points for clarification.
3. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
4. Answer all the given tests and activities.
5. Write all your answers in your notebook.

For the Facilitators

1. Introduce the lesson on Dharmic Religions. Engage learners to do the activities

religiously, and let the learners carry the tasks with ease and confidence.
2. Do the What I Know: Instruct the learners to answer the questions to test how far
they know about the topic.
3. Do the activity What’s New: Activate the learners' understanding of the topics by
letting them answer varied activities.
4. Allow students to read What is It. Let the learners fully discover and comprehend
all topics discussed in this module.
5. Let the learners answer the activities on What’s More. Check if they have
understood the topics. Deepen their understanding by completing the guided
questions on what I have learned section.
6. Assign the students to do What I can Do activities that shall transfer knowledge
/skills gained or learned into real life situation.

GOOD LUCK AS YOU BEGIN MODULE 4

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 LESSON 1

HINDUISM

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

Learning Competency 1:
Analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and
related issues of Hinduism.

Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. describe Hinduism;
2. discuss the teachings or sacred scriptures of Hinduism;
3. recognize the Hinduism doctrines or beliefs;
4. describe the worship and observances of Hinduism; and
5. explain the issues facing Hinduism;

General Instructions
Now that you are holding this module, do the following:
1. Read and follow instructions carefully in each lesson.
2. Take note and record points for clarification.
3. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
4. Answer all the given tests and exercises.

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 WHAT I KNOW

Let’s Answer This!

IDENTIFICATION. Write the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer in your
notebook.

a. Artha f. Hindu k. Shruti

b. Atharva-Veda g. Rig-Veda l. Upanishads
c. Brahman h. Sama-Veda m. Vedas
d. Dalits i. Shaivism n. Vishnu
e. Gita j. Shmriti o. Yajur-Veda

1. Originated from Persian word meaning “river”.

2. Aryans set of beliefs based on oral texts.
3. Literally means “that which is heard”.
4. Most important and oldest book among the Vedas.
5. Compilation of materials recited during rituals and sacrifices to deities.
6. Collection of verses from the basic hymns recited by priests during sacrifices.
7. Contains rituals used in homes and popular prayers to gods.
8. “Supreme work of the Indian mind.”
9. “that which has been remembered”
10. Instructs any person that one may reach god through devotion, or selfless action.
11. The ultimate reality, one and undivided central to Hinduism.
12. Known as the god of love, benevolence and forgiveness.
13. The pursuit of legitimate worldly success.
14. Denomination of the Hindu faith who value self-discipline and philosophy.
15. The “outcasts” or “untouchables”.

WHAT'S NEW

Let’s Move On
Hinduism is also known for its belief in different gods and goddesses. Draw a Hindu
god or goddess. Write a four-sentence description of your chosen Hindu god or
goddess and explain why you selected that god or goddess.

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 WHAT IS IT

What is Hinduism?
Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion with around 15% of the entire population
practicing the Hindu faith. Hindu followers in India comprise the major bulk with almost 80%
of the country’s population adhering to the religion. Other Asian countries with considerable
Hindu faithfuls include Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million), and Indonesia (3.9 million
in Bali). There are also substantial number of Hindus in Mauritius, Guyana, Fiji, Bhutan,
Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and Sri Lanka. Hinduism was never a missionary religion
unlike Christianity or Islam (Brown 1975). With the changing times, however, there have
been proselytizing activities by Hindu missionaries in some Western cities.
Three other religions that sprung in India have their origins in Hinduism. Around sixth
century B.C.E., Jainism and Buddhism appeared to challenge traditional Indian
beliefs and practices. In the fifteenth century C.E., Sikhism arose that featured Hindu
and Islamic influences.

Historical Background
Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world
religions. While the most active religions of the modern times may have started
around the sixth century B.C.E. onward, elements and themes of Hindu belief may
have begun around the third millennium B.C.E.
The term Hindu originated from the Persian word hindu (in Sanskrit sindhu) which
means “river.” It also refers to the people of the Indus Valley— the Indians. The
name Hinduism was given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide array of
belief systems in India. Hinduism was originally known as “Arya Dharma” or the
“Aryan Way”.
As early as 3000 B.C.E., there were already thriving civilizations in India, such as
those discovered in the ancient Punjab city of Harappa and in Mohenjo-Daro along
the Indus. Historically, the foundations of Hinduism may have originated from the
customs of the early peoples of the Indus valley around 2500 B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E.,
in the more advanced culture of the Dravidians, and from the Aryans who invaded
northwest India around 1500 B.C.E.
In the 1920s, archaeological excavations in the two pre-Aryan cities of Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro revealed that the natives already had a flourishing civilization with
their agricultural cities characterized by well-planned streets with drainage systems.
Unfortunately, despite having a written language, it has not yet been deciphered. As
a result, vital information concerning the pre-Aryan life and religious beliefs has been
elusive. Our knowledge of pre-Aryan belief can be seen from the numerous statues
and amulets recovered by archaeologists. Images of fertility gods and goddesses
are noticeable from these artefacts while some figures appear in the lotus position
which was later absorbed by yoga Hinduism and other sects. Later elements of

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Hinduism may have taken shape from the practices of pre-Aryan people who were
already civilized city dwellers.
Between 1750 B.C.E. and 1200 B.C.E., Aryan conquerors moved to the Indus Valley
and brought with them their own set of beliefs that eventually mingled with the
religion of the natives. Classical Hinduism resulted in the amalgamation of their
faiths. Around sixth century B.C.E., they began to settle into cities while local leaders
started organizing small kingdoms for themselves.
Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on oral texts known as Vedas.
This Vedic literature, however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans had
already settled in India and blended with the natives. Admittedly, there is much
difficulty in identifying elements in the Vedas that are genuinely pre-Aryan or Aryan
influenced. However, certain fundamental assumptions about the Aryan religion can
be stated here. Firstly, the Aryans brought with them a polytheistic religion similar to
that of other Indo-European peoples. The sun, the moon and storms, are personified
in reference to the pantheon of gods and goddesses worshipped by the Aryans.
Secondly, sacrifice was the principal form of worship to the Aryan gods. Offerings to
gods include animals and dairy products performed on altars in open spaces. Since
Aryans were nomadic, they had no temples. In general, Hinduism has pre-Aryan and
Aryan elements that date back to ancient times.

Sacred Scriptures
The sacred texts of Hinduism have been principally passed down throughout
generations by way of music, recitation, dance, and drama. Sanskrit has been the
language of the earliest writings. The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized
into two classes, the shruti and smriti.

SHRUTI
Shruti literally means “that which is heard.” They are regarded as eternal truths that
were passed orally until the beginning of the present age wherein there came the
need to write them down. The four collections of texts of the Vedas form the shruti
and are considered primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the Hindu
faith. Other writings that form part of shruti include the Samhitas, Brahmanas,
Upanishads, and a few Sutras.

Vedas
The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns compiled from an earlier oral
tradition, are composed of Rig-veda, Sama-veda, Yajur-veda, and Atharva-veda.
The word Veda means “knowledge” or “sacred lore.”
The Vedas are the earliest known Sanskrit literature from the Brahmanic period and
oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Scholars disagree as to when the Vedas were first
written. The earliest hymns may have been written around 2000 B.C.E. or before the
arrival of the Aryans in the Indus Valley area. They may also have been written
down between 1500 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. Ascertaining the exact period is difficult
because these books may have been composed and passed orally for so many
generations before they were first written down and eventually completed. In the
great epic Mahabharata, Brahma was said to have created the Vedas.
Among the four Vedas, the Rig-Veda is the most important and oldest book that
dates back to around 1500 B.C.E. to 1200 B.C.E. Apart from being the oldest work
of literature in an Indo-European language, it is also the oldest living religious
literature of the world. The book is a collection of over a thousand hymns and more

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than thousand verses dedicated to the Aryan pantheon of gods. Below is the list of
the names of these deities.
Gods and Goddesses Personification or Attributes
Indra Leader of the devas or gods; the lord of heaven in Hinduism; god
of rain and thunderstorms
Agri God of fire; messenger of the gods
Adityas Sun-gods
Mitra Deity for honesty; friendship, contracts, and meetings
Varuna God of the water; god of law of the underwater world
Ushas Deity of dawns
Savitr Solar deity
Rudra Deity of wind or storm
Pushan Solar deity; god of meeting
Brihaspati Deity and religion
Dyaus Pita Sky god; father sky
Prithvi Mother earth
Surya Chief solar deity; the sun
Vayu Lord of the winds
Apas Water
Parjanya Thunder and rain

Yajur-Veda or the “knowledge of rites” is the second book. Composed between 1200
B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E., this book is a compilation of materials recited during rituals
and sacrifices to deities.
The third book is Sama-Veda or the “knowledge of chants.” Dating back almost the
same time as the Yajur-Veda, this book is a collection of verses from the basic
hymns recited by priests during sacrifices.
Lastly, the fourth book is Atharva-Veda or “knowledge given by the sage Atharva”
that date back around 1500 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E. This book contains rituals used in
homes and popular prayers to gods. Seldom used in solemn ceremonies unlike the
other three Vedas, the Atharva-Veda contains numerous spells and incantations for
medicinal purposes and magical aids to victory in battle among others.
Each Vedas consists of four main parts, the Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and
Upanishads. Mantras are hymns and chants for praising god. Brahmanas are
explanations of the Mantras with detailed descriptions of the sacrificial ceremonies
related to them. Aranyakas are meditations that explicate their meaning. Upanishads
or secret teachings transcend rituals to elucidate the nature of the universe and
human’s connectedness to it. The many teachings embedded in the Upanishads are
called Vedanta, and these are teeming with spiritual truths.

Upanishads
Forming the fourth part of the Vedas, the term Upanishad literally translates as
“sitting down near” or “sitting close to” as it implies listening intently to the mystic
teachings of a spiritual teacher who has fully understood the universal truths. It could
also mean “brahma-knowledge” whereby ignorance is totally eliminated.
Within these amazing collections of writings that were transmitted orally through
generations, one can find early philosophical statements that form the basis for all
later Hindu philosophy. The great Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo
described the Upanishads as the “supreme work of the Indian mind.” Varying in
length from one page to over fifty pages, all fundamental teachings and concepts
about Hinduism are found in these profound treatises—such as karma (action),
samsara (reincarnation), moksha (nirvana), atman (soul), and Brahman (Absolute

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Almighty). Of the two hundred Upanishads, fourteen of these are considered
principal writings. The earliest of the Upanishads may have originated in the ninth
century B.C.E. while the most recent around the sixth century B.C.E.

SHMRITI
Smriti literally means “that which has been remembered.” These writings serve to
reinforce shruti and are interpreted by sages and scholars alike. Most of these texts
are sectarian in nature and considered of lesser importance compared to shruti,
such as stories and legends, codes of conduct for the society, and guidebooks for
worship. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which contains the
philosophical poem Bhagavad Gita, are part of shmriti. These are national epics of
India and considered to be the sacred texts of the masses where they draw their
values and ideals.

Ramayana
The Ramayana, translated as the “Story of Rama” or “Rama’s Journey,” is a Sanskrit
epic poem written by the poet Valmiki consisting of 24,000 verses in seven books
and 500 cantos. This great epic was written between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E.
Central to the story is Rama, a prince and later portrayed as avatar or incarnation of
the Hindu god Vishnu, who was born in Ayodhya. Rama was exiled by his father on
the eve of his coronation. Meanwhile, in the forest, Rama’s consort, Sita, was
abducted by Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka. Rama struggles mightily to win Sita
back. After a battle, Rama kills Ravana and reunites again with Sita. Returning to
Ayodhya, they are crowned with Rama portrayed as the ideal king. Rama and Sita
are the epitome of perfect man and woman. Meanwhile, Ravana symbolizes
ambition and greed resulting in cosmic disorder and degradation of women and
family.
Presently, this story is danced out and acted in Southeast Asia where Hindu
influence is observable. Most characters are popular in Indonesia, Thailand, and
Cambodia.

Mahabharata
Another major Sanskrit literature of old India is Mahabharata which is composed of
around one hundred thousand verses making it the word’s longest poem. Written
around 500 B.C.E., this magnificent work is attributed to the author Vyasa who is
also considered to be the scribe of the Vedas.
The Mahabharata tells of a great struggle among the descendants of a king called
Bharata, a name used by many Indians to mean “India” (Coogan 2005). Two families
are at war, the Pandavas who represent good and the Kauravas who embody evil.
The hundred Kaurava brothers try to cheat their five cousins, the Pandavas, out of
their share of the kingdom. As intense battle ensued, every kingdom had to take
sides. With the help of Krishna, another incarnation of Vishnu, the Pandavas
emerged triumphant but lost all their sons and closest kin in battle.
With about 100,000 couplets and 1.8 million words in total, this poem is about four
times longer than the Ramayana, eight times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey
put together, and fifteen times longer than the Bible. Along with the Bible and the
Quran, the Mahabharata ranks in importance among the sacred writings of various
world religions. It is an epic vision of the human condition, such as intrigue,
romance, duplicity, moral collapse, dishonour, and lamentations.

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Bhagavad Gita
A celebrated episode within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita (or simply Gita)
which is translated as “the Lord’s Song.” It is believed to have been written between
the second century B.C.E. and third century C.E.
Considered as one of the holiest books by the Hindus, the Gita is a 700-verse
narrative of a dialogue between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide-cousin
Krishna. Just as the war is about to commence at Kurukshetra, Arjuna is troubled at
the thought of having to fight his relatives and contemplates his fate and struggles
set before him. He then seeks the opinion of his charioteer Krishna who asserts the
righteousness of the act while expounding the moral and philosophical
consequences of human actions. Their conversations in the battlefield, found
between chapters 25 and 42, comprise about eighteen chapters and constitute the
Bhagavad Gita.
The Gita instructs any person that one may reach god through devotion, knowledge,
or selfless action. Humans must do their duty or dharma whatever it may be and
whatever results it could produce. The Gita is considered the layman’s Upanishads
because the difficult teachings of the Upanishads are presented here in a manner
that commoners can understand.

Beliefs and Doctrines

The Hindu faith offers its followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation
from the cycle of life through devotion to one or more gods. Gods and goddesses
can be worshipped at their temples. In temples, devotees can pray and offer
sacrifices so that they can gain favor from deities and assist them in their struggle for
salvation. Bhakti stands for the soul’s longing for and clinging to god.

Devotion to the Trimutri

Central to Hinduism is the Brahman who is the ultimate reality, one and undivided.
The Brahman is often seen in three forms or functions. Called the Trimurti, these are
creation, preservation, and destruction. These functions are expressed in god forms,
namely, Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer.
Though widely respected and recognized as the creator of the universe, Brahma
receives the least attention among the trimurti. In fact, only two temples are
dedicated to him in India and he has no cult of devotees. He is not worshiped in the
same way as other gods because he has done his task and will not come into his
own until the next creation of the universe. When depicted, Brahma has four heads
and eight hands. His chief consort is Saraswati, the goddess of science and wisdom.
Brahma’s vehicle is a swan or goose which symbolizes knowledge.
Known as a god of love, benevolence, and forgiveness, Vishnu’s primary concern is
humanity itself. As the preserver, the creation is withdrawn to a seed whenever he
sleeps but rises again as he wakes up. He is worshiped in various forms of his
incarnations or avatars. Based on mythology, Vishnu has appeared on earth in nine
different forms and will come a tenth time to end the present era or kalpa, to bring
the world to an end, and then recreate it. These manifestations of Vishnu are
intended to help humanity with his preserving, restoring, and protecting powers.
Below list the 10 avatars of Vishnu.
Incarnation Form Attributes
Matsya Fish Saved humanity and the sacred Veda texts from flood
Kurma Turtle Helped create the world by supporting it on his back
Varaha Boar Raised the earth out of water with his tusks
Narasimha Half-man, half-lion Destroyed a tyrant king

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 Vamana Dwarf Subdued king Bali, a powerful demon
Parshurama Brahmin Destroyed the warrior class
Rama Man Rescued his wife Sita and killed the demon Ravana
Krishna Man Told the epic poem Bhagavad Gita to the warrior Arjuna
Buddha Man The enlightened man
Kalki horse Yet to come to earth

In Hindu sacred writings, Vishnu is depicted as having four arms and with a dark
complexion. His most popular manifestation is Krishna who is blue, the color of
infinity, and plays the flute. Vishnu’s consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, who
is seated on a lotus between two elephants with their trunks raised above her. Both
Vishnu and Lakshmi ride the eagle mount or kite Garuda, the symbol of the sky and
the sun. The snake in Garuda’s claws represents water.
As the destroyer and the god of death, destruction, and disease, Shiva is the third in
the Trimurti. His functions are many. He is also god of dance, vegetable, animal, and
human reproduction. In Hindu belief, death is but a prelude to birth, hence, the god
of death is also the god often revered through the lingam, the male energy
surrounded by the yoni, the female source of energy. In mythology, he is described
as having a constantly erect penis and sexually alert at all times.
Equally popular as Shiva are his many consorts that express the differing elements
of his character. Perhaps the most terrifying of his consorts is Kali depicted as
wearing a garland of human skulls, tearing the flesh of sacrificed victims, and
drinking blood. Although wild and violent, Kali is frequently the subject of intense
devotion. Kali is also the ferocious form of consorts Durga and Parvati. Durga is a
powerful goddess created from the combined forces of the anger of several gods.
Meanwhile, Parvati, the daughter of the sacred mountain Himalaya and the goddess
of love, fertility, and devotion, is the most modest, conservative, and benign of
Shiva’s. Her sons with Shiva include Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity revered
as the remover of obstacles, and Kartikeya, the Hindu god of war.

Routes to Moksha
From the Upanishads one may find the three principal and inter-related doctrines
within the Indian religion. Firstly, every soul dies and is reborn anew in new form
(this cycle is called samsara). Second, one’s deeds have an effect in this or a future
life. Lastly, one may escape the weary round of death and birth.
Within every human is an eternal soul or atman that is being reborn many times and
in various forms in accordance to the moral law or karma. A soul may escape the
cycle of rebirth and attain moksha. This particular liberation can be achieved through
the four yogas that involve a system of practices aimed at producing spiritual
enlightenment. The word yoga is derived from the root word yuj which translates as
“to yoke” or “to join.” The philosophy of yoga was developed by the sage Patanjali
who lived in the second century B.C.E. He is considered as the “father of modern
yoga” as he codified the teachings of yoga in his Yoga Sutra. The following lists
down the four yogas with their corresponding practices.
The Four Yogas Practices
Jnana Yoga (The Way of The path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection, and contemplation
Knowledge)
Bhakti Yoga (The Way of The path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion and service to God
Love) and others
Karma Yoga (The Way of The path of action, service to others, mindfulness and remembering
Work) the levels of our being while fulfilling
Raja Yoga (The Way of The path of meditation that directly deals with the encountering and

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 Meditation) transcending thoughts of the mind

For all Hindus, there are four desirable goals of life or purushartha. These are
dharma (appropriate behavior), artha (the pursuit of legitimate worldly success),
kama (the pursuit of legitimate pleasure), and moksha (release from rebirth). The
terminal stage involves the liberation from the bonds of flesh and the limitations of
death-bound life. By faithfully performing duties in social and family life, this involves
one person pursuing artha or appropriate worldly prosperity and material well-being.
A person must also rightfully satisfy the demand for enjoyment and pleasure or
kama. In all goals, one must be guided by righteousness or dharma toward
achieving moksha. A person who achieves moksha while in life is a free soul or
jivan-mukta.
Worship and Observances
Hindu scriptures state that there are 330 million gods or devas. These include
manifestations of natural phenomena, evil forces, and even illnesses. Others are
venerated humans or town deities. Hindu worship or puja involves images (murtis),
prayers (mantras), and diagrams of the universe (yantras). Integral to Hindu worship
are the sacred images and temples believed to house and represent the deities.
These images can be revered in homes or temples with a host of intermediary
priests, holy men, and religious teachers.
However, most Hindus worship individually involving mantras or vibrating sounds
that summon the deity and the prasad or gift offerings. Vital to Hindu worship is
darshan that pertaining to seeing and being in the presence of deity. In temples,
ceremonies may be in the form of offering a flame, milk, or honey, and even reciting
chants and music. While worship may be undertaken any day of the week, Thursday
is considered to be the most opportune day.
Hindus celebrate a number of festivals that are based on the Hindu calendar and
often related to seasonal changes. Main festivals include Holi, Diwali, and Dusserah.
The Diwali or “Festival of Lights” is India’s biggest and most important holiday of the
year held in October or November that is similar to the Christmas holiday of the
Christians. Indians light outside their homes to symbolize the inner light that
safeguards the people from evil forces.
Meanwhile, there are also many local and regional festivals, such as harvest and
deity festivals, marked by colourful processions and performances. Table below lists
down several festivals celebrated by Hindus in a year.
Month Festival Name Significance
January Lohri Celebrated in Punjab, this marks the end of winter
February Pongal-Sankranti A feast held in south India to celebrate the rice harvest
March Holi The national celebration of spring and the New Year
March Shivaratri A national honoring of Shiva; Worshippers fast during the
day, and an all-night vigil is held at Shiva temples
April Sri Vaishnavas An honouring of Vishnu and and his consort Sri, celebrated
in Madras at the beginning of the hot season; Images of
Vishnu are taken from the temples to the seashore
May Rathyatra The birthday of Lord Jagannath, celebrated with chariots in
Puri
August Janmashtami The birthday of Krishna, celebrated nationally;
Worshippers fast during the day and break the fast in the
evening, following a special puja, or worship
September Dusserah A celebration of the triumph of good over evil, in honor of
Durga or Rama
September Ganesh Chaturhi The birthday of Ganesh, celebrated nationally throughout
India; Huge images of Ganesh are paraded

11
 October Diwali A national celebration in honor of Rama and his consort

Pilgrimages are also undertaken by Hindus throughout India to visit the sacred
shrines of their deities. These include rivers, mountains, and temples. The city of
Varanasi, also called Benares, is the most important and sacred pilgrimage site in
India and is considered as the home of Shiva. Many people come and live in the city
until they die to manifest their exceptional devotion. Other popular sites include
Kurukshetra (the place of the great war in Mahabharata), Ayodhya (the old capital of
Rama), and Mathura (Krishna’s birthplace).

Subdivisions
Followers of Hinduism vary in their set of beliefs and practices, including reverence
to a particular god. Presently, there are four principal denominations within the Hindu
faith. These are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishavism, and Smartism. It is important to
note, however, that while these gods have different names, Hindus all worship one
supreme being.
Each sect has its own religious leaders, sacred texts, schools, and temples. While
there is indeed variety and key differences among sects, adherents of these
denominations share the pervading beliefs concerning karma, dharma,
reincarnation, and other key Hindu concepts and philosophy.
Shaivism
Lord Shiva, the Compassionate One, is God for the Saivites. Followers of Shaivism
value self-discipline and philosophy. They worship in temples and practice yoga.

Shaktism
The Goddess Shakti is supreme for Shaktas. She is the divine mother and assumes
many forms, be it a gentle one or a fierce deity. Believers use chants, magic, and
yoga to summon cosmic forces.

Vaishnavism
Lord Vishnu is God for the Vaishnavites, especially in his incarnations Krishna and
Rama. Adherents have multitudes of saints, temples, and sacred texts.

Smartism
For the Smartas, devotees are left to choose their own deity in one of six
manifestations, namely, Ganesha, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Skanda.
Smartas are known as liberals as they embrace all major Hindu gods.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Hinduism continues to be the religion of almost 80% of the Indian people. While
mostly comprised of Hindu followers, India is a secular state that remains neutral in
issues involving religious convictions and practices of its citizenry. All Indians are
allowed to follow and propagate their own set of beliefs. Being a country with the
largest adherents of Hinduism, India is presently facing numerous challenges that
are religious in character, some of which are below.

Hinduism and Women

Even though the Manusmriti or the “Laws of Manu” states that women should be
honored in Hindu society, women have always been considered inferior to men in
almost all aspects of life. A woman's life revolves around the men in her life, to be

12
taken care of by her father in childhood, by her husband in married life, and by her
sons upon old age. Thus, women are relegated to performing household chores and
are expected to become loyal to their husbands, even after their husbands die. In
traditional society, women are expected to perform sati or suttee wherein widowed
women are expected to jump on the funeral pyre of their husbands to prove their
loyalty and help save the soul of their husbands in the afterlife. In spite of the fact
that sati was already demolished by the British in India, there are still cases of sati
being reported in modern times.

Caste System
The caste system is one major distinguishing feature of Indian culture that still
affects modern-day society. A system of social class composed of the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, opportunities are based upon family origin. One
person belongs to a caste by being born to parents of that particular caste.
This has been an issue of distinctive concern for the reformers of the caste system.
While full-blown divisions are relatively a modern development, the caste system
began to divide into thousands of castes that are sometimes based on occupations.
A person’s diet, vocation, and residence are dictated by the caste where he or she
belongs. There can be more than 3,000 separate castes in India.
However, the most deplorable group are those persons that do not belong to any
group—those that are disparagingly called as “outcasts” or “untouchables.” Also
known as dalits, they are highly ostracized in society. They perform the most menial
of jobs, such as street sweepers, latrine cleaners, and handlers of the dead. These
jobs receive the lowest wages and have the most appalling living conditions.
The teachings of Hinduism may have justified the status of the outcastes. Their
present condition may have been caused by their accumulated karma from the past.
By fulfilling their duties and accepting their dharma, they may be born to a better
caste in their next lives.
Despite the negative backlash on the caste system, India has been receptive in
enacting legislation aimed at eradicating inherent social evils. For example,
untouchability has been banned and the caste system is no longer rigid. The Indian
constitution has provided that it is unlawful to discriminate against lower castes.
Lower caste members are now being elected to key government positions, including
Kocherii R. Narayanan, a dalit who became the tenth president of India from 1997 to
2002.

WHAT'S MORE

Let’s Practice!

Complete below diagram. Write your answer in your notebook.

13
 FOUR YOGAS

FOUR
ENDS OF
THE
HUMAN
PERSON

WHAT I CAN DO

Let’s Do It!

Perform a yoga exercise and write a reflection paper on your insights about the
experience. Use the rubric below as a guide. Write your reflection on your notebook.
RUBRIC FOR ESSAY
CRITERIA DESCRIPTION POINTS
Content Concepts are clearly used and explained 8
Organization The concept was clearly and creatively 6
conveyed
Presentation The idea was clearly presented based on 6
the words used.

14
 Total: 20

POST ASSESSMENT

Let’s Answer This!

IDENTIFICATION. Write the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer in your
notebook.

a. Artha f. Hindu k. Shruti

b. Atharva-Veda g. Rig-Veda l. Upanishads
c. Brahman h. Sama-Veda m. Vedas
d. Dalits i. Shaivism n. Vishnu
e. Gita j. Shmriti o. Yajur-Veda

1. The ultimate reality, one and undivided central to Hinduism.

2. Denomination of the Hindu faith who value self-discipline and philosophy.
3. “Supreme work of the Indian mind.”
4. Compilation of materials recited during rituals and sacrifices to deities.
5. Most important and oldest book among the Vedas.
6. Literally means “that which is heard”.
7. The pursuit of legitimate worldly success.
8. Contains rituals used in homes and popular prayers to gods.
9. Instructs any person that one may reach god through devotion, or selfless action.
10. “that which has been remembered”
11. Collection of verses from the basic hymns recited by priests during sacrifices.
12. Originated from Persian word meaning “river”.
13. Known as the god of love, benevolence and forgiveness.
15. The “outcasts” or “untouchables”.
14. Aryans set of beliefs based on oral texts.

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Let’s Remember This!

15
Complete the paragraph with the necessary words or sentences that best describe
what you have learned from the discussion. Write your paragraph in your notebook.
Follow the format below.

Hinduism beliefs is complex for other people because,___________-

____________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Hinduism is mainly concentrated in India because, __________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
The caste system affects the modern-day society because,
____________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.

Congratulations!

You successfully did it. Now, let’s move to lesson 2.

LESSON 2

THERAVADA BUDDHISM

WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

16
Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. examine the history of Theravada Buddhism;
2. identify the core teaching, beliefs, and practices of Theravada Buddhism;
3. analyze other related issues of Theravada Buddhism.

WHAT'S IN

Let’s Recall!
Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all
world religions. Hinduism has no single founder, no specific theological
system, and no single sacred text.
The concept of dharma is closely linked to the Hindu religion. It is the power
that preserves the society.
The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into shruti and smriti. Shruti
literally means “that which is heard” and are regarded as eternal truths that
were passed orally. The four books of Vedas are part of the shruti.
Meanwhile, smriti literally means “that which has been remembered” and
these are writings that serve to reinforce shruti.
Fundamental to Hindu teachings are the doctrines of samsara (the cycle of
rebirth) and karma (the universal law of causality).
Apart from recognizing a vast assortment of Indian deities, the Hindus believe
in the trimurti (trinity) composed of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Integral to
Hindu worship are the sacred images and temples believed to house and
represent the deities.

WHAT I KNOW

Let’s Answer This!

Instructions: Identify the words from the box which describe statement below. Write
your answer in your notebook.

Dukkha Khandas Tripitaka Great Renunciation

Stupas Sangha 17Arhat warrior caste
bodhisattva jatakas seven weeks Mara
Mahavihara Law of Dependent Theravada and Mahayana
______________1. people who achieve nirvana
______________2. Siddharta Gautama’s ascetic life in the forest
______________3. the only surviving most sacred text of Theravada Buddhism
______________4. mental and physical aggregates of the soul
______________5. commemorative monuments that contain sacred relics
______________6. Pali term for suffering or dissatisfaction
______________7. monks who share in the alms of the community
______________8. monastery founded by Devanampiya Tissa
______________9. “When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not,
that is not; This ceasing, that ceases”
_____________10. personified evil forces that torment the minds of humankind
_____________11. the religious ideal as set forth in the Lotus Sutra
_____________12. Siddhartha was born into the
_____________13. The stories used for teaching that tell of the Buddha's previous
lives
_____________14. Buddha remain under the bodhi tree experiencing nirvana
_____________15. The first two main divisions of Buddhism

WHAT'S NEW

Let’s Move On!

Get a copy of the “Ten Commandments” and the “Noble Eightfold Path.” Using a
Venn diagram below, illustrate the similarities and differences of the “Ten
Commandments” and “Noble Eightfold Path.” Write your answer in your notebook.

Ten Commandments Noble Eightfold Path

18
 WHAT IS IT

Theravada Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the most practical among the world’s great religions
because its belief system intends to meet basic human needs and solve
humankind’s spiritual problem without depending on supernatural forces (Brown
1975). The two main divisions of the religion are Mahayana Buddhism and
Theravada Buddhism. With around 360 million followers, Mahayana Buddhism is
practiced in China, Japan, and Mongolia. Meanwhile, Theravada Buddhism, with 150
million adherents, is followed in Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. Buddhism is the
religion of around 500 million people or about 7% to 8% of the world’s population.
Buddhist followers are mostly found in the Asian continent, with China having the
largest population at around 244 million or 18% of its total population. Asian
countries that have the highest Buddhist majority in terms of population include
Cambodia (97%), Thailand (93%), Myanmar (80%), Bhutan (75%), Sri Lanka (69%),
and Laos (66%). Buddhism has two main divisions and many sects.
A major branch of the religion, Theravada Buddhism (“school of elder monks”
or “school of the ancients”) or the “Southern School of Buddhism” draws on the
collected teachings of the oldest recorded texts of Buddhist texts to become its
central precept, the Pali Canon. This school claims to have preserved the original
teachings of Siddhartha with pristine purity (Clasper 1992). Theravada Buddhism
has gained considerable following in the West in modern times.

19
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Buddhism has been in existence for over 2,500 years and has never
experienced any drastic or radical schisms in its evolution (Toula-Breysse 2001). As
the disciples of Siddhartha Gautama spread his word and preached throughout
various communities, there came a need for them to adapt to local culture, politics,
and economic context. Emerging branches of Buddhism had become adjusted to the
milieu of the place. They may differ on the doctrines of Buddhism but their
relationships with other subgroups are generally good (Toula-Breysse 2001). The
basic tenets of both major schools of thought originate from Siddhartha Gautama
whose life has become a constant source of inspiration to others (Brown 1975).

Life of the Buddha

The sage Siddhartha Gautama may have been born between 563 B.C.E. to
480 B.C.E. into the Sakya tribe in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) near the town of
Kapilavastu (the capital city of the Sakya state) in the foothills of the Nepalese
Himalayas (Kulananda 2001). Born into the Kshatriya caste, his father was
Suddhodana, an aristocratic Hindu chieftain, and his mother was Mahamaya, a
Koliyan princess. The Buddha’s family name was Gautama or Gotama. According to
tradition, at the time when Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Mahamaya dreamt of a
brilliant white light shining down on her from the sky. In the rays of the light was a
magnificent white elephant with six large tusks. The elephant moved closer to the
queen and melted into her body.
Ten months later, Siddhartha was born. He emerged from the side of the
queen, took seven steps, and said, “I have been born to achieve awakening (bodhi)
for the good of the world: this is my last birth (Coogan 2005).” Mahamaya died
shortly after giving birth to Siddhartha, also known as Sakyamuni or the “sage of the
Sakya clan.” The name ‘Siddhartha’ means “he who achieves his aim.” He was
reared by Mahamaya’s younger sister Mahapajapati who became his father’s second
wife and the first woman to request ordination from the Buddha. The word “Buddha”
means “the awakened one” or the “enlightened one.”
At the time of his birth, the seer Asita predicted that the child was destined for
either political or spiritual ascendancy (Skilton 1994; Kulananda 2001). Since
Suddhodana wanted Siddhartha to choose the life of a great king, he made sure that
the young boy experienced the comfort of wealth and power. In effect, Suddhodana
kept his child shielded from the harsh realities of human suffering outside the
luxurious palace. He was given noble education and instruction in science,
horsemanship, and archery (Toula-Breysse 2001). At the age of sixteen,
Suddhodana arranged Siddhartha’s marriage to a beautiful and refined young
woman, Yasodhara (also Siddhartha’s cousin), who later gave birth to their son
Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu and he began to
develop a keen sense of discontent. As he felt constant emptiness despite living a
life of luxury and ease, he sought answers to his questions by leaving his
comfortable abode without the knowledge or approval of his family. He left his wife,

20
child, and social status as he began to search for truth and liberation (Kulananda
2001).
Siddhartha’s venture outside the comfort of the palace led him to encounter
four suffering people that eventually transformed his outlook on life (Brown 1975).
The four encounters or the “Four Signs” that occurred made him realize the
inevitability of misery in people’s lives. First, meeting an old man made him accept
that old age was an unavoidable circumstance no matter how unwelcome it is to a
person. Second, a crippled man reflected upon him that illness is inescapable
despite a person’s relentless effort to avoid any disease. Third, a decaying corpse
made him understand that death was the inevitable end of all. Last, an ascetic monk
or shramana impressed upon him the person’s tranquillity and the possibility of
renouncing worldly pleasures in exchange for utter quietude. All these distressing
manifestations convinced him that worldly and material possessions could not satisfy
one’s need. Taking his finest horse, he rode off into the night. He cut his hair and
beard, and sent them back with the horse through his charioteer (Hopfe 1983).
Ultimately, he renounced the members of his caste despite his father’s resistance
and he resolved to become a mendicant, a beggar of alms. Also known as the “Great
Renunciation,” he lived as an ascetic with homeless existence (Bowker 1997). He
went to the forest and clothed himself in the yellow robes of a hermit (Brown 1975).
Siddhartha practiced asceticism in search of a way to escape suffering. Far
withdrawn from his accustomed environment, he lived at the outskirts of society and
associated himself with religious masters, such as Alara Kalama and Uddaka
Ramaputta (Skilton 1994). As he became dissatisfied with their teachings, however,
he went on his own way to subject himself to inexorable asceticism through self-
mortification and fasting that reached a point of living on a single grain of rice per day
(Toula-Breysse 2001; Hopfe 1983). For the next six years, he practiced religious
strictness, wore no clothes, and did not wash (Kulananda 2001). Food and sleep
became scarce. Naturally, he became emaciated and feeble as a result of long
periods of starvation, to the point that he almost died. Five ascetics came to join him
as his companions. All these actions made him realize the absurdity of excessive
asceticism and that the life of deprivation was no better than a life of pleasure. As he
began to take normal foods once more, his ascetic companions felt scandalized by
his backsliding and deserted him. In the end, Siddhartha advocated the avoidance of
two extremes, namely, self-indulgence and self-denial, and taught the way toward
the “Middle Path” that was a life of self-discipline and introspection but not self-
flagellation (Losch 2001).
Seated beneath a pipal tree, now known as the bo or bodhi tree, near the
Indian village of Bodh Gaya in Bihar, Siddhartha finally obtained his enlightenment
after years of searching as he passed the four stages of meditative trance or
dhyana/jhana. Buddhist legend recounts his triumph over the devil Mara who
personified evil forces that torment the minds of humankind, including greed, hatred,
ignorance, jealousy, and doubt. Despite the many attempts of Mara to disturb
Siddhartha’s firm meditation, appearing as storms and rains, the devil was
vanquished and faded like a bad dream. Mara failed to tempt Siddhartha with wealth
and flesh; he could not break the calm determination of the seeker of the truth. After
49 days of meditation, Siddhartha emerged victorious and attained the state of

21
absolute awakening. He became a “Buddha” or the “awakened one” whose every
action from thereon would be motivated only by generosity, compassion, and
wisdom (Toula-Breysse 2001). He had visions of the endless cycle of birth and death
that was the fate of humankind (Hopfe 1983). Siddhartha was 35 years old when he
attained enlightenment.
Walking more than a hundred miles to Sarnath near the ancient city of
Varanasi, he met his former disciples whom he was able to convince about the truth
of his teachings. A new spiritual community or sangha sprang forth and soon there
were sixty enlightened beings in the world (Kulananda 2001). Siddhartha preached
throughout the regions of India, such as Magadha and Kosala. For 45 years, he
travelled northern India to the cities and towns of the central Ganges basin, and
preached a message of hope and happiness while winning many new converts to his
fold (Brown 1975; Skilton 1994).
Siddhartha lived and preached during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the
Magadha Empire from 542 B.C.E. to 492 B.C.E. The king, a great friend and
protector of Siddhartha, established the city of Rajgir that became wellknown
because of Buddhist writings. With only about two hours of sleep at night, he
scarcely had any rest in his mission to propagate his teachings to the people.
At age 80 and on a full moon, Siddhartha died in Kushinagar between 483
B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. during the early years of Ajasatru (Bimbisara’s successor) who
ruled around 492 B.C.E. to 460 B.C.E. Tradition has it that his final words were,
“Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly to work out your own
salvation (Hopfe 1983).” The cause of death was a meal received from a
metalworker that led to dysentery. His remains were cremated seven days after and
the ashes were divided among eight clangroups as they built a sacred cairn over
their portion of the relic (Parrinder 1971). The memorial mound or stupa became an
object of devotion for Buddhists that developed later on as pagoda in Sri Lanka and
Southeast Asia.
In 486 B.C.E. five hundred leading and all enlightened disciples of Siddhartha
convened in Rajgir to compile the teachings under the guidance of Mahakasyapa,
one of his principal disciples (Mizuno1987). Known as the “First Buddhist Council,”
the assembly restated and accumulated Siddhartha’s teachings and monastic
decrees to be followed by Buddhist communities. The council laid out the
groundwork of Buddhist tenets (Coogan 2005).
SACRED SCRIPTURES
The early schools of Buddhism developed their own unique body of sacred
texts. Of these, however, only the Pali Canon or the Tipitaka/Tripitaka (“three
baskets”) of Theravada Buddhism survives (Coogan 2005). Preserved in the Pali
language, this standard collection of scriptures of Theravada Buddhists is the first
known, the most conservative, and the most complete extant early canon of Buddhist
writings.
Immediately after Siddhartha’s death or parinirvana, the “First Buddhist
Council” was called to order to recite the content of his teachings or dhamma/
dharma. These teachings were initially passed down orally until they were recorded
22
in palm trees after five centuries during the “Fourth Buddhist Council” held in 29
B.C.E. The monks saw the need to commit into writing the Pali Canon so that in the
event that the monks die, important Buddhist teachings would still remain. The
council was convened in Tambapanni as a result of poor harvests in Sri Lanka that
starved many monks. With the support of the Sri Lankan king, Vattagamani or
Valagamba of Anuradhapura, the council lasted for three years. Five hundred monks
recited Siddhartha’s teachings as they recorded them in palm trees.
In Pali language, the word pitaka translates as “basket” referring to the
receptacles where the palm leaf manuscripts were stored by the monks. The three
baskets (tipitaka/tripitaka) and their contents are summarized in the table below:

Figure 1. The Tipitika

Source: Michael D. Coogan (ed.), Eastern

Religions, p. 145.

The first basket, the Sutta Pitaka, contains the conventional teaching
delivered by Siddhartha on different occasions. Discourses of Siddharta’s disciples,
such as Sariputta, Moggallana, and Ananda, are also part of the Sutta Pitaka. It is
divided into five collections, namely, Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses),
Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of Middle-length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya
(Collection of Kindred Sayings), Anguttara Nikaya (Collection of Discourses arranged
in accordance with number), and Khuddaka Nikaya (Smaller Collection).
The second basket, the Vinaya Pitaka, contains the disciplinary code required
of Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). Various rules and regulations
must be followed by the monastic community. It consists of five books, namely,
Parajika Pali (Major Offences), Pacittiya Pali (Minor Offences), Mahavagga Pali
(Greater Section), Cullavagga Pali (Smaller Section), and Parivara Pali (Epitome of
the Vinaya).
The third basket, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is a work on moral psychology. The
reflective philosophies of Siddhartha’s teachings are contained in the Abhidhamma
Pitaka that is strictly a Theravada collection. It is composed of seven works, namely,
Dhamma-Sangani (Enumeration of Phenomena), Vibhanga (The Book of the
Treatises), Katha Vatthu (Point of Controversy), Puggala Pannatti (Description of
Individuals), Dhatu Katha (Discussion with reference to Elements), Yamaka (The
Book of Pairs), and Patthana (The Book of Relations).

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES

23
 Siddhartha never intended to start a new religion especially, and so his
teachings are focused primarily on ethics and self-understanding as people work for
their salvation on their own without needing the assistance of any supreme being
(Hopfe 1983). Here lies the main difference of Buddhism with other religions—it has
no place for God or savior, as salvation entirely lies within anyone’s control (Brown
1975). Siddhartha did not claim to be a savior but a guide and teacher as he pointed
the way for others to follow and gain spiritual bliss in doing so.
Another unique feature of Buddhism is the belief that soul or the Hindu atman
does not exist as people live in a state of nonsoulness or anatman/ anatta. Buddhism
does not preach that humans have an eternal and indestructible soul (Brown 1975).
Nothing is permanent in this world, hence, all things change and are impermanent.
The mark of impermanence or anitya/anicca states that all conditioned things are
transitory and passing; they all have beginning and end to their existence (Skilton
1994). Human existence, or what we actually call soul, is a composite of five mental
or physical aggregates or khandas. These aggregates include the (1) physical form
or corporeality, (2) feelings or sensations, (3) understanding or perception, (4) will or
mental formation, and (5) consciousness (Hopfe 1983; Toula-Breysse 2001). Hence,
humans do not have a permanent, unchanging, real soul that dwells within them
(Parrinder 1971). In effect, no soul is being reborn because there is no permanence
in anything (Bowker 1997).
Four Noble Truths
The teachings of Siddhartha include discourses on the basic tenets of
Buddhism, such as the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Noble Eightfold Path.”
Siddhartha’s pursuit for enlightenment was due to the dissatisfaction he continually
experienced despite living an opulent life in the palace. The Pali term for
unsatisfactoriness or suffering is dukkha (Kulananda 2001). Dukkha may be
manifested in misery, distress, agony, emptiness, or conflict. Outside the real world,
Siddhartha began to witness the various manifestations of inescapable suffering—
from old age, illness, and eventual death. Siddhartha analyzed the problem of
dukkha that led him to arrive to the basic law of causation or the “Four Noble Truths.”
Perhaps the most well-known among Siddhartha’s teachings, this profound doctrine
is the heart of Buddhism, summarized below.
(1) The First Noble Truth. This identifies the origin of the problem— the
dukkha. Suffering can be experienced throughout the different stages of a person’s
life—from birth, sickness, old age, to ultimate death. When one clings to one of the
previously stated aggregates, this leads to suffering. When one unites with the
unpleasant, it causes suffering. When one dissociates from the pleasant, it also
results in suffering.
(2) The Second Noble Truth. This explains the cause of suffering or the
samodaya – in craving or desire (or tanha), in the perpetual thirst of humans to
consume things, experiences, or ideas (Parrinder 1971). People are never satisfied
as they always want more or something else, want something new, or just want to
discontinue something. People crave for existence or non-existence and seek
sensual pleasures. People search for self-satisfaction from things they believe they
can experience. However, since the nature of all these things is impermanent,

24
people become attached to these things due to ignorance that leads to desire and
eventual suffering (Brown 1975).
(3) The Third Noble Truth. This asserts that there is a cessation or nirodha
to suffering and bondage by eliminating craving and desire. By dropping the bonds of
craving, one gets to be released from the fundamental nature of reality.
(4) The Fourth Noble Truth. This directs an individual to the path or magga
leading to the termination of craving and desire, and to eventual cessation of pain.
Likewise, one must avoid self-indulgence and self-torture since both are pointless.
This is the path toward moderation or the “Middle Way” aimed at ending suffering.
Known as the “Noble Eightfold Path” which is an entirely practical path—and each
described as “right” or samma — it is divided into three aspects, namely, wisdom,
morality, and meditation. For path of wisdom, this includes Right View and Right
Intention. For path of morality, this includes Right Speech, Right Action, and Right
Livelihood. For path of meditation, it consists of Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and
Right Concentration. Table below summarizes the essence of the “Noble Eightfold
Path.”
Figure 2. The Noble Eight Path
Eightfold Path What One Must Do
Right View Understand the “Four Noble Truths”
Right Intention Free one’s self from ill-will, cruelty, and
untruthfulness
Right Speech Abstain from untruthfulness, tale-bearing, harsh
language, and vain talk
Right Action Abstain from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct
Right Livelihood Earn a living in a way not harmful to any living thing
Right Effort Avoid evil thoughts and overcome them, arouse good
thoughts and maintain them
Right Mindfulness Pay vigilant attention to every state of the body,
feeling, and mind
Right Concentration Concentrate on a single object so as to induce
certain special states of consciousness in deep
meditation
Source: Lifted from David A Brown, A Guide to Religions, pp. 128-129

The mastery of the various truths and observance of the path would lead a
person to break the bond that binds him or her to life and obtain release from the
eternal cycle of death and rebirth or samsara. This cycle is influenced by karma
which is a law of cause and effect.
Law of Dependent Origination
The Law of Dependent Origination or Paticca-samuppada is one of the most
insightful teachings of Siddhartha. With everything built upon a set of relations, it
follows that every effect has a definite cause and every cause has a definite effect
(Mizuno 1987). In short, nothing comes into being by mere accident and actions do
not happen in a random way. A short formula for this principle can be read in four

25
lines as: When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not, that is not;
This ceasing, that ceases. In Buddhism, dependent origination is a twelve-linked
chain that explicates how all things are inter-connected, how error and attachment to
error occur, and how, if the chain is untangled, nirvana can be achieved (Mizuno
1987; Bowker 1997).
Both the “Four Noble Truths” and the concept of karma can be explained by
dependent origination. In the “Four Noble Truths,” there is the arising and cessation
of the dukkha. Desire occurs because of combination of existing conditions to
support its arising. Craving ends when factors supporting its presence change and
ends, and then no longer sustain it. Meanwhile, the law of karma operates as a
causal process that explains the problem of suffering and rebirth in samsara.
Everything is the result of some prior event or that every action has an effect.
Virtuous actions produce good results while bad deeds result in evil ones. Karma
operates by itself and nothing can alter this law, not even prayers or rituals. As a
result of this law of action, a being will be born and reborn in different states based
on one’s accumulated good and bad actions in the past (Brown 1975).

Impermanence of Things
Nothing in this world is fixed and permanent and everything is subject to
change and alteration. Impermanence is an unavoidable fact of human existence.
Buddhism affirms five processes deemed uncontrollable by any individual: old age,
sickness, dying, decay, and death. However, when one is released from samsara, a
being escapes all these phenomena. That being has then reached a state called
nirvana wherein desire has been extinguished from one’s self. No more unpleasant
karma can be created while greed, hatred, and delusion have all been obliterated.
When one achieves nirvana, a person’s mind is at perfect peace. Everyone is
capable of attaining nirvava in this life just as the saints of Buddhism did in their
lives. Those who have achieved nirvana are called arhat or one who is “worthy of
honor.”

The Sangha
The Pali word sangha literally means “sharer” that refer to monks who share
in the general fund of alms provided by a community. Translated as “association” or
“assembly,” sangha pertains to the Buddhist order and monastic community as
founded by Siddhartha during the same year that he attained his enlightenment.
Kondanna, Siddhartha’s follower and one of the so-called “Five Ascetics,” was the
first disciple ordained to the sangha. Later on, the other four ascetics became part of
the order, namely, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, and Assaji. Among the most
popular monks in Buddhist history were the “Five Ascetics,” Sariputta, Moggallana,
Rahula (Siddhartha’s son), and Ananda. Siddhartha preached and accepted
members to the sangha regardless of their rank in society in stark contrast to the
Brahmin priest who would not dare converse to members of a lower class
(Suriyabongs n.d).
Ordained Buddhist monks are called bhikkus while nuns are called bhikkunis.
During the time of Siddhartha, bhikkus were dressed in rags, lived at the foot of the
tree, and begged for alms. They likewise abstained from sexual pleasures, stealing,

26
and killing. They constantly meditate and study the teachings of Siddhartha. In short,
all bhikkus must live a life of poverty and chastity and should strictly follow the
codified rules as contained in the Vinaya Pitaka. Within the Vinaya Pitaka is a list of
around 250 items of conduct that must be avoided or suffer the consequences of
expulsion, suspension, or reproach depending on the severity of the offence. This
particular list is recited regularly and confession is required once a transgression is
committed (Parrinder 1971).
To be accepted into the sangha, one should at least have taken refuge in
Siddhartha. One may become a novice and follow certain vows, including celibacy.
To be a fully ordained monk or nun, one must commit to an extensive set of vows. It
is worth noting, however, that bhikkus and bhikkunis may or may not remain in the
order since they can return to their usual lay lives if they choose to do so.
Meanwhile, lay people also have duties to perform to the sangha. They must
provide the monastic community with food and robes, and maintain monasteries and
nunneries as needed. In turn, monks provide valuable services to the community,
such as giving education to young boys and girls in villages. Finally, members of the
sangha must ensure that Buddhist teachings are to be preserved and transmitted,
whether orally or in written form (Parrinder 1971). The so-called “Three Jewels” or
triratna summarize the Buddhist faith: I take refuge in the Buddha, in the teaching,
and in the sangha (Bowker 1997).

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Attainment of salvation for any Buddhist is by way of one’s own action without
the assistance of any supreme or supernatural being. Followers are guided by the
teachings of Siddhartha as lay people offer gifts to Siddhartha and the sangha during
days of worship and observance.
In Buddhism, stupas are commemorative monuments that contain sacred
relics associated with Siddhartha himself, and the venerable monks and nuns. These
burial mounds predate Buddhism as ancient Indian kings and heroes were housed in
stupas. With the death of Siddhartha, his body was cremated and his ashes were
divided among eight followers and preserved in eight stupas (Toula-Breysse 2001).
None of these stupas remain fully intact as of today. With a million stupas located all
over Asia, not all stupas house Siddhartha’s relics. Others contain artefacts of his
revered disciples, or his image, writings, or teachings. Nevertheless, stupas
represent Siddhartha’s body, speech, and mind. The design of the stupa depicts the
path to enlightenment. In time, stupas became pilgrimage sites as they were covered
in earth and decorated with Siddhartha’s life. In Tibet, the stupa was transformed into
a chorten. Elsewhere, it became a pagoda in Southeast and East Asia.
Most Buddhists aspire to visit many holy shrines as possible during their
lifetime for this is an admirable deed. Siddhartha himself pronounced four to which
every Buddhist must give high regard. These include his birthplace, the place of his
enlightenment, the place of his first sermon, and the place of his parinirvana (Brown
1975). To anyone who undertakes pilgrimage to these sacred places and dies while
travelling, this could bring about rebirth beyond death in a blissful world.

27
 In Sri Lanka, many pilgrims visit Adam’s Peak or Sri Pada, a tall conical
mountain popular for the mark of the sacred footprint of Siddhartha (for Buddhists)
and Adam (for Christians). For several hours, pilgrims climb the mountain amidst
arduous paths and thousands of steps. Most pilgrims undertake the journey every
month of April.
For Buddhist celebrations, the most important festival occurs every May on
the night of the full moon as Buddhist followers around the world commemorate the
birth, enlightenment, and death of Siddhartha about 2,500 years ago. Known as
Vesakha or Vesak, it is also known as “Buddha Purnima” or “Buddha Day.” Vesak
refers to the lunar month that falls in May and “Vesak Day” is the holiest day for all
Buddhists. Celebrated with immense festivity, Buddhists send out thoughts of
affectionate benevolence to the living and to the departed ones. They also perform
rituals at stupas.
Most festivals celebrated in the Buddhist tradition are frequently happy
occasions. Lay people proceed to the monasteries and offer food to the sangha as
they meditate and listen to the sermons. Most Buddhist celebrations are held to
commemorate important events in the life of Siddhartha. Apart from Buddhist New
Year, other celebrations include Magha Puja Day (Sangha Day), Asalha Puja Day
(Dhamma Day), Uposatha (Observance Day), Pavarana Day, Kathina Day, and
Bodhi Day (Enlightenment Day).
Magha Puja Day occurs during the full moon of the third lunar month. It
commemorates the event where Siddhartha went to Rajgir to meet and ordain the
1250 arhats in Venuvana Monastery. Two of his chief disciples, namely, Sariputta
and Moggallana, were present during the assembly. Meanwhile, Asalha Puja Day
commemorates Siddhartha’s first teaching (or the turning of the wheel of the
dharma) held near Benares. During this time, the monk Kondanna reached the first
level of enlightenment.

SUBDIVISIONS

Theravada is the more conservative subdivision of Buddhism than Mahayana.

Thus, it is closer to the fundamental teachings of Siddhartha. Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
and Thailand are predominantly Theravada Buddhists. During the third century
B.C.E., the Indian emperor Ashoka Maurya, who ruled between 269 B.C.E. to 232
B.C.E., propagated Buddhism in Sri Lanka that has remained relatively unchanged
through time as a result of its rather peaceful history (Mizuno 1987; Hopfe 1983).
Ashoka’s son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra established Buddhism in then
Ceylon.
The subdivisions of Theravada that existed during the early history of Sri
Lanka can be traced from the three monasteries of Mahavihara, Abhayagiri vihara,
and Jetavana. The Mahavihara or “Great Monastery” of Anuradhapura was founded
by the king Devanampiya Tissa who ruled between 307 B.C.E. to 267 B.C.E.
Another major monastery in Sri Lanka was the Abhayagiri vihara where an ancient
stupa still stands today, the Abhayagiri Dagaba. The Abhayagiri Dagaba was
established by the king Valagamba between 89 B.C.E. and 77 B.C.E. Lastly,

28
Jetavana is another popular monastery founded by the king Mahasena who ruled
between 277 B.C.E. and 304 C.E. The layout of the Jetavana monastery is similar to
the Abhayagiri vihara though smaller in dimensions.

SELECTED ISSUES

War and Violence

In Buddhism, war is evil or akusala and some scholars state that it has no
rationalization in Siddhartha’s teachings. However, there are instances wherein
Buddhist monks engaged themselves in open conflict, such as those that occurred in
China and Japan. Quite recently, monks have been in the forefront of political and
social activism in Asia, such as Myanmar’s “Saffron Revolution” in 2007 and the
Tibet demonstrations in 2008. While most monks advocate non-violence, Sri Lankan
monks are part of the “Jathika Hela Urumaya” or the National Heritage Party, a
political party founded in 2004 that supports military solutions to the country’s
ongoing civil war.

When Buddhists defend their nations, home, and family, this may not be
necessarily wrong as the religion’s morality is based upon principles, not rules. It is
not righteous to ignore a circumstance when innocent civilians are killed and
slaughtered. Buddhists are taught not to yield to any form of evil power, whether
originating from humans or supernatural beings. They are compelled to go to war
when other people do not value the concept of brotherhood as preached by
Siddhartha. They may defend and protect their country’s sovereignty and have the
duty to join in the struggle for amity and liberty. However, following Siddhartha’s
teachings, everyone is encouraged to avoid hostilities and instead find ways to
resolve disagreements in a peaceful manner.

Women in Buddhism

Historically speaking, Siddhartha allowed women to participate in the sangha

although there were some stipulations. Siddhartha’s outlook is very different when
one considers the status of women in ancient India as being viewed as inferior to
men. Considered at times belonging to the lowest caste, women’s principal role was
to become faithful and devoted housewives subject to the whims of their husbands.
In Buddhism, however, both sexes are seen as equally relevant in society as they
share equal responsibilities in their family duties. Within the sangha, Siddhartha
recognized the potential and value of the bhikkunis who were also experts in
teaching the dharma. These include Dhammadina, Khema, and Uppalavanna.

WHAT'S MORE
29
 Lets’ Practice!

Complete the diagram below. Write your answer in your notebook.

30
 WHAT I CAN DO

Let’s Do It!

Answer the questions in paragraph form. Write your answer in your notebook.
1. Why is Buddhism considered one of the most practical among the world’s
great religions?
2. In what aspects are Buddhism similar to and different from Hinduism?
3. How can Buddhism affect change on powerful countries that use war to gain
political and/ or economic advantages?
4. Why does Buddha believe that one must truly understand the “Four Noble
Truths” and “The Middle Way” before beginning the “Noble Eightfold Path”?

RUBRIC FOR ESSAY

POINTS
CRITERIA DESCRIPTION POINTS
OBTAINED

31
 The content was well-thought of;
Content guide questions were thoroughly 8
answered
The paper was well-written with
Organization 6
ideas easily conveyed to readers.
Developmen
Points are thoroughly developed 6
t
Total 20

POST ASSESSMENT

Let’s Answer this!

B. Matching Type. Match the terms in Column A to their equivalent meanings in

Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer.
Column A Column B
__________1. people who achieve nirvana a. Khandas
__________2. Siddharta Gautama’s ascetic life in the forest b. Dukkha
__________3. the only surviving most sacred text of c. Sangha
Theravada Buddhism d. Great
__________4. mental and physical aggregates of the soul Renunciation
__________5. commemorative monuments that contain e. Law of
sacred relics Dependent
__________6. Pali term for suffering or dissatisfaction Origination
__________7. monks who share in the alms of the community f. Mahavihara
__________8. monastery founded by Devanampiya Tissa g. Arhat
__________9. “When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; h. Mara
When this is not, that is not; This ceasing, i. Stupas
that ceases” j. Tripitaka
_________10. personified evil forces that torment the minds of
humankind
B. Complete the table by filling in the blanks with the correct answer. Choose the
answer from the list below. Write your answers in your notebook.

untruthfulness tale-bearing single object

32
 living thing killing Four Noble Truths
overcome feeling maintain

Eightfold Path What One Must Do

Right View
Understand the “_________________________ ” 1
Right Intention
Free one’s self from ill-will, cruelty, and ______________________ 2
Right Speech
Abstain from untruthfulness, ____________________, 3 harsh language, and vain
talk Right Action
Abstain from ____________________, 4 stealing, and sexual misconduct
Right Livelihood
Earn a living in a way not harmful to any__________________________ 5
Right Effort
Avoid evil thoughts and ______________________ 6 them, arouse good thoughts
and
______________________7 them
Right Mindfulness
Pay vigilant attention to every state of the body, _____________________, 8 and
mind
Right Concentration
Concentrate on a _____________________________ 9 object so as to induce
certain special states of consciousness in deep meditation

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Let’s Remember This!

Complete the paragraph with the necessary words or sentences that best describe
what you have learned from the discussion. Write your paragraph in your notebook.
Follow the format below.

I have learned that Theravada Buddhism_______________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3

MAHAYANA33BUDDHISM
 WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

Learning Competency 1:
Analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and
related issues of Mahayana Buddhism.

Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. describe Mahayana Buddhism;
2. discuss the teachings or sacred scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism;
3. recognize the Mahayana Buddhism doctrines or beliefs;
4. describe the worship and observances of Mahayana Buddhism; and
5. explain the issues facing Mahayana Buddhism;

General Instructions
Now that you are holding this module, do the following:
1. Read and follow instructions carefully in each lesson.
2. Take note and record points for clarification.
3. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
4. Answer all the given tests and exercises.

Let’s Recall!

1. It is one of the most practical among the world’s great religions.

2. is followed in Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka.

WHAT I KNOW

34
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.

1) The two major Buddhist schools of Mahayana and Theravada both originated in
the foundational teachings of ________________.
a. Ashoka c. Siddhartha Gautama
b. Kong Fuzi d. Vishnu

2) ______________ is a canonical text which contains the collection of Buddha’s

teachings.
a. Quran c. Tripitaka
b. Sutra d. Vedas

3) Which sacred text is presented as a discourse by Siddhartha Gautama before his

eventual death?
a. Abhidarma Pitaka c. Sutra Pitaka
b. Lotus Sutra d. Vinaya Pitaka

4) For ____________, only the historical Buddha and past Buddhas are accepted.
For ____________, there are other contemporary and popular Buddhas apart
from the historical Buddha.
a. Hinduism, Theravada c. Mahayana, Theravada
b. Mahayana, Hinduism d. Theravada, Mahayana

5) The concept of __________ pertains to the teaching of Mahayana Buddhism

about the nature of the Buddha and reality.
a. bodhisattva c. paramita
b. bhumis d. trikaya

6) One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an

enlightened being or ____________ which is the ultimate way for any Buddhist to
live in this world.
a. bodhicitta c. buddha
b. bodhisattva d. paramita

7) ___________ is the spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being

enlightened.
a. bodhicitta c. buddha
b. bodhisattva d. paramita

8) In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva must pass ____________ before attaining

Buddha-hood, frequently associated with the perfections or ____________.
a. bodhicitta, bhumis c. bhumis, paramita
b. bodhicitta, paramita d. paramita, bhumis

9) While the first five paramitas are principally concerned with the accumulation of
merits, the sixth paramita involves the attainment of _________.
a. knowledge c. skills
b. love d. wisdom

35
10) Which of the following is NOT a worship practice and observance of Mahayana
Buddhism?
a. do meditational activities c. recite prayers and chants
b. offer meat and incense d. undertake pilgrimages

11) For _____________when believers die, it is their objective to live in the

Sukhavati, by simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost attentiveness
many times during the day.
a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Sect d. Socio-political Sect

12) __________, which is purely a Japanese phenomenon, perceives itself as the

only rightful version of Buddhism.
a. Nichiren Buddhism c. Tibetan Buddhism
b. Pure Land Buddhism d. Zen Buddhism

13) The _________ emphasize that salvation is a personal matter and one cannot
receive assistance from other entities, such as another person or institution, to
realize the inner truths of religion.
a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Sect d. Socio-political Sect

14) The use of chants and yoga is also part of ____________.

a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Buddhism d. Tibetan Buddhism

15) The ____________ is the most prominent face of Tibetan Buddhism who has
been living in exile in India since he fled Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959.
a. Buddha c. Imam
b. Dalai Lama d. Pope

WHAT’S NEW

In the previous lesson, you have learned what Theravada Buddhism is about,
and how its followers' belief of salvation is attained without the assistance of any
supreme or supernatural being. You have also cited the life story of Siddhartha
Gautama and its influence on the teachings of Buddhism.
In this lesson, another version of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism will
be discussed, which sprang out from monastic rule and doctrinal differences within
the original form of Buddhism.

36
 Activity 4.1: Mahayana Buddhism Chant
Listen to a Buddhist chant that will be provided by your teacher. What are your
impressions, insights, and initial thoughts about the practice of Buddhist
meditation? Share your experience and feelings after listening to the music.

WHAT IS IT

Believing itself as the more genuine version of Buddha’s teachings,

Mahayana Buddhism has diverged into numerous schools with each developing its
own canon and rituals since its founding more than two thousand years ago. Also
known as the “Great Vehicle,” Mahayana Buddhism emerged out of monastic rule
and doctrinal differences within the original form of Buddhism. While the two major
Buddhist schools of Mahayana and Theravada both originated in the foundational
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, their methods and search for liberation from the
cycle of reincarnation can be very different. They may be viewed as two different
articulations of the original principles of the historical Buddha. For example, in
contrast to the Theravada school of thought, Mayahana Buddhism aims to extend
religious authority to a larger number of people.
Not a single group but more of an assembly of Buddhist customs, Mahayana
Buddhism is widespread in China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and Tibet. With its
openness to more traditional religious views, it has developed a wide appeal to
common people and gained tremendous ground in becoming one of the most
successful missionary religions in the world (Hopfe 1983).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
During the third century B.C.E., a number of subtle variations began to take
place in Buddhism at a time when the Mauryan king Ashoka was propagating
Buddhist gospels through missionary efforts (Hopfe 1983). The Mahasamghika (“of
the Great Sangha”), one of the early Buddhist schools, may have been the source
for the initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism, especially during the “Second Buddhist
Council” that occurred a hundred years after Buddha’s parinirvana. Considered a
historical event, a religious schism between the Mahasamghika and Sthavira nikaya
(“Sect of the Elders”), another major Buddhist school, transpired during the said
council. These new ideas eventually concretized resulting in a new form of Buddhism
quite different from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama and to

37
those accepted by Theravada Buddhists. In short, Mahayana Buddhism practically
became a new religion.
These new developments within the newfound Buddhist sect comprise a set
of differing notions pertaining to the original founder and great teacher Siddhartha
Gautama himself. Firstly, Mahayana Buddhists believed that Siddhartha secretly
taught key principles to chosen people, to his most dedicated disciples, or to the
most faithful who could completely interpret these teachings in time (Hopfe 1983;
Losch 2001). Simply put, any new teaching can now be added to the emerging
Buddhist faith. Secondly, Mahayana Buddhists forwarded the concept that
Siddhartha Gautama was actually a benevolent celestial being, not just a mere
human being. Because of his love for humankind and zeal to help the people, he
came to our world in human form. Thirdly, Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical
idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only Buddha. There were other divine
beings that came to our world even before Siddhartha, some of them came after him,
and still others will come in the future. Principally, these beings came to earth to help
lessen people’s sufferings and lead them to salvation. This unique concept
impressed many followers because they can now revere these beings, study their
lives, construct temples, and develop an innovative belief system replete with rituals
and hymns, among others (Hopfe 1983).
In time, missionaries of Mahayana Buddhism were able to penetrate new
places without fear of reprisal from native religions since deities or local gods can be
treated as manifestations or incarnations of Buddha. Other religions could be
absorbed by Mahayana Buddhism by way of this key principle in their proselytizing
activities. While Theravada was the first to enter China during the first century C.E.,
Buddhism did not gain much ground here not until the arrival of Mahayana in the
third century C.E. In time, Mahayana Buddhism took a major foothold of China while
local beliefs were relegated to lesser stature (Hopfe 1983). Korea was the next
territory to be influenced by Mahayana school around the fourth century C.E. and
followed by Japan in the sixth century C.E. Mahayana Buddhism existed alongside
Japan’s native religion Shintoism. Mongolia and Tibet likewise embraced Mahayana
Buddhism. All these places developed their own versions of Mahayana Buddhism
that exist up until the present day.
Ironically, while Buddhism was being propagated and gaining support in other
countries even to the remotest places, it was steadily dying in India where it all
started. A series of invasions destroyed numerous Buddhist centers and temples.
The rising tide of Islam in India resulted in the forcible conversion of Buddhists to the
Muslim faith. Meanwhile, Hinduism was able to gradually absorb challenging
religions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, due to its tolerance and openness to other
belief systems. The Hindu belief that Siddhartha Gautama was a manifestation of
Vishnu contributed to the fading influence of Buddhism in India. Mahayana
Buddhism disappeared in India during the eleventh century. Quite expectedly, only a
handful of Indians became truly Buddhists leading to contemporary times.
Nonetheless, Mahayana Buddhism is still the most popular branch of Buddhism in
the world today.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

38
 While the Mahayana branch accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada
school, such as the Tripitaka (Sanskrit word for “Three Baskets”) which is the
collection of Buddha’s teachings, it also has a wide array of philosophical and
devotional texts, especially since Mahayana Buddhism initially became more
receptive to change and to subsequent innovations even from indigenous culture.
Mahayana Buddhism includes many sacred writings which are nearly identical in
content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect. The canon of Mahayana
Buddhism also consists of the Tripitaka, namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya
Pitaka (Discipline), and Abhidharma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine). Meanwhile,
Mahayana Buddhists have teachings or sutras not present in the Theravada school
and the followers believed they have recovered the original teachings of the Buddha.
In fact, principal scriptures of the Mahayana sect have no parallels in the Pali Canon
(Jurji 1946).
From the many Asian countries and territories that embraced the Buddhist
faith, there arose distinct and large canon of sutras and religious expressions that
Theravada school does not have or does not even recognize as legitimate. As the
original language of transmission, Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit rather
than the Pali form of common terms strictly used in Theravada Buddhism, such as
sutra (or sutta in Pali) and dharma (or dhamma in Pali). Buddhist texts were also
translated in the local vernacular. The Mahayana school possesses innumerable
figures often lacking in the Theravada literature, including the bodhisattvas, demons,
divinities, and other spirits.
One of the most popular and prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) is
the Lotus Sutra, or the Saddharmapundarika-sutra that literally means "correct
dharma white lotus sutra" or “Sutra of the Lotus of the Wonderful Law” in Sanskrit. A
sutra pertains to one of the discourses of the historical Buddha that comprise the
basic text of Buddhist sacred writing. The teachings of Siddhartha Gautama are
generally recorded in a wide corpus of sutras and often taking the form of dialogues
instead of analytically explicating a certain viewpoint. Siddhartha sought to provide
answers even to the most basic questions concerning human existence. The Lotus
Sutra is presented as a discourse conveyed by Siddhartha Gautama before his
eventual death. Mahayana tradition maintains that while the sutras were recorded
during Siddhartha Gautama’s lifetime, these sutras were kept for 500 years and
reintroduced only during the “Fourth Buddhist Council” in Kashmir in 78 C.E.
While these sutras were assembled years after the death of Siddhartha
Gautama, the Lotus Sutra may have been authored by more than one writer and
compiled between the first and second century C.E. In fact, the oldest portion of the
Lotus Sutra may have been written between 100 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. A Chinese
version was translated from the original Sanskrit in 255 C.E. making it the earliest
record of such existence in history.
The Lotus Sutra contains the most definitive teachings of the Buddha.
Pervading most schools of Buddhism in China, Korea, and Japan by way of the
northern transmission, reciting the texts of the Lotus Sutra is considered propitious.
A key idea within the influential sutra is that all people equally and inherently
possess the so-called “Buddha nature” or “Buddha-hood” which is the condition of
complete happiness and freedom from fear and illusions. In short, the attainment of

39
enlightenment is open to all people regardless of gender, race, social status, and
education.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, born in the fifth or sixth century C.E. in present-day
Nepal, is considered the historical Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism. After he attained
enlightenment at the age of 35, he came to be known as Gautama Buddha and
spent the rest of his life preaching across India. He died at the age of 80. For
Theravada Buddhism, only the historical Buddha and past Buddhas are accepted.
For Mahayana Buddhism, there are other contemporary and popular Buddhas apart
from the historical Buddha.
The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of Mahayana
Buddhism about the nature of the Buddha and reality. While Theravada Buddhism
puts very limited emphasis on trikaya, this doctrine is very well-mentioned in
Mahayana Buddhism which states that each Buddha has three bodies, namely,
dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. The table below summarizes the
nature of the three bodies of Buddha.

The dharmakaya is identical with perfect enlightenment that is absolute and

beyond existence or non-existence. Everyone is capable of attaining this special
place which is beyond perceptual forms. As a body of bliss, the state of
sambhogakaya is already enlightened but remains distinctive. Believed to be a
remuneration of one’s aggregated positive deeds, it serves as a crossing point
between the two other trikayas of Buddha. Lastly, nirmanakaya is the physical body
that undergoes birth, inhabits the world, and dies in the end. The great teacher
Siddhartha Gautama is an example of a Buddha in a state of nirmanakaya.
For Mahayana Buddhists, Buddhas are not individuals who actually lived in
this world. In some ways, they are simply expressions of the one Buddha reality,
such as that of Siddhartha Gautama (Brown 1975). These great Buddhas are to be
found in various heavens enshrined together with other gods and saints. In China,
Amitabha is a very popular Buddha. In Japan, Vairocana is the great Buddha.

Bodhisattvas

40
 One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an
enlightened being or bodhisattva (“enlightened existence”) which is the ultimate way
for any Buddhist to live in this world. A bodhisattva has generated bodhicitta or the
spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being enlightened. The concept of
bodhicitta greatly differs between the two main schools of Buddhism. The teachings
of Theravada place a great emphasis on self-liberation where there is a total reliance
on one’s self to eradicate sufferings. On the other hand, apart from self-liberation, it
is also essential for Mahayana adherents to assist other sentient beings in their
quest for liberation. The attainment of nirvana is not confined to one’s self as an
arhat (“perfected one”) but must be shared to all striving beings (Bowker 1997).
A bodhisattva, who is already eligible to enter final enlightenment by
perfecting himself through countless incarnations, opts to forego the right to enter
nirvana and decides to be born again into this evil world to assist others in attaining
the same state, even descending to the depths of lowest hells to rescue ill-fated
victims imprisoned there (Jurji 1946; Murphy 1949). Through skilful ways, a
bodhisattva has the capacity to determine the state of mind and emotion of each
person thereby facilitating assistance based on the actual needs. The concept of
bodhisattva helped in explaining the life of Siddhartha Gautama before he died, as
depicted in the jataka tales or birth stories of the historical Buddha.
The path of the bodhisattva can also be taken by any ordinary person, which
is a way of selflessness so that one can also be liberated from all forms of suffering
in the cycle of rebirth. Frequently depicted as celestial beings who answer the
prayers of those who need help, bodhisattvas are embodiment of great compassion.
Numerous devotions and meditational texts have been developed that revered these
benevolent beings. As a result, Mahayana Buddhism as a polytheistic belief
continued to grow in time along with its pantheon of bodhisattvas. Nevertheless,
bodhisattvas from those countries that embraced Mahayana Buddhism differ
significantly from one another, such as those that were adopted in China and Japan.
While Maitreya (“Buddha of the Future”) is the only accepted bodhisattva in
Theravada Buddhism, oriental Mahayana Buddhism has four other principal
bodhisattvas, namely, Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Ksitigarbha, and
Samanthabhadra. Avalokiteshvara is the most revered and most popular Buddhist
deity among all bodhisattvas, being the personification of perfect compassion,
probably representing in Buddhism the sun-god Vishnu of the older Hinduism
(Murphy 1949). Manjushri is the embodiment of wisdom, intelligence, and willpower.
Ksitigarbha is the one who helps and liberates all sentient beings residing in hell.
Samanthabhadra is the representation of love, virtue, and diligence. Mayahana
Buddhism encourages everyone to pursue the path of a bodhisattva, assume their
vows, and work for the absolute enlightenment of all living beings.

Bhumis and Paramitas

Based on the Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva must pass 10 bhumis
(“grounds” of “land”) before attaining the so-called “Buddha-hood.” These are
extensions of the “Eightfold Path” as discussed in the previous lesson on Theravada
Buddhism. The bhumis are frequently associated with the paramitas (“perfections”).
Translated as “to cross over the other shore,” paramitas imply crossing from the “sea

41
of suffering” to the “shore of happiness.” One is lifted from the cycle of rebirth to
finally achieve liberation. While the first five paramitas are principally concerned with
the accumulation of merits, the sixth paramita involves the attainment of wisdom.
Several Mahayana texts identify 10 bhumis, but many schools list their own
path to development. A boddhisattva vow is stated as “May I attain Buddhahood for
the benefit of all sentient beings.” The 10 bhumis as lifted from Avatamsaka Sutra or
“Flower Garland Sutra,” one of the most influential sutra of Mahayana Buddhism in
East Asia, are listed below:

42
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES
Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional
rituals with the objective of aiding worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment
and in bringing blessings to each and every one. In Buddhist temples, they pray and
chant to pay their respect to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as
Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and Amitabha. They also offer vegetarian food and light
incense to pay homage to these important divine beings. Mahayana temples are
sacred spaces. While only a simple temple layout can be seen in Theravada
Buddhism with an image of Siddhartha Gautama as the focal point of worship,
Mahayana rituals can be quite elaborate with the addition of other disciples of
Siddhartha Gautama and
important bodhisattvas.
Worshippers also recite chants and undertake pilgrimages to sites of Buddhist
importance. Meditational activities are fundamental in almost all popular forms of
Buddhism. For Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism, the practice of meditation
is the only means to attain liberation. With the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in
other places, local culture influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhist
practices. The lotus that symbolizes purity, the eight-spoke wheels that represent the
dharma, and the different hand gestures (mudras) are important symbols for
Mahayana Buddhism.

SUBDIVISIONS
Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and family of religions.
When the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism spread in many Asian nations, it
acquired new concepts from these localities that found articulation in many ritualistic
practices and divine figures.
The more philosophical side of Indian Mahayana Buddhism was developed
within the context of the two major schools, namely, the Madhyamika and the
Yogachara (Adams 1965). The first school to emerge is the Madhyamika
(“Intermediate”) whose adherents stress the transformation of human perception to
handle the truth of that which is ultimately real beyond any duality. On the other
hand, Yogachara (“Practice of Yoga”) thinkers emphasize that the truth a human
being perceives does not exist.

The Pure Land Sect

Pure Land Buddhism began in India around the second century B.C.E.,
spread to China by the second century C.E., and reached Japan around sixth
century C.E. When believers die, it is their objective to live in the “Pure Land of the
West” or Sukhavati. By simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost
attentiveness many times during the day, they may be reborn in this paradise where
they can work to achieve enlightenment much easier. Amitabha, the god who
supervises over a western paradise, is the focus of this sect. Once in Sukhavati,
people can experience the delight in hearing Amitabha teach the dharma in
preparation for their entry to nirvana. Aside from meditations, this Buddhist sect
utilizes chants and recitations to focus on helpful thoughts (Losch 2001).

43
 In Japan, by simplifying sect practices, such as those done by the monk
Honen in the twelfth century, this attracted many followers to the sect Jodo
Buddhism or Jodo-shu (“The Pure Land School”) founded in 1175. Those people
who are not able to carry out meditational intricacies and the long ritualistic practices
can still attain enlightenment by simply reciting the name of Amitabha with utmost
and genuine faith. It was a form of Buddhism made accessible to everyone.
An offshoot of Pure Land Buddhism is the Shin Buddhism or Jodo Shin-shu
(“True Pure Land School”) founded by another Japanese monk Shinran during the
thirteenth century. A disciple of Honan, Shinran preached the primacy of faith and
considered the act of chanting having no value at all.

The Intuitive Sects

The establishment of intuitive sects of Buddhism can be traced around sixth
century C.E. to the work of an Indian monk named Bodhidharma whose life stories
are shrouded with mysteries and numerous legends (Murphy 1949). This concept
entered China from India, and then carried onward to Korea and Japan. In China, it
came to be known as Ch’an. Ch’an Buddhism has close affinity with Taoist
philosophy because both are kinds of mysticism (Jurji 1946). In Japan, it reached its
peak with the development of Zen which is a blend of Indian Mahayana Buddhism
and Daoism. Followers of this school are called meditative Buddhists. Focusing on
meditation as the path to liberation, Zen Buddhism is basically a monastic discipline
(Losch 2001). The word for “meditation” in India is dhyana, ch’an in China, and zen
in Japan.
The intuitive sects emphasize that salvation is a personal matter and one
cannot receive assistance from other entities, such as another person or institution,
to realize the inner truths of religion. In short, most elements of religion—from
scriptures, temples, statues, prayers, and rituals—are not essential to achieve
enlightenment. An individual may be spiritually enlightened by a sudden spark of
insight, either through meditation or even by accident, beyond words or thoughts.
Modern European thinkers have been attracted to Zen Buddhism because of its
concept on simplicity and intuitive inspiration (Brown 1975).

The Rationalist Sect

A rationalist Buddhist school of thought called T’ien-t’ai emerged around the
sixth century C.E. with its name originating from a mountain in southeastern China
where its founder Chih-I or Zhiyi lived. Apart from meditational practices, this sect
taught that one must utilize reason and study the scriptures and doctrines to discover
Buddhist truths (Hopfe 1983). Chih-I emphasized that acts of studying and
contemplation were both vital for spiritual enlightenment. Apart from instructions on
the scriptures and silent meditation, other means to reach this goal include mystical
communion with the eternal, ascetic discipline, meritorious deeds, and simple faith in
the mercy of the Buddha (Jurji 1946).
There is a need to integrate Buddhist sacred writings to know the truth, with
the Lotus Sutra being revered as its ultimate writing. In 806 C.E., the teachings of
Chih-I were introduced in Japan by the monk Saicho that came to be known as

44
Tendai. During the eleventh century, the Buddhist monk Uicheon established the
Cheontae Buddhist school in Korea.

The Socio-political Sect

A Japanese Buddhist monk by the name of Nichiren Daishonin who lived
during the thirteenth century during the Kamakura period began to teach that the
path towards attaining enlightenment rested solely on the devotion to the Lotus
Sutra. Nichiren (“sun lotus”) Buddhism, which is purely a Japanese phenomenon,
perceives itself as the only rightful version of Buddhism.
Nichiren Buddhism teaches that individuals must take responsibility to
enhance themselves, or what is called “human revolution,” and, in turn, to improve
the world’s lot. Enlightenment is accessible to every individual on earth simply by
opening one’s inherent Buddha-nature in this world. A scripture scholar and an
activist, Nichiren himself is considered a Buddha.
Nichiren taught that he alone understood Buddhist truths. He believed that
other Buddhist sects in Japan were corrupting the people towards hell. As he was
living in a degraded stage, Japanese society was also in a state of disarray. For his
missionary work and excessive criticism of rival Buddhist sects in Japan, he made
many influential enemies. Nichiren also reproached Japanese authority because of
its failure to promote the Lotus Sutra and for allowing fraudulent Buddhist sects to
flourish in the country. To him, religion and patriotism were one (Jurji 1946). For his
staunch belief and frequent government opposition, he was twice exiled and twice
condemned to death. Although some of his disciples were executed, he refused to
renege in his principles. In 1274, he was given freedom and cleared of his wrongful
acts. He died in 1282.
The Nichiren sect of Buddhism is an example of a religious group that came
to have an effect in the socio-political dimension of Japan (Hopfe 1983). Present-day
schools of Nichiren Buddhism include Soka Gakkai, Nichiren Shoshu, and Nichiren
Shu.

Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhism was officially introduced into Tibet around the seventh century C.E.
during the reign of Songtsan Gampo, considered the founder of the Tibetan Empire.
He was influenced by his Chinese and Indian wives who were both Buddhist
followers. Buddhism became a dominant force in the region toward the end of the
eight century C.E. when the king Trisong Detsen decreed it as the official state
religion.

While the theological foundation of Tibetan Buddhism is similar to that of

Mahayana Buddhism, the isolation of the region allowed for the development of
many features that were incorporated into the growing Buddhist school in Tibetan
land. Essentially Mahayana in nature, Tibetan Buddhism borrowed tantric and
shamanic attributes, as well as elements from Tibet’s native religion called Bon. A
pre-Buddhistic religion, Bon was a kind of shamanism where spirits and deities were
revered (Parrinder 1971). Ancient Bon rituals were concerned with the performance
of magic, incantations, and spells, and in the protection of people from unwanted

45
demons prowling in the dark (Hopfe 1983). Because the people’s lives, innumerable
spirits, and fierce demons must be propitiated or controlled by magic spells and
formulas out of fear (Jurji 1946). When Buddhism entered Tibet, it adapted to the
local belief system thereby producing rituals and practices that were to some extent
different from other Mahayana traditions. For example, the most distinct Buddhist
symbol is the pagoda or stupa which has a Tibetan form in the chorten (Parrinder
1971; Bowker 1997))
One major distinguishing feature of Tibetan Buddhism is the use of magic as
a coping mechanism in the Tibetan way of life (Hopfe 1983). The use of chants and
yoga is also part of Tibetan Buddhism. For utilizing manuals (tantra) for one’s
magical instructions to handle the unknown, it is also known as Tantric Buddhism.
Buddhas and bodhisattvas are also present in the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism.
Other special features of Tibetan Buddhism include the preoccupation with the
relationship between life and death, the important role of rituals and initiations, the
use of rich visual symbolisms, and the use of meditation practices. The four major
schools of Tibetan Buddhism include Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug.
Tibetan Buddhism has its own set of clergy, the lamas, and they are
commonly senior members of the monastic community. In fact, of all the Buddhist
sanghas, the Tibetan sect has developed the most elaborate of clergy (Wach 1949).
The term lama means “the superior one” and lamas are quite frequently the
reincarnations of previous lamas. The Dalai Lama is the most prominent face of
Tibetan Buddhism who has been living in exile in India since he fled Chinese
occupation of Tibet in 1959. The term dalai means “ocean” in Mongol referring to the
vastness and depth of the person. The current and fourteenth Dalai Lama is Tenzin
Gyatso who is the leader of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and is believed to
be a reincarnation of Avalokisteshvara. Until 1959, the chief residence of the Dalai
Lama was a thirteen-storey high structure called the Potala Palace located at the
Red Hill in Lhasa, Tibet. Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it has now been
transformed into a museum but remains a sacred place for many Tibetans.

SELECTED ISSUES

Tibet Invasion
For centuries, both China and India have been claiming Tibet as part of their
territories. Tibet practically enjoyed some degree of independence as none of the
claimants pressed their claim. In 1950, however, China annexed Tibet and
negotiated the so-called “Seventeen Point Agreement” with the government of the
fourteenth Dalai Lama. Rejected repeatedly by the Dalai Lama, this document
confirmed China’s authority over Tibet, but the area was granted autonomy. In 1959,
the Dalai Lama failed in his bid to oust China’s puppet rule as the Tibetan uprising
was defeated by the more powerful Chinese force. The Dalai Lama, together with his
followers escaped to India, and are now living there as refugees.
With the implementation of Mao Zedong’s “Great Leap Forward” from 1958 to
1961, or China’s socio-economic campaign to transform the country into a socialist
society, between 200,000 to 1,000,000 Tibetans tragically met their death. During
Mao Zedong’s “Cultural Revolution,” a socio-political movement from 1966 to 1976

46
aimed at eliminating capitalism and traditionalism from China, around 6,000
monasteries were destroyed. Tragically, China’s occupation of Tibet has led to
countless deaths of many Buddhist monks, nuns, and laiety who wished to continue
their religious practices in their native land (Douglas 2007).
From 1959 to 1977, almost all elements of Tibetan Buddhism were
obliterated. While many hundred thousand Tibetans were killed, others were driven
to exile. Presently, the Dalai Lama has been continuously visiting other countries
preaching a message of hope and peace. He has been given numerous citations for
various international advocacies and teaching activities, such as the Ramon
Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership (1959), Nobel Peace Prize (1989),
U.S. Congressional Gold Medal (2007), and Templeton Prize (2012).

Engaged Activism
Ritual suicides led by Buddhist monks have transpired in the twentieth century
as a form of protest to governmental actions. For example, a crisis occurred between
Buddhists and the South Vietnamese government led by Ngo Dinh Diem in the
1960s that had tremendous effect in politics, militancy, and religious tolerance
(Braswell 1994). As a result of persecutions undertaken by the government against
Buddhists, monks began to lambast the regime that eventually resulted in the self-
immolation of Thich Quang Duc, a Vietnamese Mayahana Buddhist monk. He
voluntarily burned himself to death in a busy Saigon road intersection in 1963. Later
on, several other monks followed his example. The regime tried in vain to suppress
Buddhist resistance through massive retaliation and nation-wide assaults in Buddhist
pagodas. Temples were defaced, monks were beaten, and Quanc Duc’s cremated
remains were confiscated. Eventually, the regime lost support from the US and an
army coup brought down Diem. Amid religious protests and non-violent struggle,
Diem was assassinated in 1963.
In Japan, a militant and missionary form of Buddhism was founded in 1930
called the Soka Gakkai, a religious movement based on the teachings of Nichiren
Buddhism. During the Second World War, the group temporarily disbanded only to
emerge mightily after the war. After its hiatus, the members of this group grew
rapidly while employing hard-line and contentious recruitment methods, including
coercion, fear, intimidation, and the use of threats. A political party was even formed
by Soka Gakkai, the Komeito, that became the third most powerful in Japan.

47
 WHAT’S MORE

Activity 4.2: Core Concepts in Diagrams

Complete the following diagrams with the correct answers.

TRIPITAKA

__________________ __________________ __________________

Description: _________ Description: _________ Description: _________

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

48
 TRIKAYA

__________________ __________________ __________________

Description: _________ Description: _________ Description: _________

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

PARAMITA

Description: Description: Description: Description: Description: Description:

__________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________

SUBDIVISIONS

Description: Description: Description: Description: Description:

__________ __________ __________ __________ __________

WHAT I CAN DO

Activity 4.3: Brochure about Mahayana Buddhism

49
 With your understanding of the concepts of Mahayana Buddhism, make a
brochure which features the doctrines and practices of it such as Four Noble
Truths, Eight-fold Path, and The Six Perfections to Become a Bodhisattva.
Rubric for Brochure
Criteria Description Points
Content Information used are 10
accurate, and made use
of multiple references.
Presentation The ideas are clearly and 8
creatively presented
based on the illustrations
and words used.
Organization The ideas are clearly 7
organized and conveyed.
TOTAL 25

POST ASSESSMENT

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.

1) The use of chants and yoga is also part of ____________.

a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Buddhism d. Tibetan Buddhism

2) _______________ is the spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being

enlightened.
a. bodhicitta c. buddha
b. bodhisattva d. paramita

3) ______________ is a canonical text which contains the collection of Buddha’s

teachings.
a. Quran c. Tripitaka
b. Sutra d. Vedas
4) Which of the following is NOT a worship practice and observance of
Mahayana Buddhism?
a. do meditational activities c. recite prayers and chants
b. offer meat and incense d. undertake pilgrimages

50
5) Which sacred text is presented as a discourse by Siddhartha Gautama before
his eventual death?
a. Abhidarma Pitaka c. Sutra Pitaka
b. Lotus Sutra d. Vinaya Pitaka

6) __________, which is purely a Japanese phenomenon, perceives itself as the

only rightful version of Buddhism.
a. Nichiren Buddhism c. Tibetan Buddhism
b. Pure Land Buddhism d. Zen Buddhism

7) The two major Buddhist schools of Mahayana and Theravada both originated
in the foundational teachings of ________________.
a. Ashoka c. Siddhartha Gautama
b. Kong Fuzi d. Vishnu

8) The concept of __________ pertains to the teaching of Mahayana Buddhism

about the nature of the Buddha and reality.
a. bodhisattva c. paramita
b. bhumis d. trikaya

9) While the first five paramitas are principally concerned with the accumulation
of merits, the sixth paramita involves the attainment of _________.
a. knowledge c. skills
b. love d. wisdom

10) The ____________ is the most prominent face of Tibetan Buddhism who has
been living in exile in India since he fled Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959.
a. Buddha c. Imam
b. Dalai Lama d. Pope

11) In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva must pass ____________ before

attaining Buddha-hood, frequently associated with the perfections or
____________.
a. bodhicitta, bhumis c. bhumis, paramita
b. bodhicitta, paramita d. paramita, bhumis

12) For _____________when believers die, it is their objective to live in the

Sukhavati, by simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost
attentiveness many times during the day.
a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Sect d. Socio-political Sect

13) One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an
enlightened being or ____________ which is the ultimate way for any
Buddhist to live in this world.
a. bodhicitta c. buddha
b. bodhisattva d. paramita

51
14) For ____________, only the historical Buddha and past Buddhas are
accepted. For ____________, there are other contemporary and popular
Buddhas apart from the historical Buddha.
a. Hinduism, Theravada c. Mahayana, Theravada
b. Mahayana, Hinduism d. Theravada, Mahayana

15) The _________ emphasize that salvation is a personal matter and one
cannot receive assistance from other entities, such as another person or
institution, to realize the inner truths of religion.
a. Intuitive Sect c. Rationalist Sect
b. Pure Land Sect d. Socio-political Sect

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Complete the following sentences with your learnings in this module.

 Mahayan Buddhism differ from Theravada Buddhism because ____________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

 Mahayana Budhdism is appealing to a vast majority of followers because

___
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

 A buddha is ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
While a bodhisattva is ____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

52
 ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES

ANSWER KEY
Lesson 1: HINDUISM

15. d 10. e 5. o
14. i 9. j 4. g
13. a 8. l 3. k
12. n 7. b 2. m
11. c 6. h 1. f
What I Know

15. m 10. j 5. g
14. d 9. e 4. o
13. n 8. b 3. l
12. f 7. a 2. i
11. h 6. k 1. c
Post Assessment

LESSON 2: Theravada Buddhism

What I Know Post Assessment

53
LESSON 3: Mahayana Buddhisim

b d 10) b 15) 5)
d d 9) d 14) 4)
a b 8) c 13) 3)
a c 7) a 12) 2)
b c 6) b 11) 1)
What I Know (Pretest)

a 10) b 15) b 5)
d 9) d 14) b 4)
b 8) d 13) c 3)
b 7) c 12) a 2)
c 6) a 11) d 1)
Post Assessment

REFERENCES:

Book
Ong, Jerome A. & Jose, Mary Dorothy dL. Introduction to World Religions and Belief
Systems (Teacher Manual). Quezon City: Vibal Group Inc., 2016
Ong, Jerome A. & Jose, Mary Dorothy dL. Introduction to World Religions and Belief
Systems (Textbook). Quezon City: Vibal Group Inc., 2016

Internet
Ancient History Encyclopedia. Mahayana Buddhism. 2017. Accessed July 18, 2020.

54
https://www.ancient.eu/Mahayana_Buddhism/#:~:text=Mahayana
%20Buddhism%20(or%20the%20Mahayanas,those%20of%20the
%20Buddhist%20teachings.

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