Gibberellins

Gibberellins[edit]
Gibberellin A1
Gibberellins (GAs) include a large range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants
and by fungi. They were first discovered when Japanese researchers, including Eiichi Kurosawa,
noticed a chemical produced by a fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi that produced abnormal
growth in rice plants.[40] It was later discovered that GAs are also produced by the plants
themselves and control multiple aspects of development across the life cycle. The synthesis of
GA is strongly upregulated in seeds at germination and its presence is required for germination
to occur. In seedlings and adults, GAs strongly promote cell elongation. GAs also promote the
transition between vegetative and reproductive growth and are also required for pollen function
during fertilization.[41]
Gibberellins breaks the dormancy (in active stage) in seeds and buds and helps increasing the
height of the plant. It helps in the growth of the stem[citation needed]
Jasmonates[edit]
Jasmonic acid
Jasmonates (JAs) are lipid-based hormones that were originally isolated from jasmine oil.[42] JAs

are especially important in the plant response to attack
from herbivores and necrotrophic pathogens.[43] The most active JA in plants is jasmonic acid.
Jasmonic acid can be further metabolized into methyl jasmonate (MeJA), which is a volatile
organic compound. This unusual property means that MeJA can act as an airborne signal to
communicate herbivore attack to other distant leaves within one plant and even as a signal to
neighboring plants.[44] In addition to their role in defense, JAs are also believed to play roles in
seed germination, the storage of protein in seeds, and root growth. [43]
JAs have been shown to interact in the signalling pathway of other hormones in a mechanism
described as “crosstalk.” The hormone classes can have both negative and positive effects on
each other's signal processes.[45]
Jasmonic acid methyl ester (JAME) has been shown to regulate genetic expression in plants.
[46]
They act in signalling pathways in response to herbivory, and upregulate expression of
defense genes.[47] Jasmonyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) accumulates in response to herbivory, which
causes an upregulation in defense gene expression by freeing up transcription factors. [47]
Jasmonate mutants are more readily consumed by herbivores than wild type plants, indicating
that JAs play an important role in the execution of plant defense. When herbivores are moved
around leaves of wild type plants, they reach similar masses to herbivores that consume only
mutant plants, implying the effects of JAs are localized to sites of herbivory. [48] Studies have
shown that there is significant crosstalk between defense pathways. [49]
Salicylic acid[edit]
Salicylic acid
Salicylic acid (SA) is a hormone with a structure related to phenol. It was originally isolated from
an extract of white willow bark (Salix alba) and is of great interest to human medicine, as it is the
precursor of the painkiller aspirin. In plants, SA plays a critical role in the defense against
biotrophic pathogens. In a similar manner to JA, SA can also become methylated. Like
MeJA, methyl salicylate is volatile and can act as a long-distance signal to neighboring plants to
warn of pathogen attack. In addition to its role in defense, SA is also involved in the response of
plants to abiotic stress, particularly from drought, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and
osmotic stress.[50]
Salicylic acid (SA) serves as a key hormone in plant innate immunity, including resistance in both
local and systemic tissue upon biotic attacks, hypersensitive responses, and cell death. Some of
the SA influences on plants include seed germination, cell growth, respiration, stomatal closure,
senescence-associated gene expression, responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, basal thermo
tolerance and fruit yield. A possible role of salicylic acid in signaling disease resistance was first
demonstrated by injecting leaves of resistant tobacco with SA.[51] The result was that injecting SA
stimulated pathogenesis related (PR) protein accumulation and enhanced resistance to tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV) infection. Exposure to pathogens causes a cascade of reactions in the plant
cells. SA biosynthesis is increased via isochorismate synthase (ICS) and phenylalanine
ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway in plastids.[52] It was observed that during plant-microbe
interactions, as part of the defense mechanisms, SA is initially accumulated at the local infected
tissue and then spread all over the plant to induce systemic acquired resistance at non-infected
distal parts of the plant. Therefore with increased internal concentration of SA, plants were able
to build resistant barriers for pathogens and other adverse environmental conditions [53]
Strigolactones[edit]
5-deoxystrigol, a strigolactone
Strigolactones (SLs) were originally discovered through studies of the germination of the parasitic
weed Striga lutea. It was found that the germination of Striga species was stimulated by the
presence of a compound exuded by the roots of its host plant.[54] It was later shown that SLs that
are exuded into the soil also promote the growth of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi.
[55]
More recently, another role of SLs was identified in the inhibition of shoot branching. [56] This
discovery of the role of SLs in shoot branching led to a dramatic increase in the interest in these
hormones, and it has since been shown that SLs play important roles in leaf
senescence, phosphate starvation response, salt tolerance, and light signalling

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Gibberellins[edit]

Jasmonates (JAs) are lipid-based hormones that were originally isolated from jasmine oil.[42] JAs

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