MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH

TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH

REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 1

OUTLINE * when you say new knowledge we can make new theories
I INTRODUCTION TO RESEACRH and known facts. New principles or technology is being
A What is research
i Function of research
produced like for example when we do research we can
ii The roles of research in people’s lives produce new technology, new machines, new cars based
iii Uses of research as a scientific process on research that’s why new models of cars have already
iv The roles of research development modifications because these modifications came out from
research even the condoms you are using, the size of the
condoms, the elasticity of condoms purely based on
research

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 3. Improved behavior or practices can lead to better conditions

and better quality of life.
4. Moreover, new and improved tools or strategies can result
WHAT IS RESEARCH
in improved performance and/ or better service delivery,
 Is a careful, systematic study in a field of knowledge that is
which contribute to the improvement of man’s living
undertaken to discover the established facts or principle.
conditions and quality of life.
*if you are going to the library to do something or to look for
something that is still a research called library research. USES OF RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC
PROCESS
 A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find 1. It determine/ describe an existing situation.
an answer to an question or a solution to a problem to
* real case scenario about the covid right now. Researches
validate or test an existing theory. and studies pertaining to vaccines, covid variants,
transmissibility of covid.
* so whatever you do it and either it’s a new knowledge
2. Describe a population
to be discovered or you want to prove something that is
3. Compare two conditions or groups of populations
still research
4. Determine existence, degree or nature of relationship
between two or more factors.
 We add knowledge to science.
5. Evaluate and/ or compare effectiveness of an intervention,
treatment or exposure
FUNCTION OF RESEARCH
*such as clinical trial, treatment and exposure
1. Helps answer questions, solve problems and make decisions
2. Enables us to see and understand how and why a situation or
a problem exist 6. Predict the value of a certain characteristic
3. It helps us discover new things and ideas
4. Allow us ti validate existing theories or generate new ones
5. It helps us identify and understand the cause and effects of a
situation or a phenomenon.

THE ROLES OF RESEARCH IN PEOPLE’S LIVES

1. Through research new knowledge or technology is discovered.
2. New knowledge can result in development or improvement of
skills, behavior or practices, while newly discovered or developed
technology can lead to development of new tools and devices.
THE ROLES OF RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT when we say subjects it could also
1. Research is needed in describing and analyzing existing social or means respondents or participants
economic problems or conditions. and how would you choose these
2. Research data are important inputs to planning and in designing participants and respondents kag
a program/ project/ activity intended to address an existing kung pila sila kabilog.
problem. Variables What measures will be made?*
3. Data on the background and needs of the target clients of a  Predictor variables simply saying these are your
proposed program/project are needed in the preparation of the  Confounding dependent variables, your
intervention. variables independent variables, and your
 Outcome variables intervening variables
* even when we say what services do you want to offer?,
do you need another hospital?, Do you need another mol? Statistical Issues How large is the study and how
We do a feasibility study. When we say feasibility study,  Hypothesis will it be analyzed? *that
the project or this item we want to put up will be viable.  Sample size normally responds how large is the
When we say viable it can be sustained. More casa  Analytic approach study and how will it be analyzed?
ginansya rather than sa perdi.still it is a research.
4. Program managers or project implementers should continue
collecting/ analyzing and using relevant data to determine if, or to I. RESEARCH QUESTION
make sure that a project/ program is being implemented as  This is the objective of the study, the uncertainty the
planned. investigator wants to resolve. * this also pertains the title of
5. Project implementation should be closely monitored to check the study, the uncertainty, the investigator wants to resolve.
progress and quality or implementation. Monitoring requires  It begins with a general concern that must be narrowed
accurate information about the status of project implementation, down to a concrete, researchable issue.
including rate of completion, financial standing and quality of  A good research question should pass the “so what?” test
performance. getting the answer should contribute usefully to our state
* still based on research para ma bal-an sano-o matapo. of knowledge *I will always ask you why, why, and why?
Okay gd bala ang project or indi? Okay? Normally we have 5-10 why’s. okay? In that manner we
can see if your topic is relevant or we have benefits from that
study. Okay? If wala knowledge na ma add sa science, again
6. Upon completion of a project, its performance or impact needs
forget about it.
to be evaluated.

*May pulos mn gd man bala? Or wala? With the acronym FINER denotes five essential characteristic
of a good research question that is:
1. Feasible (kaya ng utak, kaya ng facility, kaya ng bulsa)
Table No. Outline of the study protocol
2. Interesting (If indi interesting forget about it)
ELEMENT PURPOSE
3. Novel ( you may do a not typical novel type of research, pwede
Research Questions What Questions will be the namn yun. Because take not ha, we have regional differences,
study address? we have cultural differences, so ang possibility and study on
Significance How are these questions different regions maybe different from ours. Okay? But don’t
important? *when we say forget to cite. Gets? This study is based from the study of….
significance dapat may but the same mn lang ang outputs whats the point of the study?
beneficiaries. Kung 3 or 4 lang ang 4. Ethical *diri ta permi gaka dagdag, why? As a medical student
beneficiaries forget about that we are governed by ethics. As long as there is a hurting
research. When we say research scenario physically, emotionally, socially or psychologically
obviously we always wanted to may it be on an individual, an animal, or an institution it
have information dissemination, should undergo research
baseline information. But kung ang 5. Relevant
imo man lang purpose is baseline
information only wala ka may ma II. SIGNIFICANCE
obra after that forget about it.
 The significance section of a protocol sets the proposed
Design How is the study structured?
study in the context and gives its rationale: what is
 Time frame *Of course we will have time
known about the topic at hand? Why is it important?
 Epidemiologic frame
What will the current study provide?
Approach
 This section cites previous research that is relevant
Subjects Who are the subjects and how including the investigator’s work and indicates the
 Selection Criteria will they be selected?*here we problems with that research and what questions remain.
 Sampling Design will have out selection criteria,
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 *if continuous study it should have a different relevant or additional
relevant.

III.DESIGN
 The design of a study is a complex issue. A fundamental
decision is whether to take a passive role in observing the
events taking place in the study subjects in an observational
study or to apply an intervention and examine its effect on
these events in a clinical trial. * You want to know a certain
group of people performs hand washing or not? We can do two
things either do the survey via interview or do the survey via
observational manner.in survey they can say honesty or dishonesty
they perform handwashing. So in that manner check on the methods
that are appropriate in your study
 And among the observational studies two of the most
common designs are cohort studies, in which a group of
subjects is followed overtime and cross sectional in which the
observations are made on a single occasions.
 A third common option is the case-control design in which
the investigator compares a group of subjects who have a
disease or condition with another group of subjects who do
not.

IV. THE STUDY SUBJECTS

Two major decisions must be made in choosing the study subjects:
1. The first is to specify selection criteria that define the target
population: the kinds of subjects best suited to the research
question.
2. The second decision concerns how to select the best accessible
aspect of the actual subjects of the study.

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 MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH
TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH
REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 2

OUTLINE EXAMPLE II:

I GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH AND STUDY SUBJECTS  A school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes
A DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
i Examples of descriptive research about using technology in the classroom. By conducting
B EXPLANATORY OR CORRELATIONAL TYPE OF surveys and observing their comfortableness using
RESEARCH technology through observational methods, the
C INTERVENTION OR EXERIMENTAL
ii Characteristic of experimental research researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a
D THE STUDY SUBJECTS full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also
E VARIABLES helps in understanding if the students are impacted in
I Differentiating variables
F STATISTICAL ISSUES any way with this change. *Where the school wishes to
G PHYSIOLOGY OF RESEARCH even with teachers attitudes about technology, so they
will just be doing it through observational methods

EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH AND STUDY 1. Tardiness and absenteeism among high school students.
SUBJECTS *This can be an explanatory research but explanatory
*Two types of research : Descriptive and experimental types of research falls under descriptive type of research
research 2. The management style of school administrators in
Bacolod City.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 3. Smoking habits of health service providers in
 This type of study finds answer to the question who, what, government and private hospitals. Market researchers
when, where and how. want to observe the habits of consumers.
 It describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of 4. Staff morale evaluation.
specified aspects or factors. What may be described are 5. Online lessons or Textbook: A student’s preference.
characteristics of individuals or groups or physical 6. Wellness programs that enhance the overall health of the
environments or conditions. *Meaning to say its just a plain employees.
matter of observation. We don’t place something, we don’t *any of these six types of titles will only discuss/made by
interact, we don’t intervene. What is being given to us, what playing observation or just by answering a questionnaire.
we observe, what we analyze is just plain for descriptive There is no intervention and interference on the research type
purposes of study.

EXAMPLE I:
 A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue
rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are
favored by different people. To understand the preferred
flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using
various methods like observational methods in supermarkets.
By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic
information, offers insights about the preference of different
markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads
to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting
this type of research helps the organization tweak their
business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
*They asked for opinion, suggestion but there was no
intervention, interference on that type of study.

*Do you know for a fact that condoms originally made of

animal’s intestine or even rubbers from your bicycles. One of
the problems of condoms is that about the sizes, since not all
men are created the same or equal, sizes for some means a lot. So EXPLANATORY OR CORRELATIONAL TYPE OF
one thing that was consider for condoms is that its sizes. Thus, RESEARCH
research for condoms were already. Certain sizes, so that these  Goes beyond the description of the problem or situation.
sizes would be would made available on each location can be *As this attempts to explain the possible factors related to
observed problems which have been observed in a descriptive
study. Explanatory or correlational type of research
answers the questions how and why
 It attempts to explain the possible factors related to
problems which have been observed in a descriptive
study. This type of study answers the questions how and
why.
 The factors related to the problem need not to be viewed
as real “causes” of the problem but factors which are
associated with or may contribute to the occurrence of
the problem.* like for example, In medical practice BP, if
ang BP mo nag saka it does not mean na ang BP mo ang
problema, it could be your kidney, thyroid, circulation.
So meaning to say ang BP is just a sign and symptom but
its not the cause of your disease/ condition. Diabetes may
also lead to BP, diabetes destroys the kidney if they could
induce hyper blood or elevated blood pressure.
 A researcher usually uses a theory or a hypothesis to
account for or explain the forces that are “assumed to
have caused” the problem.
 Investigates relationship between factors and variables.
 Local government employee’s knowledge about the
local government code as to their work
performance. *Because if the local governent
employee does not know about the local
government code perhaps his practices or work
performance may be poor as well. However, if they
are aware of the holds of the labor code or civil
service their performance could be better because
they know what is expected of them
 Gender to Grades * as an example the teacher
declares to the class that boys are more
knowledgeable and brighter than the girls. The girls
on this part studied well, in the next quiz the girls
get higher scores than the boys. Thus, the teacher
also mentioned that the girls are quietly more
intelligent than the boys. On the next quiz the boys
did it again by studying hard. Thus, this gender the
big thing may not be gender specific t all.
 Knowledge about Cancer to compliance with
medical regimen. *Some patient wants to have it on
alternating side. Although is not wrong to have the
alternative side it should also be informed to the
patient what are the consequences of alternative
medicine. Thus, as majority if you have noticed this
is found on or indexed section in pubmed herbal
life if you can remember. There is an article on
Latest study: Teens create. STD-detecting Colour changing
pubmed about herballife that does not help the
Condoms
patients at all rather it can make things worst

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 INTERVENTION OR EXPERIMENTAL  The second decision concerns how to select the best
 Evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular intervention or accessible aspect of the actual subjects of the study.
treatment. It studies the “cause and effect” relationship *subject best suited to the research questions. There are
between certain factors on a certain phenomenon under also other types of subjects that we want to study
controlled conditions. *Take not when we say experimental it however they cannot answer us back. Ex, toddlers and
will be difficult for you to say that your study is experimental babies. Indi pwede na sila ma sabat smo. So ang
because it should have the following cost and effect interviewhon would rather be their YAYA or their
relationship under a certain phenomena or under control parents.
conditions. Thus, if your experiment is not under controlled
esp your subjects this cannot be considered as an VARIABLES
experimental type of study.  Another major set of decisions in designing any study
 The subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the concerns the choice of which variables to measure.
experimental group and to the control group and both groups  In a descriptive study the investigator looks at individual
are exposed to similar conditions except for the intervention variables one at a time.
or treatment. *In that manner you have the other group to  A study like the prevalence of hormones for example.
compare to.  In an analytic study the investigator studies the
 is a scientific approach to research, where one or more associations among two or more variables in order to
independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or predict outcomes and to draw inferences about cause and
more dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter. effect.
The effect of the independent variables on the dependent  In considering the association between two variables, the
variables is usually observed and recorded over some time, to one that precedes (antecedent) is called the predictor
aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion. variable and the other is called the outcome variable.
 In experimental studies, an intervention is added. *Thats
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH why you can only consider your study to be an
1. Multi-variable *Damo and iya variables experimental study if an intervention is added.
2. Setting *It should be controlled, indi pwede isa lang ka area  This design allows observing the effects on the outcome
3. Generally with controls variable, often using randomization to control for the
influence of confounding variables.
EXAMPLE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Table 1. differentiating variables
 The effect of different levels of applied nitrogen on the
growth and yield of Rice Research Independent Dependent
 The effect of verbal suggestion on overt pain reaction of Question Variable variable
selected-operative patients
 Advertising: It’s effects on sales and profits of auto parts Do tomatoes grow The type of light The rate of growth
business establishments in Bacolod city fastest under the tomato plant is of the tomato plan
fluorescent, grown under
DISADVANTAGE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH incandescent, or
1. Prone to human error natural light?
2. May create unrealistic situations.*Why? Because majority of Do people who Whether someone Distance walked
your experiment was made inside the laboratory live in a city walk lives in a city or a Weight
3. Time consuming and expensive more and weigh suburb
4. Risky and may have ethical complications. less than similar
5. Human responses may be difficult to measure. *Why? individuals in a
Because humans may just lie. suburb?

*Experimental research should be standardized

*Inside and outside laboratory are different “Lain-lain” *when we say independent variable indi mo sya ma bag-o
always the cause
THE STUDY SUBJECTS *The dependent variable amo na sya ang ga depend or ga
 Two major decisions must be made in choosing the study effect
subjects.
 The first is to specify selection criteria that define the target
population: the kinds of subjects’ best suited to the research
question. *ex. Menopause - ayaw pili sa mga tao nga waay pa
ga menopause or don’t choose male as participants.
Appropriate study needs appropriate subjects.
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 STATISTICAL ISSUE
 Each investigator must develop plans for managing and
analyzing the study data.
 For experiments this always involves specifying a hypothesis.
 The hypothesis also allows the investigator to estimate the
sample size.
 For purely descriptive studies, an analogous approach
estimates the number of subjects needed to produce an
acceptable level of precision when confidence intervals are
calculated for the means, proportions, or other descriptive
statistics.

PHYSIOLOGICAL OF RESEARCH
 The goal of research is to draw inferences from the study
results about the nature of truth in the universe.
 Involves 2 distinct steps:
 Design a study plan with subjects and measurements
chosen to enhance the process the appropriately
answering the research question and generalizing these
conclusions to the people and phenomena addressed by
the research questions.
 Carry out the study in a fashion that enhances the
likelihood of getting the right answer.

*if you want to have a research you should be specific with your
variables, objectives and appropriate subjects is needed to have
your appropriate result.

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 MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH
TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH
REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 3

OUTLINE IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

I HYPOTHESIS AND ASSUMPTIONS 1. Helps the researcher in designing the study.
A HYPOTHESIS
i Function of a hypothesis 2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.
ii Importance of hypothesis 3. They serve as bases for determining relevance of data.
B TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS 4. Basis for the explanation or discussion about of the
i. Null hypothesis vs. Alternative hypothesis
ii. Directional vs. Non-directional hypothesis gathered data.
C HOW TO WRITE HYPOTHESES 5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his
D ASSUMPTION findings and in formulating his conclusions.
i. Examples of assumptions
E DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYPOTHESIS AND
ASSUMPTIONS B. TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

NULL HYPOTHESIS VS. ALTERNATIVE

I. HYPOTHESIS AND ASSUMPTION HYPOTHESIS
Null Hypothesis
A. HYPOTHESIS  a negative statement which indicates the absence of a
 Educated guess that researchers make educated guesses to relationship or correlation between two variables. An
tentatively answer the research question. Usually they make absence of a significant difference between the
many tentative answers to the research questions. From these, proportions of two groups of people or objects possessing
they select the more logical and theoretically sound guesses. a particular characteristic or an absence of difference
 Is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer to a among the means of two or more groups with respect to
question. a particular variable.
 Are usually tested in intervention or evaluation studies and  Absent or negative
in correlation/relational studies.
 Tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at example:
the beginning of the investigation. 1. There is no significant difference between mean age of
*I don’t recommend placing too many hypothesis, because each of male faculty members and the mean age of female faculty
these hypotheses should be solve and be tested members.
*Hypothesis is a specific clear and testable proposition or *Pangitaan nyu lg ang absence na word. No significant
predictive statement about the possible outcome of a scientific differnce, relationship, correlation. Automatically mean null
research study hypothesis.
*Testable proposition, it can be tested. If it cannot be tested
therefore it is not hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
*Based on a particular property of a population such as presumed  also called a research hypothesis, is the positive form of
differences between groups on a particular variable or a the null hypothesis. It may state the presence of a
relationship between variables significant relationship between the independent and
dependent variables, or the presence of a significant
FUNCTION OF A HYPOTHESIS difference between two means or two proportions.
 A single hypothesis might state that an independent variable  Also known as operational hypothesis.
is associated with a dependent variable. *Its either related or  Two types: Directional and non-directional hypothesis
not related, there is a difference or no difference
 Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under certain Examples:
conditions, variable A or is associated or can influence 1. There is a significant relationship between mass media
variable B. exposure and attitude towards land reform among
 May state that a particular characteristic of a person or object lowland farmers
varies according to another variable. 2. The amount paid in advertisement by food
establishments is significantly associated with their
monthly gross sales.
 EXAMPLE OF ASSUMPTIONS:
DIRECTIONAL VS. NON-DIRECTIONAL  Facts and data gathered from the hospital are true and
HYPOTHESIS may be taken in for analysis and inference.
Directional Hypothesis  Student’s assertions made on the questionnaire are to the
 States whether the relationship between two variables is best of their ability; hence, inferences can be made from
direct or inverse or positive or negative. A positive or direct their responses on attitudes towards birth control.
relationship is present when the value of one variable  There are certain qualifications that one must have in
increases with the increase in the value of another. The order to teach science.
relationship is negative when the value of one variable  There are certain methods that are effective in the
increases as the value of another decreases. teaching of science. .

Example: E. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HYPOTHESIS AND

1. The higher the advertisement expenses of food ASSUMPTIONS
establishments, the higher their monthly gross sales.  The difference between a hypothesis and an assumption
is that the first is normally explicit and the second
Non-directional Hypothesis implicit. A hypothesis is what is being tested explicitly by
 does not specify the direction of relationship between an experiment. An assumption is tested implicitly.
variables. It merely states the presence or absence of a  Assumptions should be challenge and clarified with
relationship between two variables or that one variable research. Falsifiable hypothesis should be tested by
influences another, or there is a significant difference in the experiment.
mean values of the two variables. *explicit= it is always in a clear and detailed manner, leaving
no room for confusion or doubt, thats for hypothesis. However,
Examples: when we say assumption --> implicit= it means something to
1. Taking vitamins regularly tend to affects a worker’s total say in simple words, in simple things but there is always room
health status. *May effect pero wala na bal-an if its good or for doubt or confusion
bad
2. There is a difference among students who had tutorial class Table 1. Converting Assumptions into Hypothesis
than who do not.
Assumption Hypothesis
C. HOW TO WRITE HYPOTHESES
 Hypothesis must be written in simple understandable The market is large enough There are 20,000 search
language. to support this business. queries per month using the
 Hypothesis must focus on variables. term ‘probiotic’ and this
 One must keep in mind the distinction between independent number will grow by 20%
and dependent variables. next month.
*Do not use high falutin words, simple english is better and
excellent Our product solves the If a visitor shopping for
*do not use jargon or terms nga kamo lg maka ichindi problem. probiotics comes to our
*Variables must be present on your objectives landing page, they will enter
*Dependent variable= constant; effect independent variable= cause a search query.

D. ASSUMPTION We’ll be able to raise an If we send a cold email to 10

 Opposite of hypothesis. angel round really easily. angel investors on Angel.co
 Is a statement taken for granted. It does not have to be we’ll be able to get 3 meetings
proven like a theory or tested like a hypothesis. within two weeks
 Taken as a simple truth.
 Assumed to be true or correct since it is out of control of the
researcher.
 Assumptions in your study are things that are somewhat out
of your control.
*no need for testing

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 MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH
TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH
REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 4

OUTLINE organization or institution. Data from this study are

I RESEARCH METHODS usually collected from secondary sources like records,
A EXPERIMENTAL METHOD documents, accounts, written materials, etc.
B SURVEY METHOD * Or also called retrospective type of study
C HISTORICAL METHOD
*Positive or negative it is still a research
D CONTENT ANALYSIS
E NON/PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN D. CONTENT ANALYSIS
F POSTTEST ONLY/ AFTER-ONLY SURVEY  Usually used when the intention of the researcher to
G PRETEST-POST TEST ONLY/ AFTER-ONLY ascertain the quality of message or information found in
SURVEY a document or in mass media. This is also used to test the
H TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
I STATIC GROUP COMPARISON level of readability of some books before they are printed
J PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN for distribution. This is also used in determining the
K POST TEST ONLY CONTROL DESIGN authenticity of documents used in literary research.
L QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
M QUASI EXPERIMENTAL
E. NON/PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
N OTHER TYPE/DESIGN OF RESEARCH
O SELECTING A STUDY DESIGN  This is appropriate for collecting descriptive information
P TECHNICAL ISSUES about a population or subjects of the study. They are
appropriate for descriptive studies, like profile studies,
exploratory studies, and for doing small case studies.
I. RESEARCH METHODS They are ideal for diagnostic studies or situation analysis
Objectives: and recommended for evaluation studies intended to
1. Discuss research terms of definition and types determine the impact of a certain intervention or
2. Determination sources of research problems treatment.
3. Conceptualize research problem *Small case studies is still research. However, if its less than 10
= case studies, if it more than 10 that’s already case series
A. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
 is used to determine the effectiveness of a treatment or an F. POST TEST ONLY/ AFTER-ONLY SURVEY
intervention or the cause and effect” relationship of certain  This is also called as the one shot survey because the data
phenomena under controlled condition. The subjects of the are only collected once. This design is used when the
study are randomly assigned to the experimental group and study objective is to describe a situation/condition of a
to the control groups and both groups are exposed to similar study population as it exist, or to determine/describe the
conditions except for the intervention/treatment. characteristics of a population/respondents. There is no
 Among the different research methods, the experimental baseline data.
method yields the most conclusive research findings.  The design is cheap and easy to conduct, but results
cannot be conclusive in terms of causality or effect of an
intervention. It is not however, recommended for
B. SURVEY METHOD
evaluation studies that intend to measure the effect of a
 this study obtains the data to determine specific
program intervention, like training.
characteristics of a group. Its purpose is to get a general
*kaisa lg nag kwa data
picture of the characteristics of the study population at a
particular time. This is appropriate for most descriptive and
correlation studies. G. PRETEST-POST TEST ONLY/ BEFORE-AFTER
*Famous research, kay survey2 lang SURVEY
*questionnaire  The study wants to know if there is a change in
*Interview characteristics of the study population in a given area. In
this design, the data is collected before an intervention is
C. HISTORICAL METHOD introduced, and after the period of the study. The pretest
 used to determine the growth and development of a group, and the post test is then compared.
organization or institution. The description is based on
information about some past aspects of the group,
 H. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN  The two most commonly used quasi-experimental
 Subjects are randomly assigned to the experimental group designs are the non-equivalent control group design and
and the control group to achieve pre-intervention/treatment the time series design.
equality of the two groups. With this, validity threats are
avoided. M. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
*the six types of validity threats are being avoided *non-randomize

I. STATIC GROUP COMPARISON Non-equivalent Control Group Design

 Two groups are involved, experimental group and control
 In field research, it is possible to compare an
group. The experimental group is exposed or receives to the
experimental group with a similar, but not necessarily
intervention or treatment. The measurement is then followed
equivalent group. The two groups need only to have
to which the result is then compared to the result of the
“collective similarity,” which means that they should
control group.
have more or less the same characteristics in terms of
 The problem with this design is the validity threat of selection
aspects which are relevant to the study.
and mortality. It is possible that the two groups greatly differ
from each other in the basis of main variables of the study.
* di mapakita na may fair selection Time Series Design
 This is similar to the non-experimental pretest-posttest
J. PRETEST-POSTTEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN design except that, it has repeated
 the experimental group is exposed to or covered by an observation/measurements before and after the
intervention or treatment, like training or new strategy, while intervention. Before the introduction of the
the control group is left alone or given another kind of intervention/treatment, a measurement/observation with
treatment. Before the intervention/treatment is introduced to respect to the impact/effect indicators will be conducted
the experimental group, a survey/observation/testing is several times at a regular interval.
conducted for both experimental group and control group
using the same device or instrument. N. OTHER TYPE/DESIGN OF RESEARCH
 The baseline (pretest) and end line (posttest) data are  Action Research – focuses on pragmatic and solution
compared. If the change in the “impact or effect indicator/s” driven
or dependent variable/s is significantly better in the  Case Study and Case Series - detailed contextual analysis
experimental area/group than the change in the control of a limited number of events
area/group, then the intervention is considered effective. If  Causal Design - measure what impact a specific change
not, then the intervention is said to have had no effect. will have on existing norms and assumptions
 Cohort - conducted over a period of time involving
K. POSTTEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN members of a population with similarity.
 This is used to determine the effects of an intervention or  Cross Sectional - measure diffrerences between or from
treatment introduced to a group of subjects (people or among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather
objects). than change
 The experimental group or area is exposed to or covered by  Meta-Analysis - epidemiological study design used to
an intervention/treatment, while the control group is left systematically assess the results of previous research to
alone. No pretest/pre-intervention study is conducted. The derive conclusions about that body of research. Mostly
experimental and the control groups are assumed to have uses clinical trials.
similar characteristics at the start of the study. After the  Longitudinal - follows the same sample over time and
introduction of an intervention in the experimental group or makes repeated observations. *Du case study
area, an evaluation survey/observation/testing is conducted  Philosophical - uses the tools of argumentation derived
on both experimental and the control groups or areas, using from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and
the same “fair” instrument. theories to critically explore and challenge *Psychologist
 The data gathered is then compared as to how significant the and psychiatrist ang ga himo ani
results are.  Sequential - carried out in a deliberate, staged approach
*Fair design [i.e. serially] where one stage will be completed, followed
by another, then another, and so on.
L. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
 In field studies, it is very difficult to meet the random O. SELECTING A STUDY DESIGN
assignment criterion of a true experimental design. It is  Ethical Issues - avoid violation of people’s rights and
nearly designs are nearly the same as the true experimental dignity. Secure a consent form. *CSAB ra may ethics
designs except that the former do not have restrictions of committee
random assignment.
Prepared by: Nick Aguirre Page 2 of 3
 Practical and Administrative Issues – Limited resources
results in adoption of a less ideal design.
 Technical Issues- no specialist available or instrument
available

P. TECHNICAL ISSUES
 Experimental and control groups should be randomly
assigned.
 When random assignment is not possible, try to find a
comparison group that is nearly equivalent to the
experimental group.
 When neither randomly assigned control group nor a similar
comparison or group is available, try using time series design
that can provide information on trends before and after a
program intervention.
 If time series cannot be used, try to obtain baseline
information that can be compared against post program
information (pretest-posttest).
 If baseline (pretest) information is unavailable, bear in mind
that the type of analysis that you can use is limited.
 Always keep in mind the issue of validity.

Prepared by: Nick Aguirre Page 3 of 3

 MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH
TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH
REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 5

OUTLINE Intervening variables

I RESEARCH vARIABLES  Is a factor that works between the independent and
A TYPES OF VARIABLE
dependent variable
i Dependent variables
ii Independent variables  It can weaken or strengthen the effect of the independent
iii Intervening variables on the dependent variables.
 Also known as facilitating, moderator or a control
variable.
 In experimental research, an investigator manipulates
 one variable and measures the effect of that manipulation
I. RESEARCH VARIABLE on another variable.
What is a variable? *For experimental research
 characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study.
 Is a concept that stands for a variation within a class of
objects or persons.
 Is a characteristic or property that can take different values or
attributes. *sari sari in short
 Are basic elements which are measured in a study which are
observable and measurable.
*found in your objectives and titles

Examples of variables:
 Age Dependent sa right, independent sa life. So if mag make ka
 Sex (male or female) box always from left to right. (cause and effect) nya tunga si
 Marital status intervening
 Income
Ex
*if “GENDER” u can add gay, bisexual etc. De-worming --> handwashing --> re-infection of parasite
A. TYPES OF VARIABLES
Example:
Dependent variables  You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see
 The outcome variable or the responding variable. which holds the most liquid.
 Is the assumed effect of the variable The independent variable in your experiment would be the
 It is the change that occurs in the study population when one brand of paper towel. The dependent variable would be the
or more factors are changed or when an intervention is amount of liquid absorbed by the paper towel.
introduced.
 it responds to a change in the independent variable, so you  If you want to know whether caffeine affects your
can think of it as depending on the independent variable. appetite.
*It is not fixed, it depends, given, constant The presence/absence of a given amount of caffeine would
be the independent variable. How hungry you are would be
Independent variables the dependent variable.
 Assumed cause of the problem
 Reason for any change or variation in a dependent variable.  In an experiment to determine how far people can see
 Also called antecedent variable or controlled variable. into the infrared part of the spectrum.
 The independent variable is the condition that you change in The wavelength of light is the independent variable and
an experiment. It is the variable you control. whether the light is observed (the response) is the dependent
*it is fixed; cause variable.
 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat
nutrition, so you design an experiment.
The presence/absence of the chemical is the independent
variable. The health of the rat (whether it lives and can
reproduce) is the dependent variable. If you determine the
substance is necessary for proper nutrition, a follow-up
experiment might determine how much of the chemical is
needed. Here, the amount of chemical would be the independent
variable and the rat health would be the dependent variable.

Prepared by: Nick Aguirre Page 2 of 2

 MED LAB SCIENCE RESEARCH
TEACHER: Sir Alain C. Juayang, RMT, MSMT, MPH
REFERENCES: PRELIM / PPT AND SIDE NOTES
LECTURE
WEEK 6

OUTLINE  Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the

I REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE literature?
A TYPES OF VARIABLE  Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources
i Dependent variables disagree?
ii Independent variables
 Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or
iii Intervening variables
studies that changed the direction of the field?
 Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there
weaknesses that need to be addressed?
*chapter 1- introduction and rrl; chapter 2 - the methods
STEP 4: OUTLINE YOUR STRUCTURE
I. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE  Chronological – through time *to the earliest to the latest;
Why review related literature? or to the latest to the earliest
 Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly  Thematic - subsections *May per topic
context. * meaning na basa mo kag aware ka  Methodological – comparing results and methods
 Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your  Theoretical – such that of your theoretical framework
research * dapat may basis ka di ka pwede mag create2 lg ug *personally based on theories if wala ka mayma icompare
method on your own
 Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists STEP 5: WRITE YOUR REVIEW
 Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a  Introduction
debate *u can coroborate your result and compare to others.  Should clearly establish the focus and purpose of
*avoid duplication the literature review
*if wala imo RRL, ayaw ibutang sa imo discussion  Reiterate your central problem or research question
*if may gap -> study; if wala gap--> ngaa ma study if wla man and give a brief summary of the scholarly context.
STEP 1: SEARCH FOR RELEVANT LITERATURE  Emphasize the relevance and importance of your
1. Make a list of keywords study.
2. Search for relevant sources  Body and synthesis of the literature.
a) Research journals (primary sources)  Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the
b) Books (secondary sources) main points of each source and combine them into a
c) Lectures coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other
STEP 2: EVALUATE AND SELECT SOURCES researchers—add your own interpretations where
 What question or problem is the author addressing? possible, discussing the significance of findings in
 What are the key concepts and how are they defined? relation to the literature as a whole
 What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the  Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and
research use established frameworks or take an innovative weaknesses of your sources
approach?  Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition
 What are the results and conclusions of the study? words and topic sentences to draw connections,
 How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? comparisons and contrasts.
Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
 How does the publication contribute to your understanding *synthesis- 1-2 paragraph only
of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
 Take note and cite your sources.

STEP 3: IDENTIFY THEMES, DEBATES AND GAPS

 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain
approaches become more or less popular over time?