2nd

Factors Altering Behavior and Coping Mechanism

Chapter 2- Module Two
 CRIM 3- HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

Chapter Two

FACTORS ALTERING BEHAVIOR AND

COPING MECHANISMS

A. Topic Description

This chapter is designed to acquaint the students with different

factors altering behavior and coping mechanisms. This will help
them understand how when such conditions may lead to criminal
acts.

B. Scope
• Emotion
• Conflict
• Depression
• Stress
• Frustration
• Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism

C. Topic Objectives

At the end of the chapter the student must be able to:

1. Enumerate and Explain the Factors Altering Behavior and
Coping mechanisms.
2. Identify the different defense mechanisms as a way of reducing
stress and reacting to frustrations.

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CHAPTER TWO- FACTORS ALTERING BEHAVIOR AND COPING MECHANISMS

This chapter presents the factors affecting human behavior such as: emotion, conflict,
depression, stress, frustration, and coping mechanisms.
Emotion
Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts
and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial
expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings (Uriarte, 2009).
Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition. The English
word ‘emotion’ is derived from the French word emouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where
e- (Variant of ex-) means out and movere means ‘move’. The related term “motivation” is also derived
from movere (Santrock).
Theories of Emotion are:
1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange- James Lange theory states that
emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment: emotion
occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states that a changed
situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says “the perception of bodily changes
as they occur is the emotion.
James further claims that “we feel sad because we cry, angry, because we strike, afraid
because we tremble, and neither have we cried, strike nor tremble because we sorry, angry,
or fearful, as the case maybe”. The James-Lange Theory has now been all but abandoned by
most scholars.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- This suggests that people feel
emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion and physiological
reactions occur simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension,
perspiration, etc. The theory was formulated following the introduction of the James Lange
Theory of Emotion in the Late 1800s, which alternately suggested that emotion is the result
of one’s perception of their reaction, or “bodily change.”
Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid.
I begin to perspire.
The Canon-Bard Theory of Emotion is based on the premise that one reacts to a specific
stimulus and experiences the corresponding emotion simultaneously. Canon and Bard
posited that one is able to react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion
and experience.

Model for Canon-Bard Theory

Stimulus (Bear) Emotion (Fear) Reaction (Run Away)

3. Two Factor Theory- This theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited
that emotion is the cognitive interpretation of a physiological response. For many, this
remains the best formulation of emotion. Most people consider this to be the “common
sense” theory to explain physiological changes; their physiology changes as a result of their
emotion (Santrock, 2000).
Conflict

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Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between two or more
incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is a negative emotional state caused by an inability to
choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulse (Uriarte, 2009).

Conflict is the state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere
with one another (Lahey, 2001).

Types of Conflict

1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict)- Psychological conflict could be going on inside the
person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values). Freud would say
unconscious id batting superego and further claimed that our personalities are always in
conflict.
2. Social Conflict – These different kinds of social conflict are:
a. Interpersonal Conflict;
b. Two individuals me against you;
c. Inter-group Struggles- us against them;
d. Individual Opposing a Group- me against them, them against me;
e. Intra-group Conflict- members of group all against each other on a task.
3. Approach-Avoidance- Conflict can be described as having features of approach and
avoidance; approach-approach; avoidance-avoidance; approach-avoidance. Approach speaks
to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.

Kinds of Approach-Avoidance

a. Approach-Approach Conflict- In Approach-Approach conflict, the individual must choose

between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are
wanted but only one option should be chosen.
b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict- Avoidance-Avoidance conflict involves more obvious
sources of stress. The individual must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict- Approach-Avoidance conflict exists when there is an
attractive and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal
necessitates a negative outcome as well.
d. Multi-Approach-Avoidance Conflict- This refers to conflict with complex combinations of
approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives
that contain both positive and negative consequences (Lahey, 2001).

Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict

a. Dysfunctional Conflict- There is dysfunctional conflict if conflict is disrupts, hinders job

performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning.
b. Functional Conflict- There is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative aiding
in creativity and viability.

Depression

Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It is
different from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. It often
runs in families. But it can also happen to someone who doesn’t have a family history of depression.
You can have depression one time or many times.

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Causes of Depression

The causes of depression are not entirely understood. Things that may trigger depression
include:

a. Major events that creates stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family.
b. Illnesses such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer.
c. Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief.
d. Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs.

Symptoms of Depression

People who are depressed may:

a. Think and speak more slowly than normal.

b. Have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions.
c. Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
d. Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they were depressed.
e. Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering if life is worth living.
f. Think a lot about death or suicide.
g. Complain about problems that don’t have physical cause, such as headache and stomachache.

What are the different forms of depression?

There are several forms if depressive disorders. The most common are major depressive disorder
and dysthymic disorder.

1. Major Depressive Disorder- This is also called major depression. It is characterized by a

combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and
enjoy once-pleasurable activities. Major Depression is disabling and prevents a person from
functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person’s
lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a person’s life.
2. Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia)- The symptoms do not occur for more
than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having persistent
but less severe depressive symptoms than Major Depression. Manifest nearly constant
depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:
a. Decrease or increase in eating;
b. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
c. Low energy or fatigue;
d. Low self-esteem;
e. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
f. Feeling hopeless.
3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some
form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations, and delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression- This is a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby.
A new mother develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is
estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression after giving
birth. In rare cases, a woman may have a severe form of depression called postpartum
psychosis. She may act strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there, and be a danger to
herself and her baby.

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5. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a depressive illness
during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts
during spring and summer. SAD may effectively treated with light therapy, but nearly half of
those with SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and
psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone or in combination with light therapy.
6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as a common major
depression or dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes-from
extreme highs (e.g. Mania) to extreme lows (e.g., depression).
7. Endogenous Depression- Endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression
is defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.
8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression (also known as Adjustment Disorder with
Depressed Mood)- Depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific stressful situation
or event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending). These symptoms occur within 3 months of the
stressor and lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended.
Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g.
relationships, work, school) and do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder.
9. Agitated Depression- This kind of major depressive disorder is characterized by agitation
such as physical and emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite
of many depressed individuals who have low energy and feel slowed down physically and
mentally inappropriate social behavior.

How to battle depression?

The following are means of resolving depression:

a. Socializing- eating out, movies, ballgames with family or friends.

b. Helping others in need-volunteer work, feeding the homeless, etc.
c. Praying- working for all moods, especially depression.

Stress

Stress refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism-human or animal- to respond

appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a form of the
Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw tight.

The term stress was first employed in a biological context by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in the
1930s.

Stress can thought of us in any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope (Lazarus,
1999).

What is Stressor?

Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive).

For example, getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress
with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.

Two Types of Stress

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1. Eustress (Positive)- Eustress is a word consisting of two [parts. The prefix derives from the
Greek eu meaning their “well” or “good”. When we attached to the word “stress”, it literally
means “good stress”.
It is stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings.
Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function (physical
or mental, such as through strength training ir challenging work) is considered eustress.
2. Distress (Negative)- Distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that is not
resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal
(depression) behavior.

Effects of Distress are:

a. Ineffectiveness at task, f. Poor decision-making
b. Self-defeating behavior, g. Dangerous action,
c. Transitional and suicidal behavior, h. Accident, and
d. Anxiety and fear, i. Apathy and cynicism
e. Loss of interest and initiative

Three Stages of Stress

1. Alarm- Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body’s
stress response is state of alarm. During this stage adrenaline will be produced in order to
bring about the fight or flight response.
2. Resistance- Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to
attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to
the strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its
resources are gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion- Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the General Arousal Syndrome (GAS)
model. At this point, all the body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable
to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear
sweating, raised heart rate etc.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression, and diabetes,
trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems, along with other mental
illnesses.

Types of Short-Term Stress

1. Acute Time-Acute time refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and are over
relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing math in your head fall into this
category. These things may come on without warning but are short in duration.
2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- Brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in duration. Think of a
classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses that rise out of other things and are very
quickly.

Types of Long-Term Stress

1. Stressful Event Consequences- Stressful event sequences stress is a single even that starts
from a chain of challenging situations. For example, losing a job or a surviving a natural
disaster.

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2. Chronic Stress- Chronic Stress lacks a clear end point. Often they force people to assume
new roles or change their self-perception. Think of a refugee leaving their native country or
an injury leading to permanent disability. These are life-changing events- you rarely get to
go back to the way things were.
3. Distant Stress- Distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood abuse or
trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the immune system. Distant
stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional and mental health.

Frustration

Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a
goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity, resulting from
blocked goal. Frustration is associated with motivation since we won’t be frustrated if were not
motivated to achieve goal. Frustration may be external or personal.

External Frustration

External Frustration is distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that impedes

progress toward a goal.

Personal Frustration

Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristic that impedes
progress toward a goal.

Sources of Frustration

1. Physical Obstacles such as: drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc. that prevents a person from
doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
2. Social Circumstances such as: obstacles through the restrictions imposed by other people
and customs and laws of social being.
3. Personal Shortcomings such as: handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or paralysis.
4. Conflict between Motives such as: wanting to leave college for a year to try painting, but
also wanting to please one’s parents by remaining in school.

The following are common responses to frustration:

1. Aggression- It refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person or
objects. The intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.
2. Displaced Aggression- It refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than the
actual source of one’s frustration.
3. Scapegoating- It refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions not
of their making.
4. Escape- It is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by
psychologically withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to acre) or illegal drug
use (see more on segment 6 below).
Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism
Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with minor stress and
trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious ones, others are learned behavior, and still others

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are skills that individuals consciously master in order to reduce stress, or other intense emotion like
depression. Not all ways of coping are equally beneficial, and some can actually be very detrimental.
Defense Mechanisms refer to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. These are
unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and
to maintain self-image. Healthy persons normally use different defenses throughout life. According
to Sigmund Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid recognizing ideas or
emotions that may cause personal anxiety; it is the unrealistic strategies used by the ego to discharge
tension (Lahey, 2001 & Rathus, 2003).
Defense Mechanism is a behavior pattern, which maintains self-respect that reduces anxiety.
This is unconscious psychological process that acts as safety valve to provide relief from emotional
conflict and anxiety. Defense mechanism is a form of self-deception, which the person may not be
aware of. It is resorted to whenever psychological equilibrium is threatened by severe emotional
injury arising from the frustrations. It is type of reaction designed to maintain the individuals feeling
of adequacy and worth rather than to cope directly with the stress situation (Lagumen, 2016).
Defense mechanism is characterized by the following:
➢ They are ways of trying to reduce stress and anxiety.
➢ They involve the denying or distortion of reality.
➢ They operate at an unconscious level.
➢ They operate mechanically and involuntarily.
The following is the complete list of coping mechanisms:
1. Acting Out 20. Performing rituals
2. Aim inhibition 21. Post-Traumatic growth
3. Altruism 22. Projection
4. Attack 23. Provocation
5. Avoidance 24. Rationalization
6. Compartmentalization 25. Reaction- Formation
7. Compensation 26. Regression
8. Conversion 27. Repression
9. Denial 28. Self-Harming
10. Displacement 29. Somatization
11. Disassociation 30. Sublimation
12. Emotionality 31. Substitution
13. Fantasy 32. Suppression
14. Help-Rejecting complaining 33. Symbolization
15. Idealization 34. Trivializing
16. Identification 35. Undoing
17. Intellectualization 36. Positive Coping
18. Introjection
19. Passive aggression

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1. Acting out- This means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the Super ego
and yet desired by the Id. We thus cope with the pressure to do what we believe is wrong
by giving in to desire. A person who is acting out desires may do it in spite of his/her
conscience or may do it relatively little thought. Thus the act may be being deliberately bad
or may be thoughtless wrongdoing.
2. Aim Inhibition- Sometimes we desires and goals that we believe or realize that we are unable
to achieve. In aim inhibition, we lower our rights, reducing our goals to something that we
believe is actually more possible or realistic.
3. Altruism- Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of others. May be you can heal
yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.
4. Attack- The best form of defense attack is a common saying and is also common action, and
when we feel threatened or attacked (even psychologically), we still attack back. When a
person feels stressed in some way, he/she may lash out at whoever is in the way, whether
the other person is a real cause or not. He/she may also attack inanimate objects.
5. Avoidance- In avoidance, we simply find ways of avoiding having to face the unforgettable
situations, things or activities. The discomfort, for example, may come from unconscious
sexual or aggressive impulses.
6. Compartmentalization- It is ‘divide and conquer’ process for separating thoughts that will
conflict one another. This may happen when there are different beliefs or even when there
are conflicting values.
7. Compensation- Where a person has a weakness, they can say ‘ah, but I am good at…’, and
hence feel reasonably good about the situation.
8. Conversion- Conversion occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical
symptoms. The symptom may well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a
communication about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, blindness,
deafness, becoming mute or having a seizure. Lesser symptoms include tiredness, headaches
and twitches.
9. Denial- Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. The person
affected simply acts as if nothing happened, behaving in ways that others may see as bizarre.
10. Displacement- It refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target
when there are some reasons why the first target is not permitted or not available.
11. Dissociation- Disassociation involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main
area of conscious mind, in order to avoid the conflict that this would cause. This can also
appear as taking an objective, third person perspective, where you’ go to the balcony’ and
look down on the situation in order to remove emotion from your perspective (this is
sometimes called ‘dissociation of affect’).
12. Emotionally- When we become stressed or tension is caused, a number of negative emotions
may start to build, including anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When we display
these emotions it can affect others around us, arousing similar or polar feelings. Some people
either not good at restraining their emotions or are less concerned about the effect on others
and more about the personal benefits of emotional outburst. As a result, they regularly and
habitually display extreme emotions.
13. Fantasy or Day Dreaming- When we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we
channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings. Fantasy also provides
temporary relief from the general stresses of everyday living.
14. Fight or Flight Reaction- When we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies get
ready either for a fight to death or desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly superior
adversary. It also happens when we creative new idea makes us feel uncertain about things
of which we previously were sure. The biochemical changes in our brain makes us aggressive,
fighting the new idea, or makes us timid, fleeing from it.

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15. Help-rejecting Complaining- A person becomes upset or otherwise elicits supporting actions
from other people. When helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered, however, he/she
may reject this and return to his/her complaint.
16. Idealization-It is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of the
limitations of a desired thing. We also tend to idealize those things that we have chosen or
acquired. The opposite of idealization is Demonization, where something that is not desired
or disliked has its weak points exaggerated and its strong points played down.
17. Identification- It occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality such
that he/she appears to be more like other people. This process may be to copy specific
people or it may be to change to an idealized prototype. Areas of Identification may include
external elements, such as clothing and hair styles (which may be chosen without consciously
realizing the influences that are at play) as well as internal factors such as beliefs, values and
attitudes.
18. Intellectualization- This refers to a “flight into reason’, where the person avoids uncomfortable
emotions by focusing on facts and logic. The situation is treated as an interesting problem
that engages the person on a rational basis, whilst the emotional aspects are completely
ignored as being irrelevant. Jargon is often used as a device of intellectualization. By using
complex terminology, the focus becomes on the words and finer definitions rather than the
human effects.
19. Introjection- Introjection occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other
people who seem able to cope with the situation than we do.
20. Passive Aggression- A person who uses passive-aggressive method to cope stresses does
this by ‘attacking’ others through means. Thus the aggressive intent is cloaked by the passive
method. Passive aggression often appears when a person is asked to do something which
he/she wants to avoid for some reason (such as priority of other work). By appearing to agree
but not making any real commitment, he/she can avoid the action.
21. Post-traumatic Growth- An individual who has suffered a traumatic experience somehow find
ways to turn it into something good. Typically: Interpersonal relationship is improved, with
friends and family valued more and more time being spent in helping others. Self-perception
changes through the increase in resiliency gained from realizing you can cope with hardship.
22. Projection- When a person uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project these
onto other people, assigning the thoughts or feelings that he/she need to repress to a
convenient alternative target. Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other
people with which we are uncomfortable. We assume that they are like us, and in doing so
we allow ourselves to ignore those attributes they have with which we are uncomfortable.
23. Provocation on Free-Floating- When a person feels stressed, his/her way to avoid dealing
with the real issues is to provoke others into some kind of reaction. The attention can then
be put on the other person and away from the originator’s stress.
24. Reaction-Formation- Reaction Formation occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say
something and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what
he/she really wants. It also appears as defense against a feared social punishment. If I fear
that I will be criticized something, I very visibly act in a way that shows I am personally a long
way from a feared position.
25. Rationalization- When something happens that we find difficult to accept, then we will make
up a logical reason why it was happened. We rationalize to ourselves. We also find it very
important to rationalize to other people, even those we do not know.
26. Regression- Regression involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation,
rather than acting in more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations, with
a greater level of stress potentially leading to more overt regressive acts. Regressive
behavior can be simple and harmless, such as a person who is sucking a pen (as a Freudian

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regression to oral fixation), or may be more dysfunctional, such as crying or using petulant
arguments.
27. Repression- Repression involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible
areas of the subconscious mind. Thus, when things occur that we are unable to cope with
now, we push them away, either planning to deal with them at another time or hoping they
will fade away on their own accord. The level of ‘forgetting’ in repression can be vary from a
temporary abolition of uncomfortable thoughts to high level of amnesia, where events that
caused the anxiety are buried very deep.
28. Self-Harming- The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way or
otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.
Examples:
1. Slapping oneself
2. Punching a hard wall
3. Cutting oneself with a knife
4. Reckless Driving
5. Taking Narcotics Drugs
29. Somatization- Somatization occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and
subconscious symptoms. This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems
and worse.
30. Sublimation- It is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This
can simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work. Many
sports and games are sublimations of aggressive urges, as we sublimate the desire to fight
into the ritualistic activities of formal competition.
31. Suppression- This is where or the person consciously and deliberately pushes down any
thought that leads to feelings of anxiety. Actions that take person into anxiety-creating
situations may also be avoided.
32. Substitution- This takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something
that does not lead to discomfort.
33. Symbolization- Symbolization is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct
symbols. Symbols are often physical items, although there may also be symbolic acts and
metaphoric ideas.
34. Trivializing- When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is important to
us, we are faced with the problem of having our expectations and predictions dashed. We
may even have told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that
we have not gained what we expected. One way that we trivialize is to make something a
joke, laughing it off.
35. Undoing- It refers to performance of an act to ‘undo’ a previous unacceptable act or thought.
Confession is a form of undoing, including that done in a church to a priest or a secret
admission to a close friend.
36. Positive Coping- These are a number of approaches that we can take to cope in a positive
way with problems, including:
a. Immediate problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the immediate cause of our
difficulty.
b. Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that the problem will never
recur.
c. Benefit-finding: Looking for the good things amongst the bad
Spiritual growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way to grow ‘spiritually’ or emotionally

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