COMPRESSED NOTES CHAPTER 3: CELL DIVISION SB015

CHAPTER 3: CELL DIVISION

3.1 THE CELL CYCLE

✓ Show the stages of cell cycle
✓ Explain the stages in cell cycle

▪ Cell cycle is a complete sequence of events in the life of an individual diploid cell.
▪ Involves two major phases:
Interphase • Longest phase and account for
90% of the cell cycle.
• It includes 3 subphases that are:
(a) G1 (First gap) phase -The first
growth phase
(b) S (Synthesiss) phase
(c) G2 (Second gap) phase -The
second growth phase
• During this phase the cell grows &
copies its chromosomes in
preparation to enter M phase

The M/ • Includes mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitotic
phase

PHASES IN THE CELL CYCLE

i. G1 - The first growth phase ii. S phase
▪ The longest phase ▪ Synthesis of histone protein
▪ Volume of cytoplasm increase causes the cell ▪ DNA replicates and consists of two identical
growth chromatids.
▪ Protein, carbohydrate and lipid synthesis ▪ Two centrioles appear during this stage.
▪ Increase number of organelles/ organelles synthesis
iii. G2 - The second growth phase iv. Mitotic phase
▪ The cell will continue to grow and produce new ▪ Includes both:
proteins. ✓ Mitosis - process of nuclear division
▪ Further synthesis of organelle like mitochondria (karyokinesis) involving prophase,
▪ Energy stores are increased as ATP synthesis metaphase, anaphase and telophase stage
occurs. ✓ Cytokinesis - division of cytoplasm
▪ Microtubule form

3.2 MITOSIS

✓ Describe the 4 stages of the mitosis and the behavior of the chromosomes for each stage
✓ Describe briefly the cytokinesis process in animal & plant cell
✓ Compare the cell division in animal & plant

• Mitosis is the process of nuclear division of somatic cells which produce two daughter cells that
having the same number (2n) and genetically identical chromosomes as the parent cells.
• It ensures genetic stability through generations.
• Example of somatic cells : Liver cell, lung cell (animal)
Meristematic cell in shoot apex & root tips (plant)
• There are 4 stages in mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

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Prophase
✓ Chromatin/ chromosomes more tightly coiled & folded//
shorten and thicken
✓ Chromosome becomes visible
✓ Each chromosome consists a pair of sister chromatids
which are joined at the centromere
▪ The nucleolus disappears
▪ Nuclear envelope disintegrates
▪ Formation of spindle fibers/ / microtubules
2n = 4 (chromosomes)
Metaphase
✓ Chromosomes aligned/ arranged at the metaphase plate
✓ Sister chromatids attached to spindle fibers at the
centromere.

Anaphase
▪ Centromeres divide
▪ Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
as kinetochore microtubule shorten
▪ Mitochondria provide energy for this process

* After separated, sister chromatids now can be call as

chromosomes/ daughter chromosomes
Telophase
▪ Chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles of the cell
▪ Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen/ become less dense, thus
becoming invisible chromatin again.
▪ Nuclear envelope and nucleoli reappear.
▪ Spindle fibre/ microtubules disintegrate

2n = 4 (chromosomes)
Cytokinesis
Animal cell Plant cell
▪ Possess centrosomes that consist of two ▪ Do not possess centrioles but the spindle fibres are
centrioles. formed from microtubule-organizing centre.
▪ Cytokinesis occurs by the formation of cleavage ▪ Cytokinesis occurs by the formation of cell plate
furrow and the constriction of contractile ring. through fusion of vesicles containing cell wall
materials derived from Golgi body.
Explanation
In animal cell, the process is known as cleavage. No formation of cleavage furrow due to present of cell
The cytokinesis starts with formation of cleavage wall. During telophase, vesicles derived from Golgi
furrow at the previous metaphase plate. Actin and apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of
myosin microfilament form the contractile ring on the cell producing a vesicle that contains pectin &
the cytoplasmic side. Contractile ring contracts and hemicellulose. Vesicles fuse together to from a cell
cleavage furrow deepen gradually until parent cell plate. Cell plate expands from the centre towards the
pinches into two daughter cells. cell wall until its surrounding membrane fuses with the
plasma membrane. Two daughter cells are produced. A
new cell wall arises from the cell plate.
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Comparison of mitosis in plant and animal cell

Similarity:
(i) Involve four phases
(ii) Produces two identical / similar daughter cells

Differences:
Mitosis in animal cell Mitosis in plant cell
Formation of cleavage furrow during cytokinesis Formation of cell plate during cytokinesis
During telophase, contractile ring is formed from During telophase, cell plate is formed from vesicles
microtubules/ actin filaments derived from Golgi body.
Occurs in all somatic cells Only occurs in meristematic cells
Presence of aster/ the formation of spindle fibres is Absence of aster/ the formation
between two pair of centrioles of spindle fibres is in the absence of centrioles
Cytokinesis begin from the outer inwards Cytokinesis begin from the centre outwards.

Significance of mitosis
Significance Explanation
Genetic stability Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell and no variation
in genetic information can be introduced during mitosis.
Growth and development Mitosis increases the number of cell within an organism.
Cell replacement Replacement of damage cells and tissues involves mitosis.
Regeneration Some animals are able to regenerate part of the body.
Asexual reproduction The production of new individuals of a species by one parent organism.

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Mitosis in animal cell

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3.3 MEIOSIS
✓ Define centromere, homologous chromosome, chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma &
crossing over
✓ State the stages of Meiosis I & Meiosis II
✓ Explain the behaviour of the chromosomes at each stage
Terms in meiosis
Centromere ▪ The specialized constricted region joining two sister chromatids
▪ The region where spindle fiber binds to the chromosomes
▪ The position of centromeres varies
Homologous ▪ A pair of chromosomes of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern
chromosome that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci.
▪ One member of each pair comes from male parents (paternal genes) and the other from
female parent (maternal genes)

Chromatids ▪ One of the two identical halves of a duplicated chromosome

▪ Two identical chromatids which are held together at the same centromere that make a
chromosome are referred as sister chromatids
chromatid

Synapsis ▪ The pairing up process between homologous chromosome

Bivalent ▪ A pair of homologous chromosomes that line up beside each other.
Tetrad ▪ A pair of homologous chromosomes with four chromatids
Crossing ▪ An exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous
over chromosomes

Chiasma ▪ The region at which crossing over occur between non-sister chromatids ( Prophase I )

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STAGES IN MEIOSIS I
(SEPARATES HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES)
Prophase I
* Diagram show a meiosis in plant cell
▪ Longest phase
▪ This phase can be divided into 5 sub-stages:
1. Leptotene: Chromatin becomes condensed
2. Zygotene: Synapsis occurs. Homologous
chromosomes pair up to form bivalent/ tetrad
3. Pachytene: Crossing over between non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosome at chiasma
4. Diplotene: Homologous chromosome begin to repel
each other but remain attached at chiasmata.
5. Diakinesis: The nucleolus disappears. Nuclear 2n = 4 (chromosomes)
envelope disintegrates

Metaphase I

✓ Homologous chromosomes aligned randomly at the

metaphase plate.
✓ This mechanism involved is called independent
assortment

Anaphase I

▪ Microtubules start to shorten due to the contraction of

spindle fibers
✓ Homologous chromosomes separate and move to
the opposite poles
✓ Causes chiasmata break
✓ Centromere do not separate

Telophase I

✓ Chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles of the cell.

✓ Each pole has a haploid (n) chromosome.
▪ Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with telophase
I, forming 2 haploid daughter cells
▪ In animal cleavage furrow while in plant cell plate
forms

n = 2 (chromosomes)

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STAGES IN MEIOSIS II
(SEPARATES SISTER CHROMATIDS)
Prophase II
✓ Chromosome condense// shorten and thicken
✓ Chromosome become visible
▪ The nucleolus disappears.
▪ Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
▪ Formation of spindle fibers

n = 2 (chromosomes)
Metaphase II
✓ The chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate
▪ Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are not genetically
identical

Anaphase II
✓ Sister chromatids separate and moved to the opposite
poles
✓ Centromeres separates
✓ Daughter chromosomes move towards opposite poles

Telophase II
✓ The chromosomes uncoiled and lengthen
✓ Cytokinesis occurs
▪ The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four
daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.

n = 2 (chromosomes)

Cytokinesis
In animal it involved the formation of cleavage furrow while in plant cell plate forms

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Meiosis I in animal cell

Meiosis II in animal cell

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Significance of meiosis
✓ To produce haploid gametes (eggs or sperms) that genetically non-identical to the parent cells/ halving the
number of chromosomes
✓ Genetic variation/ genetic recombinant
✓ Maintain the chromosome number from generation to generation. Halving the chromosome number of
daughter cells ensures that when gametes with the haploid number fuse to form a zygote the normal diploid
number is restored
Meiosis leads to genetic variation and genetic recombinant due to:
1. During prophase I, chiasma form and crossing over occur. Chiasma and crossing-over can separate and
rearrange genes located on the same chromosome.
2. During metaphase I, independent assortment of chromosomes occurs, in which there are random
orientation of homologous chromosomes on the metaphase plate.

Location of meiosis
Animal cell: gonads/ ovary/ testis/ germ cells Plant cell: Anther/ ovary/ ovule

COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Similarities:
✓ Both involved DNA replication before the process begins.
✓ Both have interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
✓ Both type of cell division passes genetic information to the next generation
✓ Mitosis and meiosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells.

Differences:
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Occurs in somatic cell. Occurs in germ/ reproductive cells (ovaries in
females and testes in males
Conserves chromosome number (2n) Reduces the chromosome number by half (n)
By the end of prophase, no synapsis occurs to form Synapsis occurs to form bivalent at the
bivalent. homologous chromosomes during prophase I
Chiasma does not form so there is no crossing over. Chiasma form and crossing over occurs during
prophase I. Genetic variability is a result from the
crossing over.
The content of genetic in daughter cell is identical in The content of genetic in daughter cell is not
parental cells. identical as the parental cell.
Two daughter cells each diploid (2n) Four daughter cells each haploid (n)
Cytokinesis occurs once. Cytokinesis occurs twice.
The daughter cell can undergoes mitosis and meiosis. The daughter cell can undergoes mitosis but not
meiosis.

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END OF THE CHAPTER

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