LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE,

TECHNOLOGY, AND
SOCIETY.

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Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society
Lesson 1: Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society.

Learning Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the importance of studying science, technology, and society;
2. explain how science and technology relates to a problem of societal concern; and
3. develop a deeper interest in the field of science, technology, and society.

INTRODUCTION

Many students might question why Science, Technology, and Society (STS) was made a core subject for college
students. While it seems that it should only be given to Science-major students, it should not be neglected that
STS has an effect to everyday life of every single person. From the ancient past to the modern present,
the significant contribution and effects of science and technology to the society is traceable. As Russel (2016)
said, we are in a middle of a race where we struggle between the advantages and disadvantages brought about
by science.

THE CHALLENGE OF SCIENCE

Great minds in the past have been challenged through science and technology (S&T) to prove the origin of the
universe, and the position of man in the universe. This becomes evident during the time of Scientific Revolution
in the 16th to 17th centuries when Galileo Galilei, Nicolas Copernicus, and other scientists argued on
the position of the earth in relation to the sun. Is earth the center of the universe with the sun and all other
planets revolving around it? Or is earth just one of the other planets revolving around the sun while rotating in
its own axis? This does not only challenged astronomy but also challenged man’s belief of the Bible when in
the Book of Joshua it was said that “the sun stood still” (Joshua 10:13). It also challenged the way man views
himself when he has to ask himself, “Am I really part of the center of the universe?”

Later on comes the discussion on the origin of man. Is man really a product of natural processes such as
evolution, as Charles Darwin said? Or is man miraculously created by a supernatural divine being? This again
challenged man what to take in and believe and how he would view himself and others. Not only does science
and technology affected the way man sees himself but also has affected the way he lives. Different inventions
and innovations have come through the years that many of man’s daily activities have been improved and
altered.

Electricity has lighted many homes. Transportation becomes faster with the coming of trains, planes, and cars.
Communication was eased by the invention of telegraph and telephone. Farm tractors made farming easier and
faster not to mention the discoveries of different ways on how to propagate plants faster. Many different
machines have replaced manual labor. Different diseases which seemed untreatable and have caused high
mortality rate now have treatments. All of which have direct effect in the economy of any nation.

THE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO THE SOCIETY

In 2011 to 2015, Research and Development as component of project planning of the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST) got the highest budget allocation with P1.433B in 2011 to P3.802B in 2015 which
shows an average of 16.2% increase every year (DOST, 2015). The government has given this much of budget
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to the department because of the significant role research and development in this field plays basically in
industrialization and commercialization that can help improve the economy of the country.

As much as this is of great help in the economic growth of any progressing nation, the total effect of S&T in
the life of all men should not be neglected. It is fairly obvious how S&T has improved man’s way of life but it
is also notable how it has caused harm to both the environment and people. Air, water, and land become
polluted which in turn caused man health problems. Imbalance in the ecosystem has also caused other species
to be extinct causing changes in the environment and the climate as well. Men have become more fearless in
their pursuit for riches and power because of the creation of different destructive devices like guns, explosives,
and nuclear power. Not only that these inventions are dangerous in themselves, but these have also caused man
to be even more dangerous.

Students of this course are invited to be responsible citizens of the country by making themselves aware of how
S&T is bringing about change. It is calling every individual who takes part in the development the effects of S
& T and experiences the effects of it to understand how it has shaped and shaping the society he is living in. It
and would benefit students to see how science is related to society and how technology is related to society. To
do so, it will really be helpful to start with understanding the definition of these words.

FACE TO FACE WITH SCIENCE

Some may think that science is very easy to define and might say that it is just as it is. But philosophers are said
to be in argument about the definition of science for decades already because it has a wide coverage of human
dealings (Understanding Science, n.d.). Science can be taken as the investigation of the physical world in which
experiments are rendered to explain matters of concern. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines science as a
knowledge involving general truths and general laws that is taken from a systematic study which is concerned
with evidence and theories. To have a face to face with science, it would be best to explore its wide coverage
by identifying its common characteristics. Four common characteristics that categorize something as science
will be discussed below.

Focuses on the Natural World

Science focuses on the natural world. It is through science that we understand the natural world. Its main
concern is the physical world. It studies animals, plants, rocks, man, and all other kinds of matter. Science is
not concerned with supernatural world which cannot be tested and is not governed by the laws of the natural
world. (Understanding Science, n.d.)

Science aims to explain and provide more understanding of the natural world. This is a continuous study of the
physical world to look for evidence that could prove something. The goal is to see how something works and
see the components that make up the area being studied. Findings can change after time depending on the new
evidence that may arise but all scientific idea is said to be reliable because before it could get scientific
acceptance, first it has to be supported with a number of evidences. (Understanding Science, n.d.)

Goes Through Experiments

Science subjects any matter of study to experimentation. Something has to be tested and should arrive at a
number of consistent observations so it could be taken as true. Anything that cannot be subjected to
experimentation and could not give any observable data cannot be regarded as science. (Understanding Science,
n.d.)

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Relies on Evidence

As science requires experimentations and observations, it is only right that it would look for evidence that will
support the truthfulness of something. For something to be really regarded as science, it should be tested not
only by one group as that can be taken of as a bias. Evidences that are relevant to the matter being
studied are what scientists are looking for to confirm something to be of science. (Understanding Science, n.d.)

Passes Through the Scientific Community

Science requires a number of consistent evidences for not to be biased, it has to go through different groups
or people who would qualify the idea. In finding different evidences, a scientist would likely check on different
angles concerning the matter of study and would therefore work with people of different expertise.
(Understanding Science, n.d.)
Although, it was said that science is continuous in that it is always trying to understand and explain the
natural world, the way that it is being understood may change over time as the society also changes. Scientific
experimentations and processes may vary as changes with the concerns in the society takes place,
as communication and technology advances, and as further discoveries and understandings are achieved by
science.

FACE TO FACE WITH TECHNOLOGY

As scientists have been arguing as to the definition of science, the same is true with the definition of technology.
The word seems to have come naturally that one may think that its definition is a given already. Most people
would relate technology with machines and tools that could make any work faster and easier. And that is why
technology is commonly defined as a means to an end and a human activity.
In his book The Nature of Technology: What it is and how it evolves, W. Brian Arthur (2009) defined
technology in three ways. First, he said that technology is a “means to fulfill a human purpose” in that a method
or any material may be utilized to serve a human purpose. Second, he said that technology is an “assemblage
of practices and components” And third, he said that technology is a “collection of devices and engineering
practices available to a culture” (Arthur, 2009, p. 28) With this definition, Martin Heidegger has rightly
summarized it as the instrumental and anthropological definition of technology.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FUSED TOGETHER

Science and technology is almost impossible to be separated from one another. It is hard to distinguish
“where science leaves off and technology begins” (Rhodes, 1999). Science aims to explain the natural physical
world and as it does, it gives way for technology to address whatever science has discovered. Machines,
computers, and tools are technologies that are brought about by science. But that is not all. Smaller and simpler
things like medicines, plastic bottles, or any other everyday thing that we use are also technologies that started
out from science. Tools and techniques used to cure diseases in the hospitals are also technologies that started
from the discovery of science. It is said that technology is science applied. Science and technology work hand
in hand. The technologies that started off from science and are now available to man also lead to new
understanding of the natural world that would then again lead to further innovations.

WHERE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IS TAKING THE SOCIETY

For the past centuries, science and technology has marked a great progress in the society. Man has
benefitted much from the advances made with land, water, air and animals. Machines and tools have made
living so much easier. Communication and transportation, infrastructures, and agriculture have become more
convenient.
But science and technology would not exist without the society. It is the society that allows for the
discoveries and inventions to take place. It is the society that decides how science and technology is to be
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utilized. And yet, society needs science and technology to continue. National progress now relies so much on
science and technology in the area of industry, health care, national security, and environmental protection.
In as much as science and technology is taking the society towards progress and development, the risks
and dangers that come with it should not be taken lightly and accepted blindly. Everyone should have keen
eyes and observe closely where science and technology is taking the society. It is the goal of this book that
students of STS should be the guardians of the society, not only to make them aware of how science and
technology is shaping the society but how they can partake in keeping the balance between the benefits and
dangers of science and technology.

NATURE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Having seen the wider context of science and technology from the perspective of their historical development
we move on to more specific questions on the nature of science and technology. It is important that we have a
working understanding of the character of science and technology before we continue to discuss the subsequent
topics.
We shall discuss the meaning of science, technology, the types of research activities; the forces that
drive the advances in science and technology; the kinds of technology; the ethos of science and technology;
and the limitations of science and technology.

SCIENCE
Understanding the Nature SCIENCE

Science may be viewed from two angles - science as content, and science as process. As content, science
refers to the accumulated store of knowledge about the physical universe: the facts and patterns of its behavior
in space and time, in terms of concepts and principles. Such knowledge is found in books, journals, and recently
in electronic databases. Such knowledge is what is taught in schools and universities in the different areas of
science, such as biology, chemistry, physics, and earth sciences.

Specific examples of science as content are: the facts of our solar system; the concept of gravity that ties into a
pattern our various experiences such as the fall of a leaf, the growth of trees, the shape of the earth and the
structure of the universe; the principle of valence that brings order to the myriad combinations of
elements forming the material substances that we see; the law of natural selection that unifies the vast
phenomena of the biological world.

On the other hand, as process, science refers to the dynamic interaction between theory and experiment in
arriving at concepts and principles governing a particular domain of physical phenomena, say the behavior of
electrons in photosynthesis. The process involves the motivation and the attitude of a scientist or a group of
scientists, the climate of opinion of the scientific community, and the context of the larger society. The success
of a scientist or a group of scientists will always involve the work of other scientists, either directly through
collaboration or consultation, or indirectly through the use of the results of their work.

This highlights the cumulative character of science where the output of one is the input of another and so on
down the line. On the other hand, the expectations of society at large exert an indirect influence on the process,
as societal expectations form the background of scientists' thoughts. The social milieu at the time of Newton
and his contemporaries is one in which navigational aids through sightings of heavenly bodies were a necessity
for trade and commerce. The hallmark that distinguishes science from any other study is the role of precise and
quantitative observation: the ultimate test of ideas, of theories is conformance with the results of precise

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measurements. The process is characterized by a critical attitude that recognizes only the authority of
experiment.

ETHOS OF SCIENCE

In contrast to conventional religion, there is no set of dogmas in science. In fact, dogma and science are
opposites. The attitude of the scientist is one that holds all knowledge (theories) in science as provisional, not
complete. It is one in which scientists live comfortably with doubts and uncertainties, where the most cherished
ideas dissolve in the face of contrary evidence.

TECHNOLOGY
Understanding the Nature TECHNOLOGY

Technology refers to the combination of the software (knowledge) and the hardware (machines and processes)
relevant in the manipulation of the environment towards the manufacture of a product or the provision of a
service.
As the level of technology as well as understanding rose, the level of interaction between science and
technology proportionally picked up. Science and technology are closely interrelated. Understanding the
underlying mechanisms of a set phenomena, say the phenomena of heat, facilitates and accelerates progress in
the use of aspects of the phenomena in the form of a technology package. Refrigerators and air conditioners
are examples of such of such technology package. The whole array of heat-engine-driven vehicles or
machineries - from automobiles, to power plants, to jet airplanes - is another example. On the other hand,
advances in technology lead to more precise measurements which become input to advances in science.
The relationship between science and technology is one of mutually beneficial interaction. With the
definitions above, a comparison of the two may help further delineate the meaning of each science and
technology. Science is the “know-why” of things; technology, the “know how” of things. The object of science
is knowledge; that of technology is a product. Research is the name preferably used for the activities in science;
development, for the activities in technology.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Overlap rather than sharp boundary very often characterizes the relationship among research activities.
However, categories help our understanding by delineating boundaries, fuzzy though they are. Research
activities may be classified into three categories: namely, fundamental research, applied research, and
experimental development.
• Fundamental research may be further subdivided into two kinds. One kind pursues knowledge for its own
sake. In this category belong researches in such areas as cosmology, elementary particle physics. There
are no foreseen applications of the findings in these fields. The other kind is called oriented investigation
where the expectation is that the research will yield knowledge that will be important in a wide area.
An example of current research is the investigation of amorphous magnetic systems such as the spin
glass. A theoretical breakthrough here will pave the way to the understanding of the other half of the
universe - the non-crystalline parts of the universe.
• Applied research is a programmed set of activities with a specified target and expected results. This type
of research activity uses knowledge gained from fundamental research. An example is the study of the
effect of fertilizers on the growth of plants. The relevant knowledge gained from fundamental research

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 in plant physiology will serve as guides in doing this investigation and what results to expect. Another
example is the determination of the dependence of the electronic properties of a semiconductor
material on the amount of intentional doping of impurities. The concepts and principles from Solid
State Physics will be relevant in carrying out this study.
• Experimental development is the translation of laboratory results to the production line, in the manufacture
of a product. This activity is directly and immediately connected to the creation of wealth in a country.
It involves the search of the most efficient process and arrangement for the commercial production of
a given product to minimize cost and maximize profits. In these times of keen competition, this is
indispensable to enter or maintain or increase one's share in the world market.

We note that countries like Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea spend more than 50% of their R & D funds in
experimental development. The implication here is that these so-called NIC's - Newly Industrializing Countries
- make use of the results of fundamental and applied research in advanced countries, which are readily available,
and concentrate their resources in the development of products based on those results, instead of allocating
their scarce resources to doing fundamental research for generating new knowledge.

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY
In view of the widespread use of the phrase "high-tech" in conversation as well as in media, it is useful to
classify the types of technology according to low, medium, and high technology. As in all such classification, one
type shades into the other.
• Low technology refers to a process or product derived from empirical know-how. An example of this
type of technology is the conventional plow. A carpenter of average skill could fabricate a plow of the
wooden type. For the metal variety, a town tinsmith could easily fashion one, given the bulk of metal
out of which the plow is made. The fabrication of the plow does not require knowledge of science.
The agricultural revolution in the Neolithic Age or the First Revolution was based on low technology.
• Medium technology refers to a process or product derived from classical science. An example of this
type of technology is electrical machinery. A certain level of understanding of the science of electricity
and magnetism is needed in making an electric motor or electric generator, given the materials out of
which the electrical machine is fabricated. Another example of medium technology is the farmer's
tractor. An understanding of the science of internal combustion engines and of the science of
electromagnetism is needed in the production of a farmer's tractor. The industrial revolution or the
Second Revolution was based on medium technology.
• High technology refers to a process or product derived from the quantum nature of matter. An
example of this type of technology is microelectronics. A specific product under microelectronics is a
discrete transistor. This device exploits the quantum behavior of electrons in the crystalline solid. The
design and fabrication of a transistor device requires an understanding of the properties of
semiconductor materials at the atomic level. The information revolution or the Third Revolution which
the world is presently undergoing is based on high technology.

Technological Change
In this section, we shall discuss the components of technology; the life cycle of technology; the
dynamics of technological change; and the supply-push and the demand-pull strategy.

Components of Technology
In general, we may look at technology as having two kinds of components - the embodied component
and the disembodied component. The embodied component is usually what is referred to when people use the
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term technology. This component refers to the physical embodiment of the technology — the equipment, the
appliance, the machine, or the manufacturing plant. To use the language of computers, the embodied
component is the hardware of technology.

On the other hand, the disembodied component of technology is usually forgotten or excluded when people
talk of technology. Yet, it is the most important component if we are to attain the objective self-reliance. It
includes both information and understanding. Information refers to instructions and data plant; the maintenance
of the machine or regarding plant; the materials operation and of the tools that were used in the machine or
manufacture of the machine or plant; the process in the manufacture of the machine or plant. In short, the
information points to the various "recipes" regarding the machine or plant useful to or needed by a technician
or engineer.

Understanding refers to the science on which the technology is based, found in books and journals, as actualized
in the minds of engineer-scientists or scientist engineers who conceived and designed the machine or plant. Of
all components, this is the most difficult to acquire. It requires scientists and engineers with advanced degrees
in this age of science-based technologies.

Both information and understanding constitute the so-called software of technology. To acquire the hardware of
technology is easy - just buy it. Part of the information on a given technology, on the operation and maintenance
of the machine or plant, comes with the purchase. The rest of the information, mostly proprietary, can be found
in the data bases of the manufacturer. This information may be acquired by either purchase through licensing
agreement or technology espionage. The component on understanding implies institutions that give training
in advanced degrees in science and technology, turning out graduates with the necessary background to
understand the science basis of the technology.

With these components of technology, technology transfer is not the mere acquisition of the machine or plant
In view of the objective of becoming self-reliant in the given technology, it is most of all the acquisition of the
software: the information and the understanding.

LIFE CYCLE OF TECHNOLOGY

Just like an organism, technology goes through a cycle of birth and death: incubation, introduction,
growth, maturity, and decline. In the incubation period, many ideas are thought out in the design of a new
product. Along the way, many of them are eliminated; until one becomes the successful idea and implemented
in the manufacture of a product.
The second stage begins - the introduction. The technology undergoes its first application; it is
introduced for the first time in the market. It could be rejected outright and could suffer either of two fates:
temporary freeze only to be successful at a later time, or permanent death. If it is accepted, then it moves on to
the third stage - growth. The volume of application increases as acceptance grows in correlation with the
continuous improvement that the technology undertakes. Maturity, the fourth stage of its cycle, is reached when
the volume of application is at the peak. In time, new related more efficient technologies are born.
Obsolescence overtakes a given technology, and the fifth and final stage decline - sets in. And a new
technology takes over, going through the same life cycle, all over again. We may look at the first two stages
mentioned above as the launching of a given technology. A complete launching of a given technology involves
the following: (1) R & D investment — money and manpower are needed to turn a successful idea into a
product; (2) market research — the technology itself and/or the packaging of the technology may or may not
be acceptable, (3) design work — a detailed blueprint of the product is needed for its manufacture, (4) planning
and installation of the production plant; (5) trial production; (6) testing and improvement; (7) promotion.

Dynamics of Technological Change

When television first appeared and introduced to the public, some negative reactions registered among
the older population. Some bewailed the fact that television has altered the neighborhood relationship. Instead
of spending time chatting with their neighbors, people tend to stay at home and view television. This is an
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example of a discontinuous type of innovation. It involves the generation of new behavior patterns among the
population that use the technology.
On the other hand, the introduction of color television sets is not expected to and, in fact, did not
generate disruptive impact on the behavior pattern already established by the use of black-and-white television.
This is an example of a continuous type of innovation. It involves little or no change in the behavior patterns of
people. In the last example, the innovation consisted in the alteration of an existing product. At this point of
world development, the great bulk of the product in the market this year was there last year.
Corresponding to these two types of innovation are the ways of their propagation. For the
discontinuous type of innovation, the spread of adoption of a radically new technology is through diffusion. It
involves the conversion of new clients to a new idea as embodied in the new product. For the continuous type
of innovation, the propagation of the technology is through substitution. It is the displacement of the old
product by the new product. The client is familiar with the old product. It is a question of the desirability of
the added features that the new product offers.

Supply-push and Demand-pull Strategy

In connection with the subject on technological change, it is instructive to include a discussion of two
terms that are popularly used locally: supply-push and demand pull strategy. The generation of new technologies
may be promoted through two strategies: supply-push or demand-pull. In the supply-push strategy, the
generation of new technologies is not in response to actual present demand, but in anticipation of future
demand or created demand for the technology.
For example, superconductivity is not a present demand by the industry in our country. But, we see a
demand for superconductors in the future or the demand for superconductors can be created when the
technology will have been available. This means that when the supply of the superconductor technology is
available, those involve will push for the technology in the market. That's why the name supply-push strategy.
In the demand-pull strategy, the generation of new technologies is in response to actual present
demand and not in anticipation of future demand or created demand for the technology. For example, a more
efficient process of drying copra is demanded by the industry. This is a present demand, not a future demand.
This means that the present demand for a more efficient copra drying technology will pull the generation of
such technology. That's why the name of demand-pull strategy. The level of development of a given country
will require a different mix of these two strategies. The policy orientation of the government administrators will
dictate the actual mix that is implemented.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

The two views discussed above have corresponding policy implications as regards the way the Government
dispenses funds in support of the development of science. For the internalist view, the attitude that the
Government ought to have may be summarized as follows: let them be. Since advances in science are
determined by factors internal to the discipline and by the unpredictable element of creativity of scientists, the
Government ought just to give funding to scientists with no questions asked. Let them be.
On the other hand, for the externalist view, the attitude of the Government ought to be one in which
its influence in guiding the development of science be such as to maximize the congruence of its needs with
that of science. From the discussions above, we see the complementation of the internalist and the externalist
view of the advance of science. In the same token, the attitude of Government in dispensing its support for
the development of science ought to exhibit the same complementation.

LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

There is no elixir of life; there is no philosopher's stone. Finitude engulfs man everywhere - including his science
and technology.

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The search for perfection, the search for completeness, has been a constant motivation of man in doing science.
Perfection and completeness is the holy grail. The possibility of ever achieving the goal of this search was put
to doubt in the same decade as the discovery of the uncertainty principle by Heisenberg. In 1930, through the
work of Kurt Godel, it was established that the attainment of perfection and completeness even right at the
very citadel of reason — mathematics — is impossible. This result is contained in Godel's famous theorem. Let
us put this famous theorem in context. It has been the dream of mathematicians to reduce all of mathematics
to a finite number of axioms, in the manner of Euclidean geometry.

This means that, from a finite set of statements, all of mathematics already established or yet to be discovered
can be arrived at by deductive reasoning. This was one of the outstanding problems posed by one of the great
twentieth century mathematician, David Hilbert. What Godel's work showed is the following. Say, we have a
set of axiomatic statements about an arithmetic system, from which any other statement about the
arithmetic system can be deduced or proved. Godel found out that there are statements on the arithmetic
system which are true which cannot be deduced from or proved using the set of axiomatic statements. If the
set of axiomatic statements is enlarged to accommodate the proof of the statements found to be true, then
other new statements crop up which are true but which cannot be deduced from or proved using the enlarged
set of axiomatic statements. This goes on ad infinitum. Moreover, Godel showed that one cannot prove the
consistency of one's axioms. What is the interpretation of Godel's work? Simply put, all of mathematical
knowledge cannot be encompassed by a finite set of statements. Completeness is denied to human beings as
far as mathematics is concerned. There will always be mathematical truths that lie beyond the compass of man's
knowledge at any time.

To put it another way, our mathematical knowledge will always be incomplete. This makes mathematics as human
as any other of man's endeavor. Future mathematicians will take heart that they will always have a chance to
discover significant mathematical truths, despite the vast amount of accumulated mathematical knowledge.
Now, mathematics per se is not the subject of our discussion. It is science — and science is not mathematics.
There are two aspects here.

One, although science is not mathematics, science is mathematical (at least the physical sciences) through and
through in its formulation. Consequently, it is expected that the intrinsic incompleteness that limits mathematics
holds true also in the sciences -- at least in the physical sciences.

Two, in science, there is not only the requirement of consistency, but also the requirement of correspondence
with reality. This additional requirement in science makes for the greater limitation in science. Reality is illusive.
The conventional wisdom is that science can only hope to better and better approximate reality. We now move
on to a different kind of limitation. This is limitation in connection with the domain of validity of the scientific
method. Powerful though the methods of science and technology are, limitations circumscribe science and
technology just like any other human endeavor. Not all questions meaningful to ask from the point
of view of humans are amenable to the methods of science and technology. For example, the search for meaning
in life, a most natural and important question to each individual, is of a kind that is outside the direct ability of
science and technology to address.

The question of the purpose of living is another instance. Only questions pertaining to the physical aspects of
existence or of the universe are amenable to the methods of science and technology. Even for these kind of
questions, the answer that science and technology give remains provisional, which may have to be modified
or discarded in the face of contrary data. The answer of science and technology is never complete. Moreover,
the products of science and technology may have detrimental effects to man or to society. Science and
technology may provide man the means, but by themselves do not set the ends.

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SOCIETY
Understanding the Nature SOCIETY

STS social construction

Social constructions are human created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions.
These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these
constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship.

The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be
one way or the other. According to the article “What is Social Construction?" by Laura Flores, “Social
construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that:

1. X need not have existed or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by
the nature of things; it is not inevitable

Very often they go further, and urge that:

1. X is quite as bad as it is.

2. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed.”

In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to
the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between
intelligence and the nature of a human’s ethnicity or race (X may not be at all as it is).

An example of a social construction within science and technology can be found in the high-wheel bicycle. A
high-wheel bicycle is able to reach higher translational velocities than smaller bicycles by replacing the front
wheel with a larger radius wheel. One notable trade-off is the decreased stability leading to a greater risk of
falling.

This trade-off resulted in many riders getting in accidents by losing balance while riding the bicycle or being
thrown over the handle bars. Thus, a technological innovation or progress caused some unintended and
undesired consequences. The bicycle was altered to fit within society’s standards of vehicle safety in response
to the social constructions that caused the bicycle to be designed in the first place.

Technoscience

Technoscience is a subset of Science, Technology, and Society studies that focuses on the inseparable
connection between science and technology. It states that fields are linked and grow together, and scientific
knowledge requires an infrastructure of technology in order to remain stationary or move forward. Both
technological development and scientific discovery drive one another towards more advancement.
Technoscience excels at shaping human thought and behavior by opening up new possibilities that gradually
or quickly come to be perceived as necessities.

Gentle tyranny

Overview

Gentle Tyranny is a sociological concept that describes the unintended restrictions placed on a population
through social constructs. Some hallmarks of gentle tyranny include restriction on choice and is typically very
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subtle. The concept of Gentle Tyranny can be generally thought of as a projection of "Hobson’s choice",
wherein the illusion of choice is presented, but in reality, the consumer (in the classic example) actually has
none. Referencing a stable owner named Thomas Hobson (1544-1631), he infamously would offer customers
the choice of buying the horse in the stall closest to the door or not purchasing one at all. This “take it or leave
it” attitude is endemic to Gentle Tyranny. While Gentle Tyranny is not explicitly defined in sociological circles,
but more a general nomenclature for certain social and technological side effects, including the unintended
consequences that arise from new developments. However, Gentle Tyranny, across all fronts, describes the
phenomena of “living with the enduring consequences of sociotechnical changes that occurred years or even
generations ago.”

Examples
Examples of Gentle Tyranny can be found in virtually every social and technological sector. Some, such as
environmental pollution and “brown chemicals”,[29] do not involve an explicit choice by the affected
population whatsoever. The waste generated as a side effect of large-scale manufacturing is a prime example of
this form of gentle tyranny. While the population affected isn’t forced to endure the reduction in air quality (i.e.
they are free to move, wear a respirator, etc.), these “take it or leave it” options are not necessarily feasible and
place an unsolicited burden on the population. Gentle Tyranny can also involve an explicit decision made by
the public, but under duress, in a sense, to avoid larger societal backlash. While purchasing an automobile is
completely voluntary, the architecture of our society, both literally and metaphorically, presents serious
consequences for certain people. Transit by other means is not always feasible, particularly with workers whose
commute would not otherwise be possible. Facing restricted travel or unemployment, there is not a “choice”
in the true sense whether or not to own an automobile.

Technosocial

Definition:
“Technological action is a social process.” Social factors and technology are intertwined so that they are
dependent upon each other. This includes the aspect that social, political, and economic factors are inherent in
technology and that social structure influences what technologies are pursued. In other words, “technoscientific
phenomena combined inextricably with social/political/economic/psychological phenomena, so ‘technology'
includes a spectrum of artifacts, techniques, organizations, and systems.” Winner expands on this idea by saying
“in the late twentieth century technology and society, technology and culture, technology and politics are by no
means separate.”

Specific Examples:

• Ford Pinto - Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the
automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel
tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results, proved Ford CEO
Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of. The company decided to ignore improving their
technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign
competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to
determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees
argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control
by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally
changed are public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring
stricter safety standards for motor vehicles.

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• DDT/Toxins - DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its
ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human disease
that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized other
benefits of DDT for agricultural purposes. Rachel Carson became worried of wide spread use on
public health and the environment. Rachel Carson’s book “Silent Spring,” left an imprint on the
industry by claiming linkage of DDT to many serious illness such as cancer. Carson’s book drew
criticism from chemical companies who felt their reputation and business threatened by such
claims.. DDT was eventually banned by the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) after a long and arduous process of research on the chemical substance. The main cause
for the removal of DDT was the public deciding that the benefits any outweighed potential health
risk.

• Autopilots/Computer Aided Tasks (CATs) - From a security point of view the effects of making a task
more computer driven is in the favor of technological advance because there is less reaction time
required and computational error than a human pilot. Due to reduced error and reaction times
flights on average, using autopilot, have been shown to be safer. Thus the technology has a direct
impact on people by increasing their safety, and society affects the technology because people want
to be safer so they are constantly trying to improve the autopilot systems.

• Cell Phones - Cell phone technology emerged in the early 1920s after advancements were made in
radio technology. Engineers at Bell Laboratories, the research and development division of AT&T
discovered that cell towers can transmit and receive signals to and from many directions. The
discovery by Bell Labs revolutionized the capabilities and outcomes of cellular technology.
Technology only improved once mobile phone users could communicate outside of a designated
area. First generation mobile phones were first created and sold by Motorola. Their phone was
only intended for use in cars. Second generation mobile phone capabilities continued to improve
because of the switch to digital. Phones were faster which enhanced communication capabilities
of customers. They were also sleeker and weighed less than bulky first generation technology.
Technologically advances boosted customer satisfaction and broadened cell phone companies
customer base. Third generation technology changed the way people interact with other. Now
customers had access to wifi, texting and other applications. Mobile phones are now entering into
the fourth generations. Cellular and mobile phones revolutionized the way people socialize and
communicate in order to establish modern social structure . People have affected the development
of this technology by demanding features such as larger screens, touch capabilities, and internet
accessibility.

• Internet - The internet arose because of extensive research on ARPANET between various
university, corporations, and ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency), an agency of the
Department of Defense. Scientist theorized a network of computers connected to each other.
Computing capabilities contributed to developments and the creation of the modern-day computer
or laptop. The internet has become a normal part of life and business, to such a degree that the
United Nations views it as a basic human right. The internet is becoming larger, one way is that
more things are being moved into the digital world due to demand, for example online banking. It
has drastically changed the way most people go about daily habits.

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Classifications of the Technosocial
• Technological Optimism - The opinion that technology has positive effects on society and should be
used in order to improve the welfare of people.
• Technological Pessimism - The opinion that technology has negative effects on society and should be
discouraged from use.
• Technological Neutrality -"maintains that a given technology has no systematic effects on society:
individuals are perceived as ultimately responsible, for better or worse, because technologies are
merely tools people use for their own ends.”
• Technological Determinism - “maintains that technologies are understood as simply and directly
causing particular societal outcomes.”

Scientism - The belief in the total separation of facts and values.

• Technological Progressivism- technology is a means to an end itself and an inherently positive pursuit.

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Readings/Website/Videos/Video Clips

Klcinman, D., & Moore, K. (2014). Routledge handbook of science, technology, and society. New York: Routledge.

Restivo, S. (2005). Science, technology, and society: An encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press.

Shrader-Frechette, K. & Westra, L. (1997). Technology and values. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
Inc.
Department of science and technology studies, University of Vienna. (2015). Science, technology & society:
Knowledge in practice-short version [Video File].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UT4JaZFGwvO

MIT Department of nuclear science and engineering. (2014). Communicating science and technology in the 2T' century
[Video File].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VL-YNAb_uXo

TEDx Talks. (2012). How technology moves society-not politics: Lasse Birk Olesen at TEDxCopenhagen 2012 [Video
File].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tv5gBFqzQfY

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