Module 2. Properties and Characteristics of Materials

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M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D T E S T I N G
Chapter
2
Properties and Characteristics of Materials
Intended Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the different properties and characteristics of materials.
2. Differentiate the importance of each properties to the materials.
3. Determine the formula to be used in computing the properties of the materials.
This chapter primarily presents the different properties and characteristics of materials. It includes
the physical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties. Materials have
different properties depending on what they are used for. It can be soft, hard, transparent, translucent
etc. It is important to determine the properties of the material and the factors affecting it.
Physical Properties
A material’s physical properties denote the physical state of materials that are exclusive
of their chemical or mechanical components. In particular, these properties encompass texture,
density, mass, melting and boiling points, and electrical and thermal conductivity. All such physical
properties are measurable or observable. These properties are not constant (will change when
subjected to certain variables such as heat).
Discussed below are the most common physical properties that are used in selecting or
differentiating materials:
Density
Density implies the weight of a material, with higher density rates implying heavier materials.
Density of the material can be determined using the formula below:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where: ρ= density m= mass V= volume
Melting point
Melting point of the material is the minimum required temperature for a solid material to
change into liquid.
Color
Color is the reflective property of a material.
Boiling point
Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 1

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Boiling point is the minimum required temperature for a liquid material to change into
gas. The boiling point of water in standard condition is 100 0C or 212oF
Size and shape

Dimension of any metal reflect shape and size of material, length, width, height, depth etc.
Also, it determines specific rectangular, circular, spherical, or any other section.
Specific Gravity of Materials

It is defined as ratio of density of material with respect to density of reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation water is considered as reference substance.
Porosity of Materials
When material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases with in material.
When material is solidifies these gases get evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of
materials represents quantity of voids in solid materials.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in relation to
an applied load or force. The mechanical properties of materials can be determined by performing
carefully laboratory experiments such as tensile test, compression test, shear test, torsion test,
impact test and hardness test. Factors to be considered in the experiment include the nature of
the applied load and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions. The applied load can
be tensile, compressive, or shear, and its magnitude may be constant with time, or it may
fluctuate. Mechanical Properties of Metals and the publication of these standards are often
coordinated by professional societies such American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
the most active organization in the United States.
Stress and Strain
The mechanical behavior of the material may be ascertained by a simple stress-strain test.
These tests are the most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. One of the
instruments used for conducting this test is the Universal Testing Machine. The Universal testing
machine can be shown in figure 1 and in figure 2 is the sample specimen for the test.
Figure 1. Universal Testing Machine

Source: Callister,2014
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Figure 2. Sample Specimen

Through this simple test, stress and strain can be determined.
Engineering stress (σ)

Stress is defined as the instantaneous load divided by the original specimen cross-
sectional area. Stress can be determined using the formula:
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴
Where: F= force applied A= area
Tension test
During this test, gradually increasing tensile load is applied uniaxially along the long axis
of a specimen. Tensile stress (σt) can be calculated using this formula:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜎𝑡 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
Figure 3 shows the schematic illustration of how a tensile load produces elongation and
positive linear strain.
Figure 3. Schematic illustration of how a tensile load produces elongation

Compression Test
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that the
force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of the stress.

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𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
Figure 4 shows the schematic illustration of how a compressive load produces contraction
and negative linear strain.
Figure 4. Schematic illustration of how a compressive load produces contraction

Shear test
Shear test performed using a pure shear force, the shear stress (τ) is computed according
to:
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝝉=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙
Figure 5. shows the schematic illustration on how shear force is applied and the shear
strain is equal to tan θ.
Figure 5. Schematic illustration on how shear force is applied

Torsion Test
Torsion test is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is twisted. Torsional
stress (τ) can be computed using this formula:
𝑇𝑐
𝝉=
𝐽
Where: T= twisting moment C=distance from the center J= polar moment of inertia
Figure 6. Schematic illustration of torsional deformation produced by an applied Torque


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Flexural or Bending Test
Also known as transverse beam testing, it measures the behavior of materials subjected
to simple beam loading. The bending/flexural stress can be determined using the formula below:
𝑴𝒄
𝝈𝒇 =
𝑰
Where: M= maximum bending moment
c= distance from center of the specimen to outer space
I= Moment of inertia
Engineering strain (ϵ)

Using tensile and compression testing, strain is expressed as the change in length (in the
direction of load application) divided by the original length. Strain can be determined using the
formula:
∆𝐿
∈=
𝐿
Where: ΔL= final length – original length L= original length
The shear strain(ɣ) in pure shear is defined as the tangent of the strain angle θ while in
torsion, the shear strain is related to the angle of twist (ø)
Elastic deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of

an imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship:
𝜎=𝐸∈
where: σ =stress E= modulus of elasticity ϵ= strain
This equation is based on Hooke’s Law, where the stress is directly proportional
to strain.
Elastic Deformation is the deformation in which stress and strain are proportional.
Figure 7 shows a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear
relationship. The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of elasticity E.
The greater the value of modulus, the stiffer the material is. Elastic deformation is
nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece returns to
its original shape.

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Figure 7. Schematic diagram showing linear elastic deformation for loading and unloading
cycles
Elastic Properties of Materials
Poisson’s ratio (ν)

It is defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial strains. It can be determined using the
formula below:
∈𝒙 ∈𝒚
𝒗=− =−
∈𝒛 ∈𝒛
Poisson’s ratio will always be positive, since ϵx and ϵy will always be of opposite
sign. For many metals and other alloys, values of Poisson’s ratio range between 0.25 and
0.35. For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other and to
Poisson’s ratio according to:
𝐸 = 2𝐺 (1 + 𝑣)
Where: G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity
Shear modulus of elasticity is the slope of the linear elastic region of the shear
stress–strain curve.
Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation occur when the stress is removed, the material does not return to its
previous dimension, it is a permanent, irreversible deformation.
Tensile properties
Tensile properties can be determined using tensile testing. The properties can be easily
explain using the stress-strain diagram. Figure 8 shows the sample stress-strain diagram for
ductile materials.

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Figure 8. Stress- Strain Diagram for Ductile Materials

Source: https://www.smlease.com/entries/mechanical-design-basics/stress-strain-curve-
diagram/
Proportional Limit
It is the region in the strain curve which obeys hookes law i.e. within elastic limit the stress
is directly proportion to the strain produced in the material. In this limit the ratio of stress with strain
gives us proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is called
the proportional limit.
Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the
load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material cannot return to its original
position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. In stress strain curve, from point A to B,
the material exhibit elastic properties.
Yield Point or Yield Stress Point
Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as the point at which the material starts to
deform plastically. After the yield point is passed there is permanent deformation develops in the
material and which is not reversible. There are two yield points and it is upper yield point and
lower yield point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is called yield point stress. The point
B is the upper yield stress point and C is the lower yield stress point.
Ultimate Stress/ Tensile Strength
It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a material can handle before
failure. It is the maximum strength point of the material that can handle the maximum load. Beyond
this point the failure takes place. Point D in the graph is the ultimate stress point.
Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place. The
fracture or breaking of material takes place at this point. The point E is the breaking point in the
graph.
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Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity
of material and temperature dependent. With rise of temperature, the ductility of material
increases.
It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as percent maximum
elongation
𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑜
% 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑙𝑜
where lf is the fracture length and lo is the original gauge length.
Ductility of the material can also be determined using percent reduction of area. Below are
the formula for the reduction of area.
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
% 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥 100%
𝐴𝑜
Where: Ao is the original area and Af is the area at the point of fracture
Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience
is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent
deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain curve from zero to elastic limit.
Its unit is joule/m3. Modulus of resilience can also be determined using this formula:
∈𝑦
𝑈𝑟 = ∫ 𝜎𝑑𝜖
0
Assuming a linear elastic region, we have
1
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎 𝜖
2 𝑦 𝑦
Where: ϵy= strain at yielding 𝜎𝑦 = yield strength of the material
Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without
fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is
Joule/ m3. Value of tough ness of a material can be determines by stress-strain characteristics of
material. For good toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility. For
example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility is not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough. Therefore,
to be tough, material should be capable to withstand with both high stress and strain.
Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There
are various measure of hardness – scratch Hardness, indentation hardness and rebound
hardness

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• Scratch Hardness Scratch Hardness is the ability of material to oppose the scratch to
outer surface layer due to external force.
• Indentation Hardness It is ability of material to oppose the dent due to punch of external
had and sharp object.
• Rebound Hardness Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is
determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tipped hammer dropped from a fixed
height on the material.
Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is

determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is
meter (similar to length). Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of
material.
Brittleness
Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to
a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is observes very less energy and
gets fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness
of material is temperature depended. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature
become brittle at low temperature.
Malleability
Malleability is property of solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to
be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an
aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise of
temperature, the malleability of material increases.
Creep and Slip
Creep is the property of material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly
and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long
time exposure to large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe
in material that are subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of
atoms.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of material. When a
material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much
below the strength of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit, microscopic
cracks begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reached to a critical
size. This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure
effects the fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where
the fatigue crack initiates.

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Chemical Properties
pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are
said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are said to be basic or alkaline.
In a solution pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of
dissolved hydrogen ions (H+); a low pH indicates a high concentration of hydrogen ions, while a
high pH indicates a low concentration.
Hygroscopy
Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water molecules from the
surrounding environment through either absorption or adsorption with the adsorbing or absorbing
material becoming physically 'changed,' somewhat, increase in volume, stickiness, or other
physical characteristic changes of the material as water molecules become 'suspended' between
the material's molecules in the process.
Hydroscopic substances include sugar, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel
fuel, sulfuric acid, methamphetamine, many salts (including table salt), and a huge variety of
other substances. Many engineering polymers are hygroscopic. These
include: nylon, ABS, polycarbonate, cellulose, and Poly (methyl methacrylate).
Surface tension
Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external
force. This property is caused by cohesion of like molecules, and is responsible for many of the
behaviors of liquids.
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules are responsible for this phenomenon of
surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by
neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not
have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates
some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Specific internal surface area
Specific surface area is a material property of solids which measures the total surface
area per unit of mass, solid or bulk volume, or cross-sectional area. It is a derived scientific value
that can be used to determine the type and properties of a material (e.g. soil). It is defined either
by surface area divided by mass (with units of m²/kg), or surface area divided by the volume (units
of m²/m³ or m-1)
It has a particular importance in case of adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis,
and reactions on surfaces.
Reactivity
Reactivity then refers to the rate at which a chemical substance tends to undergo
a chemical reaction in time. In pure compounds, reactivity is regulated by the physical properties
of the sample. For instance, grinding a sample to a higher specific surface area increases its
reactivity. In impure compounds, the reactivity is also affected by the inclusion of contaminants.

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In crystalline compounds, the crystalline form can also affect reactivity. However, in all cases,
reactivity is primarily due to the sub-atomic properties of the compound.
Corrosion resistance
Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others, either due to the
fundamental nature of the electrochemical processes involved or due to the details of how
reaction products form.
The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion
is thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to decompose
spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on
Earth, and is a large part of their intrinsic value. More common "base" metals can only be
protected by more temporary means. Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even
though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals
as zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing,
it happens at an acceptably slow rate.
Thermal Properties
Heat Capacity or specific heat
Heat capacity (usually denoted by a capital C, often with subscripts) is a property that is
indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it represents the
amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise. In the International System of Units,
heat capacity is expressed in units of joules per kelvin. It can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑄
𝐶=
𝑑𝑡
where dQ Q is the energy required to produce a dT temperature change.
Derived quantities that specify heat capacity as an intensive property, independent of the
size of a sample, are the:
specific heat capacity, often called simply specific heat, denoted by a lowercase c, which is
the heat capacity per unit mass of a material and has a various units of J/kg-K, cal/gK and
BTU/lbmoF.
molar heat capacity, which is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance (J/mol-K)
Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is a material property that is indicative of the extent to which a material
expands upon heating, and has units of reciprocal temperature. All materials have this tendency.
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving and become active thus maintaining a
greater average separation. The change in the linear and volumetric dimension can be estimated
to be:
∆𝐿
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝐿

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Where: αL = coefficient of linear expansion L = initial length

∆T= change in temperature ∆L= change in length
∆𝑉
= 𝛼𝑣 ∆𝑇
𝑉
Where: αV= coefficient of volume expansion V = initial volume

∆T= change in temperature ∆V= change in volume
Table 1.0 shows the thermal properties for several materials including the coefficient of
linear expansion.
Table 1.0
Thermal Properties for a Variety of materials
Source: Callister, 2014

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Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity, k, is the property that characterizes the ability of a material to

transfer heat Thermal conductivity is measured in watts per kelvin per metre (W/K·m) or BTU/ft
o
F. Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K) and an area (in square metres, m2), and
divided by a thickness (in metres, m), the thermal conductivity predicts the rate of energy loss (in
watts, W) through a piece of material. Thermal conductivity can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘
𝑑𝑥
where q denotes the heat flux, or heat flow, per unit time per unit area (area being taken as that
perpendicular to the flow direction), k is the thermal conductivity, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient through the conducting medium. In Table 1.0 shows the thermal conductivity of some
materials.
Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in temperature.

An understanding of the origins and nature of thermal stresses is important because these
stresses can lead to fracture or undesirable plastic deformation. Thermal Stress can be calculated
using this formula:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝛼1 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = 𝐸𝛼1 ∆𝑇
Where: E = modulus of elasticity α1= linear coefficient of thermal expansion
Upon heating where Tf >To, the stress is compressive because the rod expansion is
constrained. If the specimen is cooled where Tf <To, a tensile stress is imposed.
Example:
A brass rod is to be used in an application requiring its ends to be held rigid. If the rod is
stress-free at room temperature [20 oC (68 oF)], what is the maximum temperature to which the
rod may be heated without exceeding a compressive stress of 172 MPa (25,000 psi)? Assume a
modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa (14.6 x 106 psi) for brass.
Solution:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝛼1 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝜎
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑜 −
𝐸𝛼1
−172 𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑇𝑓 = 200 𝐶 −
100𝑥 103 (20𝑥 10−6 𝐶 −1 )
𝑇𝑓 = 1060 𝐶
Flammability
Flammability is defined as how easily something will burn or ignite,
causing fire or combustion. The degree of difficulty required to cause the combustion of a
substance is quantified through fire testing.
The ratings achieved are used in building codes, insurance requirements, fire codes and
other regulations governing the use of building materials as well as the storage and handling of
highly flammable substances inside and outside of structures and in surface and air
transportation.
Ratings:
0 Materials that will not burn.
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1 Materials that must be preheated before they will ignite.

2 Materials that must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively high
ambient temperatures before they will ignite.
3 Liquids and solids that can ignite under almost all temperature conditions.
4 Materials which will rapidly vaporize at atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures,
or are readily dispersed in air and which burn readily.
Autoignition Temperature
The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at

which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition,
such as a flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed
for combustion.
Autoignition temperature of selected substances:
Diesel: 210 °C (410 °F)
Gasoline (Petrol): 246–280 °C (475–536 °F)
Butane: 405 °C (761 °F)
Paper: 218°-246°C (424-474°F)
Magnesium: 473 °C (883 °F)
Hydrogen: 536 °C (997 °F)
Heat of vaporization
The heat of vaporization, also known as the enthalpy of vaporization or heat of

evaporation, is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance into a gas at a
given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).
It is often measured at the normal boiling point of a substance; although tabulated values
are usually corrected to 298 K, the correction is often smaller than the uncertainty in the measured
value.
Values are usually quoted in J/mol or kJ/mol (molar enthalpy of vaporization), although
kJ/kg or J/g (specific heat of vaporization), and units like kcal/mol, cal/g and Btu/lb are sometimes
used, among others.
Heat of Fusion
The enthalpy of fusion, also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the
change in enthalpy resulting from the addition or removal of heat from 1 mole of a substance to
change its state from a solid to a liquid (melting) or the reverse processes of freezing. It is also
called the latent heat of fusion, and the temperature at which it occurs is called the melting point.
The units of heat of fusion are usually expressed as:
➢ kilojoules per mole (the SI unit)
➢ calories per gram (old metric units now little used, except for a different, larger calorie used
in nutritional contexts)
➢ British thermal unit per pound or Btu per pound-mole

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Table 2.0 Melting Points, Boiling Points, Heat of Fusion and Heat of Vaporization of
Common Substances
Melting Point
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the solid and
the liquid are equal. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. When
considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the
freezing point or crystallization point.
Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not
considered to be a characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic freezing point"
of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of
observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice", that is, the melting point.
Flash Point
The flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form
an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a liquid's flash point requires an ignition source. At the flash
point, the vapor may cease to burn when the source of ignition is removed.
The flash point is not to be confused with the autoignition temperature, which does not
require an ignition source.
The flash point is often used as a descriptive characteristic of liquid fuel, and it is also used
to help characterize the fire hazards of liquids.
Curie Point
The Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which a ferromagnetic or
a ferrimagnetic material becomes paramagnetic on heating; the effect is reversible. An iron
magnet will lose its magnetism if heated above the Curie temperature.

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Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnet is ordered and above it, disordered. The saturation
magnetization goes to zero at the Curie temperature. A typical plot of magnetization vs
temperature for magnetite is shown below.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often important when materials

selection and processing decisions are being made during the design of a component or structure.
For example, when we consider an integrated circuit package, the electrical behaviors of the
various materials are diverse. Some need to be highly electrically conductive (e.g., connecting
wires), whereas electrical insulativity is required of others
Electrical Conduction
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law relate the current (I) or time rate of charge passage to the applied voltage (V).
This can be expressed as:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where: R= resistance of material through which the current passing
The value of R is influenced by specimen configuration and for many materials is

independent of current.
The electrical resistivity (ρ) is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through
the expression:
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝑙
Where: l = distance between the two points at which the voltage is measured
A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the current.
From the expression for Ohm’s law and relation of resistivity to the resistance:
𝑉𝐴
𝜌=
𝐼𝑙
Electrical Conductivity (σ)
Electrical conductivity indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of conducting
an electric current.
Conductivity is the reciprocal (inverse) of electrical resistivity, ρ, and has the SI units
of siemens per metre (Ω·m) -1 and CGSE units of inverse second (s–1):
1
𝜎=
𝜌
In addition, Ohm’s law may be expressed as:
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
Where : J= the current density = ⁄𝐴 𝐼 E=electric (vector) field intensity
Then, E = 𝑉/𝑙
Most metals are extremely good conductors of electricity. Table 3.0 shows the electrical
conductivity of some metals at room temperature.

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Table 3.0
Electrical Conductivity of some metals

Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical Conductivity. Because crystalline defects

serve as scattering centers for conduction electrons in metals, increasing their number raises the
resistivity (or lowers the conductivity)
The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the contributions from thermal vibrations,
impurities, and plastic deformation, that is, the scattering mechanisms act independently of one
another. This may be represented in mathematical form as follows and sometimes known as
Matthiessen’s rule
𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌𝑡 + 𝜌𝑖 + 𝜌𝑑
Where: ρt = represent the individual thermal

ρi = impurity
ρd = deformation resistivity
Capacitance (C)
When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate becomes positively charged and
the other negatively charged, with the corresponding electric field directed from the positive to the
negative plates. The capacitance is related to the quantity of charge stored on either plate Q by:
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Where: V +voltage applied across the capacitor.
The units of capacitance are coulombs per volt, or farads (F).
Permittivity
Permittivity is the measure of how much resistance is encountered when forming an

electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects,
and is affected by a dielectric medium. In SI units, permittivity ε is measured
in farads per meter (F/m).
Permittivity is determined by the ability of a material to polarize in response to the field,
and thereby reduce the total electric field inside the material. Thus, permittivity relates to a
material's ability to transmit (or "permit") an electric field.

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Dielectric Constant
The relative permittivity often called as dielectric constant. It is equal to the ratio of
𝜖
𝜖𝑟 =
𝜖𝑜
which is greater than unity and represents the increase in charge-storing capacity upon insertion
of the dielectric medium between the plates. The dielectric constant is one material property of
prime consideration for capacitor design. The value of dielectric constant for some materials can
be shown in table 4.0.
Table 4.0
Values Dielectric Constant and Dielectric Strength of Some Materials

Dielectric Strength
The dielectric strength, sometimes called the breakdown strength, represents the
magnitude of an electric field necessary to produce breakdown. The value of dielectric strength
of some material can be shown in table 4.0.
Ferroelectricity
The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous polarization—

that is, polarization in the absence of an electric field. They are the dielectric analogue of
ferromagnetic materials, which may display permanent magnetic behavior.

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Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is an unusual phenomenon exhibited by a few ceramic materials (as well

as some polymers). It sometimes called as pressure electricity. Electric polarization is induced in
the piezoelectric crystal as a result of a mechanical strain produced from the application of an
external force. Piezoelectric materials may be used as transducers between electrical and
mechanical energies.
Piezoelectric constant
Piezoelectric constant is the measure of charge which accumulates in certain solid
materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and
various proteins) in response to applied mechanical strain. The word piezoelectricity means
electricity resulting from pressure.
Direct piezoelectricity of some substances like quartz, as mentioned above, can
generate potential differences of thousands of volts.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Materials may be classified by their response to externally applied magnetic fields
as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. These magnetic responses differ greatly in
strength.
Magnetism
Magnetism is the phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force or

influence on other materials. Iron, some steels, and the naturally occurring mineral lodestone are
well-known examples of materials that exhibit magnetic properties.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic dipoles
Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, which, in some respects, are
analogous to electric dipoles. Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as small bar magnets
composed of north and south poles instead of positive and negative electric charges. The
magnetic field distributions as indicated by lines of force are shown for a current loop and a bar
magnet in Figure 9.

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Figure 9. Magnetic field lines of force around a current loop and a bar magnet.
Magnetic field strength (H)
Magnetic field strength is the externally applied magnetic field. The units of H are ampere-
turns per meter, or just amperes per meter. Magnetic field strength can be expressed as:
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙
Where: N= number of turns 𝑙 = length 𝐼 = magnitude
Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction represents the magnitude of the internal field
strength within a substance that is subjected to an H field. The units for B are teslas or webers
per square meter (Wb/m2 ). The magnetic field strength and flux density are related according to:
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Where: 𝜇= permeability
Permeability
Permeability is a property of the specific medium through which the H field passes and in
which B is measured. The permeability has dimensions of webers per ampere-meter (Wb/A-m)
or henries per meter (H/m).
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only
while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of electrons
due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely
small and in direction opposite to that of the applied field. In figure 10 shows the atomic dipole
configuration for a diamagnetic material with and without a magnetic field. In the absence of an
external field, no dipoles exist; in the presence of a field, dipoles are induced that are aligned
opposite to the field direction.

M E 4 1 3 :
Figure 10. Atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic material with and without a magnetic
field
Paramagnetism
For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole moment by virtue of
incomplete cancellation of electron spin and/or orbital magnetic moments. In the absence of an
external magnetic field, the orientations of these atomic magnetic moments are random, such that
a piece of material possesses no net macroscopic magnetization. These atomic dipoles are free
to rotate, and paramagnetism results when they preferentially align, by rotation, with an external
field. Figure 11 shows the atomic dipole configuration with and without an external magnetic field
for a paramagnetic material.
Figure 11. Atomic dipole configuration with and without an external magnetic field for a
paramagnetic material
Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered nonmagnetic because they
exhibit magnetization only when in the presence of an external field
Ferromagnetism
Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an

external field and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations. These are the
characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the transition metals iron (as BCC
a-ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some rare earth metals such as gadolinium (Gd).
Antiferromagnetism

M E 4 1 3 :
Magnetic moment coupling between adjacent atoms or ions also occurs in materials other
than those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an antiparallel
alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in exactly opposite
directions is termed antiferromagnetism. Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that displays
this behavior.
Ferrimagnetism
Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization. The macroscopic magnetic

characteristics of ferromagnets and ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction lies in the source of
the net magnetic moments.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Optical properties are a material’s response to exposure to electromagnetic radiation and,

in particular, to visible light.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is considered to be wavelike, consisting of electric and magnetic

field components that are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation.
Light, heat (or radiant energy), radar, radio waves, and x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic
radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans the wide range from g-rays (emitted
by radioactive materials) having wavelengths on the order of 1012 m (103 nm) through x-rays,
ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and finally radio waves with wavelengths as long as 105 m. This
spectrum is shown on a logarithmic scale in Figure 12.

M E 4 1 3 :
Figure 12. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including wavelength ranges for the
various colors in the visible spectrum
All electromagnetic radiation traverses a vacuum at the same velocity, that of light is 3 x
108 m/s (186,000 miles/s). This velocity, c, is related to the electric permittivity of a vacuum ϵo and
the magnetic permeability of a vacuum µo through
1
𝑐=
√∈0 𝜇0
Furthermore, the frequency (v) and the wavelength (λ) of the electromagnetic radiation
are a function of velocity according to
𝑐 = 𝜆𝑣
Sometimes it is more convenient to view electromagnetic radiation from a quantum

mechanical perspective, in which the radiation, rather than consisting of waves, is composed of
groups or packets of energy called photons. The energy E of a photon is said to be quantized, or
can only have specific values, defined by the relationship.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 =
𝜆
Where: h= Planck’s constant, which has a value of 6.63 x 10 -34 J s.
LIGHT INTERACTIONS WITH SOLIDS
The intensity 𝐼𝑜 of the beam incident to the surface of the solid medium must equal the
sum of the intensities of the transmitted, absorbed, and reflected beams
Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity expressed in watts per square meter, corresponds to the energy being
transmitted per unit of time across a unit area that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Transparent
Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little absorption and reflection,
one can see through them. Electrically insulating materials can be made to be transparent
Translucent
Materials are those through which light is transmitted diffusely; that is, light is scattered
within the interior to the degree that objects are not clearly distinguishable when viewed through
a specimen of the material.
Opaque
Materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light.
Refraction

M E 4 1 3 :
Refraction is the phenomenon in which light that is transmitted into the interior of
transparent materials experiences a decrease in velocity, and, as a result, is bent at the interface.
The index of refraction n of a material is defined as the ratio of the velocity in a vacuum c to the
velocity in the medium v or can be expressed as:
𝑛
𝑐=
𝑣
The magnitude of n (or the degree of bending) depends on the wavelength of the light.
The table 4.0 shows the refractive indices for several glasses, transparent ceramics, and
polymers.
Table 4.0
Refractive Indices for Some Transparent Materials
Reflection
When light passes from one transparent medium to another having a different index of
refraction, some of it is reflected at the interface. The degree of the reflectance depends on the
indices of refraction of both media, as well as the angle of incidence. For normal incidence,
reflectivity may be calculated using:
𝑛2 − 𝑛1 2
𝑅=( )
𝑛2 + 𝑛1
Where: n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the two media
Absorption
Pure nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically transparent or opaque. Light radiation is
absorbed in this group of materials by two basic mechanisms that also influence the transmission
characteristics of these nonmetals.
Absorption of a photon of light may occur by the promotion or excitation of an electron
from the nearly filled valence band, across the band gap, and into an empty state within the
conduction band.

M E 4 1 3 :
The intensity of the net absorbed radiation is dependent on the character of the medium
and the path length within. The intensity of transmitted or nonabsorbed radiation I’ T continuously
decreases with the distance x that the light traverses:
𝐼′ 𝑇 = 𝐼′0 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
Where: 𝐼′ 𝑇 =intensity of the nonreflected incident radiation

β = the absorption coefficient (in mm-1)
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
The fraction of nonreflected light that is transmitted through a 200-mm thickness of glass
is 0.98. Calculate the absorption coefficient of this material.
Solution:
𝐼′ 𝑇
= 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
𝐼′0
𝐼′ 𝑇
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
𝐼′0
𝐼′ 𝑇
𝑙𝑛 = −𝛽𝑥
𝐼′0
1 𝐼′ 𝑇
𝛽 = − 𝑙𝑛
𝑥 𝐼′0
1
𝛽=− ln(0.98) = 1.01 x 10−4 mm−1
200
Transmission
The phenomena of absorption, reflection, and transmission may be applied to the passage
of light through a transparent solid. For an incident beam of intensity 𝐼𝑜 that impinges on the front
surface of a specimen of thickness 𝑙 and absorption coefficient 𝛽 , the transmitted intensity at the
back face 𝐼𝑇 is
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑜 (1 − 𝑅)2 𝑒 𝛽𝑙
Where: R is the reflectance, it is assumed that the same medium exists outside both front and
back faces
Color
Transparent materials appear colored as a consequence of specific wavelength ranges of

light that are selectively absorbed; the color discerned is a result of the combination of
wavelengths that are transmitted

M E 4 1 3 :
CHAPTER TEST
Directions: Answer the following question comprehensively. Write your answer on the space
provided.
Questions
1. Differentiate the common physical properties of materials?
2. Discuss how the force affects the properties of the materials?
3. What are the reasons why do we have to determine the chemical properties of materials?

M E 4 1 3 :
4. What are the different effects of temperature in the materials?
5. Give at least 3 different types of materials, discuss the effect of the magnet in each material.
6. Give at least 5 materials, distinguished among the given materials which is opaque, transparent
and translucent in terms of their appearance and light transmittance.

M E 4 1 3 :
References:
1. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Edition, William D. Callister, Jr.
Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by
David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa.
2. Miranda, Gaea Marelle. 2020. What is the Difference Between a Physical Property and a
Mechanical Property?. AZoM, viewed 07 August 2020,
https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=17626.
3. Stress strain curve: Strength of Materials viewed 07 August 2020,

https://www.smlease.com/entries/mechanical-design-basics/stress-strain-curve-diagram/
4. Electrical4U (2019) Mechanical properties of Engineering Materials viewed 07 August 2020,

https://www.electrical4u.com/mechanical-properties-of-engineering-materials/#:~:text=
of%20material%20increases.-,Ductility,wire%20by%20pulling%20or%20drawing.
5. Dixit, Avdhesh, n.d. Types of Properties of Engineering Materials. Madhav University,

https://madhavuniversity.edu.in/types-of-properties-of-engg-materials.html

Module 2. Properties and Characteristics of Materials

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M E 4 1 3 :

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

Where: ρ= density m= mass V= volume

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 1

Size and shape

Specific Gravity of Materials

Stress and Strain

Figure 1. Universal Testing Machine

Figure 2. Sample Specimen

Engineering stress (σ)

Where: F= force applied A= area

Figure 3. Schematic illustration of how a tensile load produces elongation

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 3

Figure 4. Schematic illustration of how a compressive load produces contraction

Figure 5. Schematic illustration on how shear force is applied

Figure 6. Schematic illustration of torsional deformation produced by an applied Torque

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 4

Flexural or Bending Test

Engineering strain (ϵ)

Where: ΔL= final length – original length L= original length

The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of

where: σ =stress E= modulus of elasticity ϵ= strain

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 5

Poisson’s ratio (ν)

Where: G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 6

Figure 8. Stress- Strain Diagram for Ductile Materials

Yield Point or Yield Stress Point

Ultimate Stress/ Tensile Strength

Fracture or Breaking Point

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 8

It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is

Creep and Slip

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 9

Specific internal surface area

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 10

where dQ Q is the energy required to produce a dT temperature change.

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 11

Where: αL = coefficient of linear expansion L = initial length

Where: αV= coefficient of volume expansion V = initial volume

Source: Callister, 2014

Thermal conductivity, k, is the property that characterizes the ability of a material to

Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in temperature.

Where: E = modulus of elasticity α1= linear coefficient of thermal expansion

1 Materials that must be preheated before they will ignite.

The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at

The heat of vaporization, also known as the enthalpy of vaporization or heat of

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 14

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 15

Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often important when materials

The value of R is influenced by specimen configuration and for many materials is

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 16

Source: Callister, 2014

Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical Conductivity. Because crystalline defects

Where: ρt = represent the individual thermal

Permittivity is the measure of how much resistance is encountered when forming an

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 17

Source: Callister, 2014

The group of dielectric materials called ferroelectrics exhibit spontaneous polarization—

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 18

Piezoelectricity is an unusual phenomenon exhibited by a few ceramic materials (as well

Magnetism is the phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force or

Module No. 2 – Properties and Characteristics of Materials 19