Stress–strain curve

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Stress-strain curve typical of a low carbon steel.

For broader coverage of this topic, see Stress–strain analysis.

In engineering and materials science, a stress–strain curve for a material gives the
relationship between stress and strain. It is obtained by gradually applying load to a
test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be
determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a
material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile
strength.

Contents

 1Definition
o 1.1Engineering stress and strain
o 1.2True stress and strain
 2Stages
 3Classification
o 3.1Ductile materials
o 3.2Brittle materials
 4See also
 5References
 6External links

Definition[edit]
Generally speaking, curves representing the relationship between stress and strain
in any form of deformation can be regarded as stress-strain curves. The stress and
strain can be normal, shear, or mixture, also can be uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial,
even change with time. The form of deformation can be compression, stretching,
torsion, rotation, and so on. If not mentioned otherwise, stress–strain curve refers to
the relationship between axial normal stress and axial normal strain of materials
measured in a tension test.

Definition[edit]
Generally speaking, curves representing the relationship between stress and strain in any form of
deformation can be regarded as stress-strain curves. The stress and strain can be normal, shear,
or mixture, also can be uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial, even change with time. The form of
deformation can be compression, stretching, torsion, rotation, and so on. If not mentioned
otherwise, stress–strain curve refers to the relationship between axial normal stress and axial
normal strain of materials measured in a tension test.

Engineering stress and strain[edit]

Consider a bar of original cross sectional area  being subjected to equal and opposite
forces  pulling at the ends so the bar is under tension. The material is experiencing a stress
defined to be the ratio of the force to the cross sectional area of the bar, as well as an axial
elongation:
Subscript 0 denotes the original dimensions of the sample. The SI unit for stress is
newton per square metre, or pascal (1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2), and strain is unitless.
Stress-strain curve for this material is plotted by elongating the sample and recording the
stress variation with strain until the sample fractures. By convention, the strain is set to
the horizontal axis and stress is set to vertical axis. Note that for engineering purposes
we often assume the cross-section area of the material does not change during the
whole deformation process. This is not true since the actual area will decrease while
deforming due to elastic and plastic deformation. The curve based on the original cross-
section and gauge length is called the engineering stress-strain curve, while the curve
based on the instantaneous cross-section area and length is called the true stress-strain
curve. Unless stated otherwise, engineering stress-strain is generally used.

Classification[edit]

Stress–strain curve for brittle materials compared to ductile materials.

It is possible to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain curves of
various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories;
namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials. [2]:51

Ductile materials[edit]
Ductile materials, which includes structural steel and many alloys of other metals, are
characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. [2]:58
Low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stress–strain relationship up to a well
defined yield point (Fig.1). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is
the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus . Many ductile materials including some metals,
polymers and ceramics exhibit a yield point. Plastic flow initiates at the upper yield point and
continues at the lower one. At lower yield point, permanent deformation is heterogeneously
distributed along the sample. The deformation band which formed at the upper yield point will
propagate along the gauge length at the lower yield point. The band occupies the whole of the
gauge at the luders strain. Beyond this point, work hardening commences. The appearance of
the yield point is associated with pinning of dislocations in the system. For example, solid
solution interacts with dislocations and acts as pin and prevent dislocation from moving.
Therefore, the stress needed to initiate the movement will be large. As long as the dislocation
escape from the pinning, stress needed to continue it is less.
After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because of dislocations escaping
from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the stress increases on account of strain
hardening until it reaches the ultimate tensile stress. Until this point, the cross-sectional area
decreases uniformly because of Poisson contractions. Then it starts necking and finally fractures.
The appearance of necking in ductile materials is associated with geometrical instability in the
system. Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is common to find some regions with
small inclusions or porosity within it or surface, where strain will concentrate, leading to a locally
smaller area than other regions. For strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of
work-hardening rate in this region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this
region harder to be further deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the
materials have abilities to weaken the inhomogeneity before reaching ultimate strain. However,
as the strain become larger, the work hardening rate will decreases, so that for now the region
with smaller area is weaker than other region, therefore reduction in area will concentrate in this
region and the neck becomes more and more pronounced until fracture. After the neck has
formed in the materials, further plastic deformation is concentrated in the neck while the
remainder of the material undergoes elastic contraction owing to the decrease in tensile force.
The stress-strain curve for a ductile material can be approximated using the Ramberg-Osgood
equation.[3] This equation is straightforward to implement, and only requires the material's yield
strength, ultimate strength, elastic modulus, and percent elongation.

Brittle materials[edit]
Brittle materials, which includes cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that
rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation, [2]:59 sometimes they
fracture before yielding.
Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a well-defined yield point, and do
not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. Typical
brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation
is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be
reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck
formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material
will be linear. For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to
the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass
fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is
because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the
sample gets larger, the expected size of the largest defect also grows.
 What is Stress-Strain Curve?
Stress strain curve is the plot of stress and strain of a material or metal on the graph. In this,
the stress is plotted on the y-axis and its corresponding strain on the x-axis. After plotting the
stress and its corresponding strain on the graph, we get a curve, and this curve is called stress
strain curve or stress strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram for different material is different. It
may vary due to the temperature and loading condition of the material.

How to Draw Stress-Strain Curve or

Diagram
 A tensile test is done on the material for drawing the stress strain curve. A specimen of
specific dimension is taken generally a circular rod. A tensile test is than conducted on this rod by the
use of tensile testing machine.
 In this test, the specimen is fixed at one ends and tensile load is applied on the other end. The
value of load and the extension in the rod is noted down. As we have noted down the load and
extension, the stress and the corresponding strain can be easily calculated.
 The formula that is used for the calculation of stress and strain are

Where,

σ = stress
P = Load
e = strain
dL = extension produced in the rod
L = original length
A = cross section area
 We plot a graph between the stress and strain and a curve is obtained. This curve so obtained
is called the stress strain curve or stress strain diagram.
 The stress strain diagram for the same material is different for different temperature and
loading condition of the material.
 In the graph the slope represents the young’s modulus of the material.
Also Read:
 Elastic Constants – Young’s Modulus, Modulus of Rigidity and Bulk Modulus
 What is Elasticity, Elastic Limit, Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity in Strength of
Materials?
 Difference Between Stress and Strain in Strength of Materials
 Explanation

Stress strain curve has different regions and points. These regions and points are:

1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit
3. Yield point
4. Ultimate stress point
5. Fracture or breaking point

1. Proportional Limit:
It is the region in the strain curve which obeys hooke’s law i.e. within elastic limit the stress is
directly proportional to the strain produced in the material. In this limit the ratio of stress with
strain gives us proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is
called the proportional limit.

2. Elastic Limit:
It is the point in the graph upto which the material returns to its original position when the load
acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit the material cannot return to its original
position and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it. The point A is the Elastic limit in the
graph.

. Yield Point or Yield Stress Point:

Yield point in a stress strain diagram is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed there is permanent deformation develops in the material
and which is not reversible. There are two yield points and it is upper yield point and lower yield
point. The stress corresponding to the yield point is called yield point stress. The point B is the
upper yield stress point and C is the lower yield stress point.
4. Ultimate Stress Point:
It is the point corresponding to the maximum stress that a material can handle before failure. It is
the maximum strength point of the material that can handle the maximum load. Beyond this point
the failure takes place. Point D in the graph is the ultimate stress point.

5. Fracture or Breaking Point:

It is the point in the curve at which the failure of the material takes place. The fracture or
breaking of material takes place at this point. The point e is the breaking point in the graph.

Stress-Strain Curve
To determine the relation between the stress and strain for a given
material, let’s conduct an experiment. Take a test cylinder or wire
and stretch it by an applied force. Record the fraction change in
length (strain) and the applied force needed to cause the strain.
Increase the applied force gradually, in steps, and record the readings.

Now, plot a graph between the stress (which is equal in magnitude to

the applied force per unit area) and the strain produced. The graph for
a typical metal looks as follows:
The stress-strain curves can vary with the material in question. With
the help of such curves, we can understand how the material deforms
with increasing loads.

Analysis of the Curve

In Fig. 2, we can see that in the region between O and A, the curve
is linear. Hence, Hooke’s Law obeys in this region. In the region
from A to B, the stress and strain are not proportional. However, if
we remove the load, the body returns to its original dimension.

Browse more Topics under Mechanical Properties Of Solids

 Elasticity and Plasticity

 Applications of Elastic Behaviour of Materials
 Stress and Strain
 Elastic Moduli
 Hooke’s Law and Stress-strain Curve
The point B in the curve is the Yield Point or the elastic limit and the
corresponding stress is the Yield Strength (Sy) of the material. Once
the load is increased further, the stress starting exceeding the Yield
Strength. This means that the strain increases rapidly even for a small
change in the stress.

This is shown in the region from B to D in the curve. If the load is

removed at, say a point C between B and D, the body does not regain
its original dimension. Hence, even when the stress is zero, the strain
is not zero and the deformation is called plastic deformation.

Further, the point D is the ultimate tensile strength (Su) of the

material. Hence, if any additional strain is produced beyond this
point, a fracture can occur (point E). If,
 The ultimate strength and fracture points are close to each
other (points D and E), then the material is brittle.
 The ultimate strength and fracture points are far apart (points D
and E), then the material is ductile.
Exceptions
Remember, the stress-strain behavior varies from material to
material. Rubber, for example, can be stretched up to several times its
original length and it still returns to its original shape. The figure
below shows the stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue or aorta,
resent in the heart.

From the curve, you can observe that while the elastic region is very
large, the material does not obey Hooke’s Law. Also, there is no
well-defined plastic region. Materials like rubber, tissue or the aorta,
etc. which can be stretched to cause large strains are
called elastomers.

Solved Question For You

Q. Hooke’s law essentially defines

A. Stress
B. Strain
C. Yield Point
D. Elastic Limit
Solution: Hooke’s law is a principle which states that the force
needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance is
proportional to that distance. This proportionality constant defines the
elastic limit.

Draw the stress-strain curve for ductile and brittle

material also. Explain factor of safety with the help of
stress-strain diagram of both

1. Stress-Strain diagram for Ductile material

Considering low Carbon Steel having Carbon content less 0.15% and its example is Mild
Steel.

 Point A is the proportionality limit, up to A, stress is directly proportional to strain i.e

Hook's law followed.
 Point B is the elastic limit.
 Point C is the upper yield point. At upper yield point, the resistance suddenly
decreases. Therefore, stress is also decreased, this is the particular property of mild
steel.
 Point D is the lower yield point which is the stable point for the design, the yield
strength is considered to lower yield point
 Point F is the ultimate point. At point F necking starts and due to necking 45-degree
micro cracks generates.
 Point G is the breaking point. At G component break into two pieces and failure is the
cup-cone failure.The cup-cone failure is a shear failure.
 Stress-Strain diagram for Brittle material
OA is non-linear elastic AB is the Strain Hardening.

 Brittle material never yields, a point similar to yield point is first cracking point,
where simple cracks develop; which may expand further leading to failure.
 A point is the first cracking point. After first cracks develop, the material undergoes
an increase in strain by widening the crack and fails almost at the same stress.
Therefore for all calculation in brittle material design stress is ultimate or breaking
stress i.e Sut.

1. Stress-Strain diagram for Ductile material

Considering low Carbon Steel having Carbon content less 0.15% and its example is Mild
Steel.

 Point A is the proportionality limit, up to A, stress is directly proportional to strain i.e

Hook's law followed.
 Point B is the elastic limit.
 Point C is the upper yield point. At upper yield point, the resistance suddenly
decreases. Therefore, stress is also decreased, this is the particular property of mild
steel.
 Point D is the lower yield point which is the stable point for the design, the yield
strength is considered to lower yield point
 Point F is the ultimate point. At point F necking starts and due to necking 45-degree
micro cracks generates.
 Point G is the breaking point. At G component break into two pieces and failure is the
cup-cone failure.The cup-cone failure is a shear failure.
 Stress-Strain diagram for Brittle material
OA is non-linear elastic AB is the Strain Hardening.

 Brittle material never yields, a point similar to yield point is first cracking point,
where simple cracks develop; which may expand further leading to failure.
 A point is the first cracking point. After first cracks develop, the material undergoes
an increase in strain by widening the crack and fails almost at the same stress.
Therefore for all calculation in brittle material design stress is ultimate or breaking
stress i.e Sut.

Factor of Safety
Factor of safety (F.O.S) also known as Safety Factor (SF), is a term describing structural
capacity of system beyond the expected load or actual load.

 Ductile: 

 Brittle: 

 Margin of Safety: M.O.S= F.O.S-1

Stress strain curve for mild steel with defination of
stress and strain
February 2, 2019 | By Mechtics | 3 Replies

Before understanding stress strain curve for mild steel, we need to familiar with some basic terms
related to the topic.

Stress definition
If applied force cause change in dimension, that materials is said to be under stress. This force per
unit area is the measurement of stress. Higher the force per unit area, higher is stress.

There are three different nature of stress based on area of application. If the area is perpendicular to
applied force, then stress can be tensile or compressive as per direction of force. For shear force,
area parallel to force is considered for calculation of stress.

Thus force can be tensile, compressive and shear.

Tensile and compressive stress are known as direct stress.

Direct stress is denoted by Greek letter sigma (σ).  while shear stress is denoted by Greek letter tau 
(τ).

SI unit of stress is  N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).  1 N/m2 = 1 Pa

Imperial unit of stress is pound-force per square inch (psi)

(Please note that units of stress and pressure are equal)

σ (Stress)  = Force / Area = F/A , where force in N and area in m2

If 1 N force is applied on area of 1 m2, then stress is 1 Pa.

Usually, for day to day calculation, stress unit considered is Mega Pascal (MPa)
Strain definition
Strain can be defined as change in dimension with respect to original dimension, when material is
stressed.

Strain is denoted by Greek letter epsilon  (ε).

ε (Strain) = Change in dimension / Original dimension

ε = ΔL / L  , where L can be any dimension

Strain respective to shear force is termed as shear strain and denoted by Greek letter gamma.  (γ)

Stress strain curve for mild steel

When a ductile material like mild steel is subjected to tensile force, it undergoes different stages
before failure. Stress strain curve is the graphical representation of this stages. Different material may
have different curve. Usually ductile materials follow similar pattern., so is for brittle materials. Here is
the explanation of  stress strain curve for mild steel which is ductile material.

Here is the list of different stages when ductile material subjected to force till its failure.

 Proportional limit (point A)

 Elastic limit (point B)
 Yield point ( upper yield point C and lower yield point D)
 Ultimate stress point (point E)
 Breaking point (point F)
Proportional limit
As shown in stress strain curve for mild steel, up to the point A, stress and strain follow a relationship.
This is known as Hook’s law. Up to the limit of proportionality, stress directly followed the strain. This
means ratio of stress and strain remains constant
Elastic limit
Up to this limit (point B), is material  will regain its original shape is unloaded. Point B is known as
elastic point.

Yield limit
When material is loaded beyond its elastic limit, it will not regain its original shape. There will be
always some deformation.

Ultimate stress
This is the maximum stress a material can bear. Value of stress correspond to peak point on stress
strain curve for mild steel is the ultimate stress. It is denoted by point E in diagram.

Breaking stress
Point on the stress strain curve where material fails, is known as breaking point. Stress correspond to
this point is known as breaking stress.

Summary
Based on detailed explanation of stress strain curve for mild steel,  we are able to identify different
characteristic of mild steel under varying stress condition. Stress strain curve help up to identify two
most important things. maximum stress a material can bear, stress at which material will fail. This help
us to design machine cormorants for various application.