Combined Chem Notes
Combined Chem Notes
CHANGAMIRE
FORM 3 & 4
CHEMISTRY
TOPICS
SEPARATION
MATTER
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
2 [email protected]
SEPARATION
Simple distillation
- Is a process of separating water from dissolved solids. It can be used to obtain a pure
liquid from a mixture that contains dissolved impurities.
- Simple distillation can avoid the loss of water into the atmosphere, separating and
keeping the two components of the original mixture.
- Impure liquid is heated, the water boils and evaporate. The vapour is passed through a
condenser which is a glass tube surrounded by flowing water. This is where the vapour
cools and condenses, dripping into the receiving flask as distillate.
- The solid (solute) remains behind in the flask as a residue.
- This method can be used to separate salt and water in a salt solution.
- Heat the solution in the flask. As it boils, water vapour rises into the condenser, leaving
salt behind
- The condenser is cooled so that the vapour condenses to water. The water drips into the
beaker as distillate. It is almost pure
Fractional distillation
- It separates mixture of miscible (soluble) liquids with widely different boiling points e.g.
alcohol and water.
- This method is ideal when one of the liquids is more volatile (evaporates more easily)
than the other such as ethanol.
3 [email protected]
- The fractionating column is a glass tube that is usually packed with beads to increase
surface area inside the column.
- The mixture of ethanol and water is placed in flask and heated. Ethanol with lower
boiling point boils and vaporises first and reach fractionating column. It will condense on
the beads in the column causing them to heat. When the beads reach a certain temperature
when the ethanol won’t condense anymore. It will rise while the water drip back. It is
then cooled and condensed into ethanol as it passes through condenser.
- Temperature will stay constant until all ethanol is distilled.
Chromatography
- Paper chromatography is a method used to separate a mixture of substances e.g. can be
used to find out how many different dyes are there in black ink.
4 [email protected]
To separate substances
- Place a drop of ink onto the centre of some filter paper allow it to dry.
- Drop water on to the ink spot, one drop at a time. The ink slowly spreads out and
separates into rings of different colours.
- The dyes in the ink have different solubilities in the solvent and are absorbed and travel
across the paper at different rates hence they separate into rings. The filter paper with the
coloured rings is called a chromatogram.
- The stationary phase is the material on which the separation takes place (the filter paper).
- The mobile phase consists of the mixture you want to separate, dissolved in a solvent.
- The solvent front is the furthest point reached by the solvent in chromatography
To identify substances
- Components of the mixture can be identified by comparison with pure reference
compounds.
- Spots of substances placed onto a pencilled line which is called the origin. Pencil is used
to draw the line because
- Paper goes in solvent, and solvent travels up paper.Cover the chromatogram so that the
moving solvent does not evaporate before it has time to spread.
- To analyse the substance you could study the coloured spots on the chromatogram, as in
paper chromatography
1. Number of rings/dots = number of substances
2. If two dots travel the same distance up the paper they are the same substance.
- X has separated into three spots Two are at the same height as A and B, so X must
contain substances A and B. Does it also contain C and D?
5 [email protected]
- In a chromatogram the ratio of the distance travelled by the solute to the distance
travelled by the solvent is known as the R value. You can calculate the Rf value to
identify a substance, given by the formula:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑓 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
6 [email protected]
MATTER
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
- An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
- Each atom consist of a very small and a dense nucleus, which contains protons and
neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
- Protons and neutrons are both found in the nucleus of an atom and are collectively called
nucleons.
- An atom is electrically neutral when the number of protons are equal to the number of
electrons in an atom.
Proton Nucleus +1 1
Neutron Nucleus 0 1
- If the chemical symbol for an element is represented by the letter X the symbol for the
mass number (A) is written at the top left hand side of the chemical symbol. The proton
number (Z) is written at the lower left hand side of the symbol like this;
7 [email protected]
- For example the element carbon may be represented like this; 126C
- This means that carbon has 12 nucleons of which 6 are protons. C is the chemical symbol
for the element.
Mass number (nucleon number) – is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
(nucleons) of an atom.
Proton number (atomic number) – is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is
equal to the number of electrons in an atom.
- We can use the mass number and atomic number to determine the number of neutrons in
an element. The difference between the proton number and the mass number gives the
number of neutrons for each element.
Examples For each of the following, state the number of neutrons it have.
oxygen = 16 − 8 = 8 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
chlorine= 35 − 17 = 18 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
calcium= 40 − 20 = 20 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Isotopes
- These are atoms of the same element that have different number of neutrons but same
number of protons.
- Isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers. They
will have the same properties because they have the same number of electrons.
- The mass number of an element with isotopes becomes the weighted average of the
masses of each of the isotopes. Weighted averages take into account the proportion of
each isotope present on earth.
Chlorine isotopes
- Chlorine has two isotopes i.e. Cl – 35 and Cl – 37. Chlorine – 35 has a mass number of
35 (17 protons, 18 neutrons). Chlorine – 37 has a mass number of 37 (17 protons, 20
8 [email protected]
neutrons). Using the abundances of chlorine (75% of all chlorine on earth is chlorine –
35; 25% is chlorine – 37), then;
75 25
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ( × 35) + ( × 37) = 35.5
100 100
Oxygen isotopes
- Oxygen has two isotopes i.e. O – 16 and O – 18. Oxygen – 16 has a mass number of 16
(8 protons; 8 neutrons). Oxygen – 18 has a mass number of 18 (8 protons; 10 neutrons).
Using the abundances of oxygen (99.8% of all oxygen on earth is oxygen – 16 and the
remaining 0.2% is oxygen – 18), then;
99.8 0.2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ( × 16) + ( × 18) = 15.84
100 100
Carbon isotopes
- Carbon has two isotopes i.e. C – 12 and C – 14. Carbon – 12 is far more abundant and is
present in organisms in large proportions. Carbon – 14 is present in living organisms, but
in samller amounts than carbon – 12. Carbon 14 is radioactive
9 [email protected]
- Each energy shell can only have a certain number of electrons. The energy shells become
larger, the further they are from the nucleus. The larger a shell, the more electrons it can
hold. The shells fill in order, from lowest energy level to highest energy level
First atomic shell is small and can only accommodate two electrons.
Second, third and fourth shells can accommodate 8 electron
The first shell is filled before an electron can go into the second shell
GROUP PROPERTIES
- The element in each number group show trends in their properties.
- The outer shell electrons are also called valency electrons and their number shows how
elements behave. All elements in a group have similar properties.
- Some groups have special names;
Group I – alkali metals
Group II – alkaline earth metals
Group VII – halogens
Group VIII – noble gases
- They are soft solid and can be easily cut. Softness increase down the group.
10 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- They are grey solids with shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut and turn dull when
exposed to air because they are very reactive
- Melting and boiling points decrease down the group
- Have low densities which increase down the group.
- They are good conductors of heat and electricity
Chemical properties
- Form ionic compounds in which the metal ion has a charge of +1.
- React violently with chlorine, water and oxygen
- Produce soluble white compounds which dissolve in water to give colourless solutions.
- They become reactive down the group because the valency electron so it is lost more
easily due to less strong force of attraction.
- They are all shiny, silvery white metals that are less metallic in character than group 1
metals.
- Melting and boiling points decrease down the group
- Have very low densities that decrease down the group
Chemical properties
- Form ionic bonds
- Are reactive but less than group 1 metals. Reactivity increase down the group
- React with water to form alkaline solutions
11 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- Form acidic solutions
- A halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of its halide
Uses of halogens
CHEMICAL BONDING
- A chemical bond is a force that holds atoms together to form a compound or molecule
- The electrons involved in bonding are ones found in the outermost shell of the atom
(valence electrons).
- Valency is the number of electrons that an atom must gain or lose to obtain an outer
electron shell configuration that is the same as that of the nearest noble gas.
- Atoms combine with other atoms so that they have a stable configuration (noble gas
configuration) by donating, accepting and sharing electrons.
Ionic bonding
12 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- When elements combine to form ionic compounds, the positive charge on the metal ions
must be balanced by the negative charge on the non-metals.
- The charge on an ion is equal to its valency i.e. the charge on the metal ion is equal to its
group number and the charge on a non-metal ion is equal to 8 minus the group number.
- Sodium atoms have one electron in their outer shell. They will lose this electron during
bond formation and have an ionic charge of +1. Chlorine atoms have seven outer
electrons. They gain one electron during bond formation and have an ionic charge of – 1.
Hence one sodium atoms and one chlorine atom combine to form sodium chloride,
formula NaCl.
- Magnesium atoms have two electrons in their outer shell. They will lose these electrons
during bond formation and have an ionic charge of +2. Oxygen atoms have six outer
electrons. They gain two electrons during bond formation and have an ionic charge of –
2. Hence one magnesium atoms and one oxygen atom combine to form magnesium
oxide, formula MgO.
- Sodium atoms have one electron in their outer shell. They will lose this electron during
bond formation and have an ionic charge of +1. Oxygen atoms have six outer electrons.
13 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
They gain two electrons during bond formation and have an ionic charge of – 2. Hence
two sodium atoms and one oxygen atom combine to form sodium oxide, formula Na2O.
Covalent bonding
- Involves the sharing of electrons between non-metalsso that each atom attains a noble gas
configuration.
- When elements combine to form covalent compounds the valency of each element
determines how many of each atom combine.
Hydrogen molecule
- Hydrogen atoms has a valency of 1. Two hydrogen atoms combine by sharing their
electrons to form molecules of hydrogen, H2. The two shared electrons revolve around
both atoms, which in effect have the stable helium duplet.
14 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Chlorine molecule
- Two chlorine atoms combine by sharing two electrons, one from each atom. Each atom
then has 6 electrons of its own in the outer orbit plus the shared pair, which revolves
around both atoms i.e. they each have a complete octet and the stable argon structure
2.8.8
Water molecule
- Oxygen needs 2 electrons and when bonded with two hydrogen atoms, which need an
atom each, they combine to provide 2 electrons on both sides of oxygen.
Most of them do not conduct electricity because molecules are not charged.
Most are insoluble in water.
Low melting and boiling point because of weak forces of attraction between molecules
The Mole
- The mole is the amount of substance which contains the same number of molecules or
atoms as they are in 12 grams of carbon.
- One mole is the
Amount of substance which contains an Avogadro number of particles
Atomic mass of an element in grams
Molecular mass or formula mass of a compound in grams
1 mole of MgO = 24 + 16 = 40g
2 mole of HCl = 2[1 + 35.5] = 73g
1 mole of O2 = 2[16] = 32g
1 mole of Mg = 12g
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑛) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀𝑟)
16 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Examples 2 Calculate the mass
(a) 0.25 moles of carbon monoxide
(b) 3 moles of water
(c) 2 moles carbon dioxide
Chemical equations
- A chemical equation represents a chemical change by means of symbols and formulae
- Equations tell us how much of each reactant is involved and how much product is
formed.
- A balanced chemical equation shows the proportions of substances reacting and of
products formed.
- When writing chemical equations
Write a word equation with reactants on the left hand side of the equations and
products on the right hand side.
Write correct formula for each reactant and each products. (symbols for elements,
formulae for compounds)
Write state symbols next to each substance i.e. (s) for solid, (aq) for aqueous
solutions, (l) for liquid and (g) for gas
Balance the equation so that there are the same number of each type of atom on
both sides of the equations. Number to balance can only be written in front of
each substance.
Nitrate NO−
3 valency – 1
Carbonate CO2−
3 valency – 2
Sulphate SO2−
4 valency – 2
17 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
sodium + water → hydrogen + sodium hydroxide
Na(s) + H2 O(l) → H2 (g) + NaOH(aq)
𝟐Na(s) + 𝟐H2 O(l) → H2 (g) + 𝟐NaOH(aq)
Calculating Quantities
- If the actual amounts of two substances that react is known, the other amounts that willl
react and products formed will be predicted.
- Elements always react in the same ratio to form a compound. The total mass does not
change, during a chemical reaction, so total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of
products.
Example1 What mass of magnesium oxide is obtained from the complete combustion of 12g
of magnesium?
40
∴𝑥= × 12
24
= 20g of Magnesium oxide
106
∴𝑥= × 4.2
168
= 2.65g sodium carbonate
18 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Example 3 Calculate the mass of ammonium chloride that will just react completely with
14.8g of calcium hydroxide.
107
∴𝑥= × 14.8
74
= 21.4g ammonium chloride
Example 1 Given Avogadro’s constant is 6 x 1023/ mol, calculate the number of atoms in
19 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Empirical Formula
- An empirical formula is the simplest ratio in which atoms combine to form up a given
substances e.g. the formula of compound may be N2O4 but the simplest ratio of N to O is
NO2 therefore the empirical formula of that compound is NO2
- If the percentage of a compound is known by mass, number of moles of each element
present in the compound is calculated and then the empirical formula of the compound.
General method
- Convert the given % composition or mass of each element into moles
- Divide each mole value by the smallest number of moles obtained
- Write each mole in its simplest whole number ratio. This is the mole ratio which is
represented by subscripts in the empirical formula
Example 1 Calculate the empirical formulae of substances which have the following
compositions by mass; 43.4% sodium, 11.3% carbon, 45.3% oxygen
Symbols Na C O
Formula Na2CO3
Example 3 Calculate the empirical formula for a compound that contains 1.82g of potassium,
5.93g of Iodine and 2.24g of oxygen
20 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Molecular Formula
- A molecular formula gives the exact number of atoms of the different elements in a
molecule of the compound.
𝐌𝐫
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 = × 𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚
𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
Example What is the molecular formula of the compound, A, which has an empirical
formula CH2O and a relative molecular mass of 60?
60
Molecular formula = 30 × CH2 O
= 2 × CH2 O = C2 H4 O2
CONCENTRATION
𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉
21 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Example 1 Calculate the concentration in mol/dm3 of a solution containing 36.5g of hydrogen
chloride in 4.00dm3 of solution.
Method:
Mr of HCl = 35.5 + 1 = 36.5
Amount in moles present in 36.5g = 1.00mol
Volume = 4.00dm3
amount of solute in moles
Concentration of solution = volume solution in dm3
1.00mol
= 4.00dm3
= 0.25mol/dm3 or 0.25M solution
Example 2 Calculate the amount of solute in moles in cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide
which has a concentration of 2.00mol/dm3
Method:
Concentration of solution = 2.00mol/dm3
Volume of solution = 250cm3 = 0.250 dm3
Amount of solute = volume x concentration
= 2.00 x 0.250 = 0.500 mol
Example 5 Find volume of solution of concentration 2 mol/dm3 that contains 0.005 moles of
hydrochloric acid.
REACTIVITY OF METALS
NB To test for hydrogen use a burning splint, it will explode with a pop sound
Reactivity Series
- Reactivity series is the arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity with different
substances such as the reaction of metals with water, dilute acids and oxygen.
Potassium most reactive
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper least reactive
SPEED OF REACTION
25 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Effect of surface area
- The smaller the particles are, the faster the rate of reaction.This is because many small
particles will have more surface area exposed for collision is larger, frequency of
collision between the reactant particles increases and hence the frequency of effective
collision also increases. More products are formed per unit time and hence the rate of
reaction increases.
Effect of concentration
- The higher the concentration of the reactant particles, the higher the rate ofreaction. This
is because in a more concentrated solution, there are more reactant particles per unit
volume. The frequency of collision between thereactant particles increases and hence the
frequency of effective collisionalso increases. More products are formed per unit time
and hence the rate ofreaction is higher..
- Since rate of reaction is inversely proportional to time, the shorter the time, thehigher the
rate of reaction.
Effect of temperature
- The higher the temperature of the reacting system, the higher the rate ofreaction.This is
because at higher temperature, the average kinetic energy of the particles increases. With
increase in temperature, particles absorb the energy and having enough activation energy,
they move faster and collide more effectively per second. Therefore, speed of reaction is
increased. More products areformed per unit time and hence, the rate of reaction is
higher.
26 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Effect of catalyst
- They are chemical substances which alters speed of reaction without itself being used at
the end of a reaction. It can be reused and only small amount of catalyst is needed to
affect a reaction. Catalysts lower the need of energy to break bonds so activation energy
is lower. Consequently, bond breaking occurs easily and more often when particles
collide. transition metals (e.g. Titanium, Nickel, Iron, Copper) are good catalysts most
catalyst catalyse one kind of reaction
Speed of catalysed reactions can be increased by:
increasing temperature
increasing concentration of solutions
increasing pressure of gas reactions
using catalyst provide “alternative path” which results in lower activation energy.
27 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS AND BASES
pH
Neutralization
- During neutralization H+ ions combine with OH- ions to form water. As more and more
OH- ions are added the H+ ions are used up to form water, the acidity therefore decrease.
At the neutral point, just enough OH- ions have been added to remove all the H+ ions.
- There are not only hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions present when an acid reacts e.g. in
the neutralization of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid; there are also sodium ions
from the alkali and chloride ions from the acid. These two ions remain in the solution and
if the solution is allowed to evaporate, a solid called sodium chloride remains a salt.
Indicators
28 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Colour in acid Colour in alkali
Indicator
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Red
- Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes that changes color to correspond with each value
of the pH scale and the colours vary slightly depending on the pH of the solution.
pH 1 2-4 5-6 7 8 - 10 11 - 13 14
red orange yellow green blue purple violet
Colour changes
Half fill five test tubes with each of the following substances i.e. sodium hydroxide,
vinegar, lemon juice, dilute hydrochloric acid and distilled water.
Add a few drops of universal indicator solution in each beaker
Note the colour changes and compare them against universal indicator chart.
Record the results in the table below and draw conclusions about the colour change in
each substance.
Substance Universal indicator colour pH Conclusions
HCl
NaOH
Lemon juice
Vinegar
Distilled water
PREPERATION OF SALTS
- When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen is displaced, leaving a salt in solution
- The salt produced when an acid reacts with a metal depends on the acid that is used in the
reaction i.e.
Sulphuric acids reacts with metals to form sulphate salts
Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals to form chloride salts
Nitric acid reacts with metals to form nitrate salts
29 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Mg(s) + H2 SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
- Carbonates react with acids to give salt, water and carbon dioxide. There is fizzing or
effervescence.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3 (s) + H2 SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3 )2 (aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)
NB to test for the gas, bubble it into lime water or bicarbonate indicator. If it is carbon
dioxide, it turns lime water milky or bicarbonate indicator red.
- Bases reacts with acids and neutralize them, giving salt and water. Metal oxides and
hydroxides are bases
TITRATION
- Titration is a method of analysis in which the solution of known concentration is used to
determine the concentration of another unknown solution
- Titration pipettes an exact volume of one solution and reacts this with another solution
delivered from a burette. In this way the number of moles that have reacted in each
solution can be calculated
- In titration one reactant is slowly added to the other in the presence of an indicator. The
indicator changes colour when the reaction is complete.
30 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Burette - is a narrow graduated glass tube with a tap at the bottom which is used
during titrations to deliver exact volumes of solution.
Conical flask – allows the mixture to be safely swirled without spilling
Stand & clamp – to hold the burette in a perfectly vertical position and make sure
that measurements are accurate.
Acid-base titration procedure
31 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Example 1 30cm3 of 0.1mol/dm3 NaOH reacted completely with 25cm3 of H2SO4 in a
titration. Calculate the concentration of H2SO4 in mol/dm3 given that:
2NaOH(aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) → Na2 SO4 (aq) + 2H2 O(l)
Step 1 Find the reacting mole of NaOH
𝑛(𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 0.1 × 0.03 =
Step 2 find the ratio of number of moles of H2SO4 to number of moles of NaOH
𝑛(𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) 1
= = 0.5
𝑛(𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) 2
Step 3 use the ratio to find number of moles of H2SO4 that reacted
𝑛(𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) = 0.5 ×= 0.0015𝑚𝑜𝑙
Step 4 find the concentration of H2SO4 in mol/dm3
𝑛(𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) 0.0015
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.025
Example 2 In a titration experiment, a learner found out that 100cm3 of 1.0mol/dm3 NaOH
solution neutralized 40cm3 of HCl with unknown concentration. Given that;
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2 O
(a) Determine the number of moles of NaOH solution that were needed to
neutralise the volume of acid.
(b) Determine the concentration of the acid.
32 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Production of nitrogen and oxygen
- Air is cooled to -78oC, carbon dioxide and water are removed as solids.
- Remaining gases are compressed, cooled and allowed to expand rapidly causing further
cooling.
- The process is repeated and temperature drops to – 200oC; oxygen and nitrogen are
liquefied.
- Liquid air is pumped into a fractionating column and it is fractionally distilled.
- Nitrogen has a lower boiling point. The liquid nitrogen boils at -196oC and rises to the
top where it is piped off and collected as a gas.
- Oxygen has a higher boiling point of – 183oC. It is collected at the bottom of the column
and is removed as liquid
ELECTROLYSIS
- Electrolysis is a process through which compounds are decomposed into their elements
by use of electricity.
33 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- Ions must be free to move i.e. when an ionic substance is dissolved in water or when
melted through heat.
Electrolytic cell
34 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- At the cathode the lead ions (Pb2+) gains two electrons and are reduced to lead atoms
which will form a silvery liquid metal at the bottom of the reaction vessel.
Pb2+ + 2e− → Pb
- At the anode bromide ions (Br-) lose electrons to form bromine atoms which combine to
form molecules of bromine gas/vapour. Bubbles of brown gas (Br2) are seen at the anode.
2Br − → Br2 + 2e−
Electrolysis of water
- Inert platinum or carbon electrodes are used to carry current into and out of the
electrolyte.
- Charged ions carry electric current through an electrolyte and since pure water does not
contain many ions some potassium hydroxide or sulphuric acid is added to ionize the
water and increase conductivity.
35 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- Water is broken into the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the ratios 2 : 1 respectively
- While current is flowing positive hydrogen (H+) ions migrate to the cathode. They accept
electrons to form hydrogen atoms, which then combine to form molecules of hydrogen
gas. They are discharged as hydrogen gas
𝟐𝐇 + (𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐞− → 𝐇𝟐 (𝐠)
- The negative hydroxide ions (OH-) migrate to the anode and give up electrons forming
water and oxygen molecules.
𝟒𝐎𝐇 − → 𝟐𝐇𝟐 𝐎 (𝐥) + 𝐎𝟐 (𝐠) + 𝟒𝐞−
- Oxygen
- Hydrogen
Uses of oxygen
- Manufacture of steel
- Cutting and welding metals
- Medical purposes
- Bleaching agents
- Used by sea divers and astronauts
- Making acids e.g. sulphuric acid and nitric acid
Uses of hydrogen
- Manufacture of ammonia
- Manufacture of margarine
- Welding
- Manufacture fertilisers
- Fuel
ELECTROPLATING
- Electroplating is the process during which an object of one type of metal is covered with
a thin layer of another metal using electricity.
- It is a process of coating one metal with another through electrolysis
36 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Copper plating
PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA
37 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- High pressure of 200 - 300 atmosphere
- Powdered iron catalyst
- Nitrogen from air and hydrogen from water are reacted in ratio 1 : 3 by volume and
passed over an iron catalyst. The gas pressure is raised to 200 atmospheres and the
temperature to 450 – 500oC. 12-17% of the mixture is converted to ammonia. The
ammonia produced is separated by condensation in a cooler. Since the reaction is
reversible so hydrogen and nitrogen (unconverted gases) reproduced from the
decomposition of ammonia are mixed with more nitrogen and hydrogen and passed over
the catalyst again.
- Since this is a reversible reaction low temperature and high pressure is needed to enhance
forward reaction. The reaction is slowed down by low temperature thus iron catalyst is
used to speed up production of ammonia.
- For producing fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes, cleaners, detergents and dry cells
- Refrigerant
- Household cleaners/cleaning agents
38 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
SULPHURIC ACID
Conditions needed
- 450oC temperature
- Vanadium (v) oxide
- 1 atmosphere pressure.
39 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- The sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphuric acid by the contact process. It is oxidized
first by air to sulphur trioxide.
2SO2 (s) + O2 (g) ↔ 2SO3 (g) + heat
- Because the reaction gives out heat (exothermic) a good yield could be obtained at low
temperature. Although lower tempearture is required for high yields, 450oC is instead
used as the reaction will be slow at low temperature. Vanadium (v) oxide catalyst is used
to increase rate of reaction. Pressure of 1-3 atmospheres is used in practise
- Sulphur trioxide is cooled and absorbed in concentrated sulphuric acid to produce oleum
SO3 (g) + H2 SO4 (aq) → H2 S2 O7 (g)
Sulphur trioxide is not reacted with water because heat of reaction would produce
a mist of sulphuric acid which difficult to condense.
- The oleum is diluted with water to give concentrated sulphuric acid
H2 S2 O7 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO4 (aq)
40 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
- Oxidation is gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen or loss of electrons
𝐒 (𝐬) + 𝐎𝟐 (𝐠) → 𝐒𝐎𝟐 Sulphur is oxidized to sulphur dioxide by gaining
oxygen
𝐇𝟐 𝐒(𝐠) + 𝐂𝐥𝟐 (𝐠) → 𝟐𝐇𝐂𝐥(𝐠) + 𝐒(𝐬) Hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to
sulphur by losing hydrogen
𝟐+
𝐅𝐞 → 𝐅𝐞 + 𝟐𝐞 −
iron atom loses 2 electrons to form the iron (II) ion
−
𝟐𝐂𝐥 → 𝐂𝐥𝟐 + 𝟐𝐞 −
loss of electrons by chlorine ions to form chlorine molecule
- Reduction is Loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen or gain of electrons
𝐍𝟐 (𝐠) + 𝟑𝐇𝟐 (𝐠) → 𝟐𝐍𝐇𝟑 (𝐠) Nitrogen is reduced to ammonia by gaining
hydrogen
𝐏𝐛𝐎(𝐬) + 𝐇𝟐 (𝐠) → 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥) + 𝐏𝐛(𝐬) Lead oxide is reduced by losing
oxygen
𝐂𝐮𝟐+ + 𝟐𝐞− → 𝐂𝐮 the copper (II) ion gains 2 electrons to form neutral
copper atoms
𝟐𝐇 𝟐+ + 𝟐𝐞− → 𝐇𝟐 hydrogen ions gain electrons to form neutral hydrogen
molecules
- A reducing agent is substances that removes oxygen, adds hydrogen and or donates
electrons. An oxidizing agent oxidizes another substance – and is itself reduced
Hydrogen and metals are reducing agents
- An oxidizing agent is a substance that adds oxygen, removes hydrogen and or accepts
electrons. A reducing agent reduces another substance – and is itself oxidized. Chlorine,
oxygen and metal ions are oxidizing agents
Redox reactions
- Redox reactions are simultaneous oxidation and reduction reactions In a redox reaction
one substance is oxidized and the other is reduced e.g.
Copper oxide is reduced to copper, hydrogen is oxidised to water. Hydrogen is the
reducing agent (removes O from CuO). Copper oxide is the oxidising agent
(donates O to hydrogen)
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2 O
The magnesium atom loses 2 electrons (oxidation) to form the magnesium ion,
the iron (II) ion gains two electrons (reduced) to form iron atoms.
Fe2+ + Mg → Fe + Mg 2+
41 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- A charge on an ion is called its oxidation number. An element has a zero oxidation
number because there is no charge on its atoms.
- During redox reactions there is a change in oxidation state e.g. when magnesium burns in
oxygen, its oxidation state increases from 0 to +2 while oxidation state for oxygen
decreases from 0 to – 2 . Magnesium is oxidized and oxygen is reduced.
- The number of electrons lost by the reducing agent is equal to the number of electrons
gained by the oxidizing agent.
- Place 3g of black CuO in a test tube and keep the apparatus horizontal and steady with
the retort stand and clamps.
- Connect a rubber tube from a gas cylinder to the glass tube and allow a very slow stream
of gas to flow through the apparatus.
- Heat the CuO until there is a change in colour and then remove the heat source. After
heating, the Copper (II) Oxide turn pink as it was reduced to the element copper.
- Hydrogen removes oxygen from Copper (II) Oxide to form water.
- The copper oxide is reduced while hydrogen is oxidized. Hydrogen is the reducing agent
while Copper Oxide is the oxidizing agent
CuO (s) + H2 (g) → Cu (s) + H2 O(l)
42 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Coke/ Carbon Hwange Burns in air to produce heat
and reacts to form CO which
reduces Fe2O3
Hot air/Oxygen Sable Chemicals Source of oxygen to burn
coke and produces heat and
CO
- The iron is extracted from its ore in the blast furnace by reduction of iron (II) oxide.
43 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
1. Near the bottom of the furnace, the carbon in coke burns in hot air, forming carbon
dioxide and producing temperature up to 1700oC. Further up the furnace, the carbon
dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + heat
CO2 (g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
2. In the middle of the furnace the carbon monoxide reduces the iron oxides to produce
molten iron, which runs down to the bottom of the furnace. The waste gases leaving the
furnace are burnt to heat the air blast entering the furnace.
Iron (II) oxide FeO (s) + CO(g) → Fe (l) + CO2 (g)
Iron (III) oxide Fe2 O3 (s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
3. The limestone decomposes to calcium oxide. This combines with sand/silica (SiO2)
present as an impurity in the ore and forms a slag of calcium silicate
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l) (slag)
- The iron absorbs carbon as it moves down the furnace and this lowers its melting points.
Both iron and slag are molten and drop to the bottom of the furnace.
- The less dense slag floats on top of the iron and prevents oxidation of the iron by the air
blast.
- Molten iron & slag run out of separate holes from time to time
- A hole was made on the side of the charcoal block and a spatula full of iron oxide was
placed in the hole.
- A burner was lit and the burner flame directed at the iron oxide in the hole by blowing
into the blowpipe for some time.
- A small bead of greyish metal was seen at the end of the experiment, when the charcoal
block had cooled.
- The iron (III) oxide was reduced to iron by carbon in the charcoal block.
Iron (III)oxide + Carbon → Iron + Carbon dioxide
44 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
ALLOYS OF IRON
45 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Organic compounds are classified according to families of compounds that all contain the
same functional group.
- A homologous series is a family of organic compound with a general formula and a
similar chemical properties. Only the length of the carbon chain differs.
- A functional group of a compound is a group of atoms that give the organic molecule its
physical and chemical properties.
- The name of the organic compound is determined by the number of carbon atoms it
contains in the main carbon chain.
- All compounds in homologous series have functional group except alkanes
- The number of carbon atoms determines the prefix of the name and the functional group
the suffix e.g.
1 carbon meth-
2 carbons eth-
3 carbons prop-
HYDROCARBONS
- Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only e.g. Alkanes and alkenes.
Alkanes
- They are a homologous series of molecules where the molecules are characterized by
single bonds between their carbon atoms hence they are said to be saturated
hydrocarbons.
- A saturated hydrocarbon have only single carbon to carbon bond because the combining
capacity of the carbon atom is fully used. Each carbon is bonded to four other atoms
- They have a general formula CnH2n + 2 where n is a whole number.
- Names will always end with suffix –ane e.g. Methane (CH4 ), Ethane (C2H6) and Propane
(C3H8)
46 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Alkenes
Alcohols
- Alcohols are organic compounds which contain a hydroxyl group –OH (functional group)
covalently bonded to a grouping of carbon and hydrogen atoms only.
- Their general formula is 𝐂𝐧 𝐇𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝐎𝐇
- Alcohols are derived from alkanes by replacing one –H atom with an –OH group e.g.
Methane – methanol
Ethane – ethanol
Propane - propanol
47 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
Displayed structural formula of ethanol
Production of Ethanol
- Fermentation is a chemical reaction in which sugars are broken down into smaller
molecules such as ethanol by yeast in the absence of oxygen e.g. fermentation of glucose
to form ethanol
- Yeast is added to a sugar solution and left at room temperature for a few days in the
absence of air.
- Enzymes in yeast break down glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide, giving out heat.
- Temperature must be kept between 25 and 35oC, above and below this temperature range,
the enzymes become inactive.
- Sugar or sucrose is converted to glucose. Glucose is converted into ethanol and carbon
dioxide
- Yeast is killed when the mixture contains more than 15% alcohol, therefore fermentation
stops.
- pH of 6-8
- temperature of 25 – 37oC, higher temperature will denature enzymes
- anaerobic conditions
- enzymes in yeast
- Heat the mixture in the flask. At about 78oC the ethanol begins to boil. Some water
evaporates too, so a mixture of ethanol and water vapour rises up the column.
- The vapour condenses on the glass beads in the column, making them hot.
- When the beads reach about 78oC, ethanol vapour no longer condenses on them. Only the
water vapour does. So water drips back into the flask. The ethanol vapour goes into the
condenser where it condenses into pure ethanol.
- Eventually, the thermometer reading rises above 78oC – a sign that all the ethanol has
evaporated.
Uses of ethanol
BIOGAS
Production of biogas
- Fresh cow dung is collected and then mixed with water to form sludge.
- Organic wastes are added to the digester and mixed with water.
- The anaerobic bacteria start to break down the organic wastes. Solid wastes collect at the
bottom .
- The biogas rises to the top of the digester and the gas can be piped off and used in homes
for cooking, lighting
- The digested sludge (slurry) is collected and used as a fertiliser for farms or gardens.
- The digester is built underground so that the heat produced during decomposition is
retained and facilitates further decomposition of the cow dung
- Nature of waste
- Time
- Anaerobic bacteria
- pH between 6 & 8
50 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- Suitable temperature of about 25-60oC
- Air
Uses of biogas
- Cooking
- Lighting
- Operating a refrigerator
GLOBAL WARMING
- Global warming is the gradual heating of the earth that is caused by elevated levels of
green house gases in the atmosphere. Green house gases absorb heat in the atmosphere
and prevent it from escaping into space.
- Excessive burning of fuels such as coal and emissions from vehicles, veld fires and
burning of wastes have created a buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which
forms an insulating (greenhouse) effect on the earth. This prevents the sun’s heat from
escaping or from being reflected back into space. This effect keeps the earth warm thus
increasing the atmospheric temperature in a process referred to as global warming
- Deforestation causes an increase in the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere because
there is now less vegetation to remove atmospheric carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
- Temperature of oceans and atmosphere rise causing polar ice caps to melt. This results in
higher sea level causing coastal areas to be flooded.
51 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m
- Global warming is also associated with change in climatic and wind patterns bringing
about change in precipitation and rainfall patterns.
- Increased air temperature (heat waves)
- Droughts
52 f a r i r a y i t @ g m a i l . c o m