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7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers
7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers
Diode Rectifiers
7.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers current (IFRM) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher
than the peak load current, Vm/R, in practice. In addition,
The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase
the transformer has to carry a dc current that may result in a
half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-wave rectifier with
dc saturation problem of the transformer core.
resistive load is shown in Fig. 7.1. The circuit consists of only
one diode that is usually fed with a secondary transformer as
shown. During the positive half cycle of the transformer sec- 7.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers
ondary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative half
There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely,
cycle, diode D stops conducting. Assuming that the trans-
full-wave rectifiers with center-tapped transformer and bridge
former has zero internal impedance and provides perfect sinu-
rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer
soidal voltage on its secondary winding, the voltage and current
is shown in Fig. 7.3. It is clear that each diode, together with the
waveforms of resistive load R and the voltage waveform of
associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave rectifier.
diode D are shown in Fig. 7.2.
The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are combined to pro-
By observing the voltage waveform of diode D in Fig. 7.2, it is
duce full-wave rectification in the load. As far as the transformer
clear that the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode D is equal to
is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-wave rectifiers are
Vm during the negative half cycle of the transformer secondary
equal and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a
voltage. Hence, the peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM) rat-
transformer core saturation problem. The voltage and current
ing of diode D must be chosen to be higher than Vm to avoid
waveforms of the full-wave rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.4. By
reverse breakdown. In the positive half cycle of the transformer
observing diode voltage waveforms vD1 and vD2 in Fig. 7.4, it
secondary voltage, diode D has a forward current that is equal
is clear that the PIV of the diodes is equal to 2Vm during their
to the load current; therefore, the peak repetitive forward
blocking state. Hence, the VRRM rating of the diodes must be cho-
sen to be higher than 2Vm to avoid reverse breakdown. (Note
that, compared with the half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 7.1,
vD
the full-wave rectifier has twice the dc output voltage, as shown
iL
in Section 7.2.4.) During its conducting state, each diode has a
D forward current which is equal to the load current; therefore,
vs = Vm sin wt
the IFRM rating of these diodes must be chosen to be higher than
R vL
the peak load current, Vm/R, in practice.
Employing four diodes instead of two, a bridge rectifier as
shown in Fig. 7.5 can provide full-wave rectification without
FIG. 7.1 A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load.
using a center-tapped transformer. During the positive half
cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, the current flows
vs to the load through diodes D1 and D2. During the negative half
cycle, D3 and D4 conduct. The voltage and current waveforms
Vm
of the bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.6. As with the full-
wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the IFRM rating
wt
p /2 p 2p 3p of the employed diodes must be chosen to be higher than the
vL peak load current, Vm/R. However, the PIV of the diodes is
Vm reduced from 2Vm to Vm during their blocking state.
wt
iL p /2 p 2p 3p vD1
Vm/R
D1
vs vL
wt iL
+
p /2 p 2p 3p –
vD R
vs
wt D2
p 2p 3p
–Vm vs = Vm sin w t
vD2
FIG. 7.2 Voltage and current waveforms of the half-wave rectifier with
resistive load. FIG. 7.3 Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
7 Diode Rectifiers 179
vs vs
Vm Vm
wt wt
p/2 p 2p 3p p/2 p 2p 3p
vL vL
Vm Vm
wt wt
iL p/2 p 2p 3p iL p/2 p 2p 3p
Vm/R Vm/R
–Vm
vD3, vD4
–2Vm wt
p 2p 3p
vD2
–Vm
wt
p 2p 3p
FIG. 7.6 Voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier.
–2Vm ðT
1
Vdc ¼ vL ðt Þdt (7.1)
FIG. 7.4 Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier with T 0
center-tapped transformer.
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, Fig. 7.2 indicates that load
voltage vL ðt Þ ¼ 0 for the negative half cycle. Note that the
7.2.3 Performance Parameters angular frequency of the source ω ¼ 2π=T, and Eq. (7.1) can
be rewritten as
In this subsection, the performance of the rectifiers mentioned ð
above will be evaluated in terms of the following parameters. 1 π
Vdc ¼ Vm sin ωt dðωt Þ (7.2)
2π 0
7.2.3.1 Voltage Relationships
The average value of the load voltage vL is Vdc and it is Therefore,
defined as
Vm
Half -wave Vdc ¼ ¼ 0:318 Vm (7.3)
π
iL In the case of a full-wave rectifier, Figs. 7.4 and 7.6 indicate that
vL ðt Þ ¼ Vm j sin ωtj for both the positive and negative half
D1 D3 cycles. Hence, Eq. (7.1) can be rewritten as
ð
+ 1 π
vs R
Vdc ¼ Vm sin ωt d ðωt Þ (7.4)
− vL π 0
D4 D2 Therefore,
vs = Vm sin wt
2Vm
Full-wave Vdc ¼ ¼ 0:636 Vm (7.5)
FIG. 7.5 Bridge rectifier. π
180 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage vL is VL, In the case of a full-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.5),
which is defined as
0:636Vm
ðT 1=2 Full-wave Idc ¼ (7.15)
1 R
VL ¼ vL2 ðt Þdt (7.6)
T 0 and from Eq. (7.10),
0:318Vm
Half -wave Idc ¼ (7.13) 7.2.3.5 Ripple Factor
R
The ripple factor (RF), which is a measure of the ripple content,
and from Eq. (7.8), is defined as
0:5Vm Vac
Half -wave IL ¼ (7.14) RF ¼ (7.23)
R Vdc
7 Diode Rectifiers 181
where Vac is the effective (rms) value of the ac component of current that may cause magnetic core saturation. As a result,
load voltage vL: half-wave rectifiers are used only when the current require-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ment is small.
Vac ¼ VL2 Vdc 2 (7.24) In the case of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped trans-
former, the circuit can be treated as two half-wave rectifiers
Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq. (7.23), the RF can be expressed operating together. Therefore, the transformer secondary VA
as rating, VsIs, is double that of a half-wave rectifier, but the output
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi dc power is increased by a factor of four due to higher rectifi-
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cation ratio as indicated by Eqs. (7.5) and (7.15). Therefore, the
VL
RF ¼ 1 ¼ FF2 1 (7.25) TUF of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer can
Vdc
be found from Eq. (7.32):
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, 4 0:3182
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Full-wave TUF ¼ ¼ 0:572 (7.33)
Half -wave RF ¼ 1:572 1 ¼ 1:21 (7.26) 2 0:707 0:5
In the case of a bridge rectifier, it has the highest TUF in single-
In the case of a full-wave rectifier,
phase rectifier circuits because the currents flowing in both the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi primary and secondary windings are continuous sinewaves. By
Full-wave RF ¼ 1:112 1 ¼ 0:482 (7.27)
substituting Eqs. (7.5), (7.15), (7.29), and (7.31) into Eq. (7.28),
the TUF of a bridge rectifier can be found:
7.2.3.6 Transformer Utilization Factor
0:6362
The transformer utilization factor (TUF), which is a measure of Bridge TUF ¼ ¼ 0:81 (7.34)
the merit of a rectifier circuit, is defined as the ratio of the dc ð0:707Þ2
output power to the transformer volt-ampere (VA) rating
The transformer primary VA rating of a full-wave rectifier is
required by the secondary winding:
equal to that of a bridge rectifier since the current flowing in
Pdc Vdc Idc the primary winding is also a continuous sinewave.
TUF ¼ ¼ (7.28)
Vs Is V s Is
7.2.3.7 Harmonics
where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current ratings of Full-wave rectifier circuits with resistive load do not produce
the secondary transformer: harmonic currents in their transformers. In half-wave rectifiers,
Vm harmonic currents are generated. The amplitudes of the har-
Vs ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 0:707Vm (7.29) monic currents of a half-wave rectifier with resistive load, rel-
2
ative to the fundamental, are given in Table 7.1. The extra loss
The rms value of the transformer secondary current Is is the caused by the harmonics in the resistive loaded rectifier circuits
same as that of the load current IL. For a half-wave rectifier, is often neglected because it is not high compared with other
Is can be found from Eq. (7.14): losses. However, with nonlinear loads, harmonics can cause
appreciable loss and other problems such as poor power factor
0:5Vm and interference.
Half -wave Is ¼ (7.30)
R
For a full-wave rectifier, Is is found from Eq. (7.16): 7.2.4 Design Considerations
0:707Vm In a practical design, the goal is to achieve a given dc output
Full-wave Is ¼ (7.31)
R voltage. Therefore, it is more convenient to put all the design
parameters in terms of Vdc. For example, the rating and turn
Therefore, the TUF of a half-wave rectifier can be obtained by
ratio of the transformer in a rectifier circuit can be easily deter-
substituting Eqs. (7.3), (7.13), (7.29), and (7.30) into Eq. (7.28):
mined if the rms input voltage to the rectifier is in terms of the
0:3182 required output voltage Vdc.
Half -wave TUF ¼ ¼ 0:286 (7.32) Denote the rms value of the input voltage to the rectifier
0:707 0:5
as Vs, which is equal to 0.707Vm. Based on this relation
The poor TUF of a half-wave rectifier signifies that the trans- and Eq. (7.3), the rms input voltage to a half-wave rectifier is
former employed must have a 3.496 (1/0.286) VA rating found as
in order to deliver 1 W dc output power to the load. In addi-
tion, the transformer secondary winding has to carry a dc Half -wave Vs ¼ 2:22Vdc (7.35)
182 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
TABLE 7.1 Harmonic percentages of a half-wave rectifier with The important design parameters of basic single-phase
resistive load rectifier circuits with resistive loads are summarized in
Table 7.2.
Harmonic Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
TABLE 7.2 Important design parameters of basic single-phase rectifier circuits with resistive load
B
Similarly, using Eq. (7.6), the rms value of the output voltage
vRN vD can be found as
vBN
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
N R D iD 3 5π=6 2
vYN VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ dθ (7.44)
R vL 2π π=6
Y
or
FIG. 7.7 Three-phase star rectifier. sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
3 π 3
VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 0:84Vm (7.45)
2π 3 4
voltage waveforms of each phase and the load are shown in
Fig. 7.8. It is clear that, unlike the single-phase rectifier circuit, In addition, the rms current in each transformer secondary
the conduction angle of each diode is 2π/3, instead of π. This winding can also be found as
circuit finds uses where the required dc output voltage is rela- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
tively low, and the required output current is too large for a 1 π 3
Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:485Im (7.46)
practical single-phase system. 2π 3 4
Taking phase R as an example, diode D conducts from π/6
to 5π/6. Therefore, using Eq. (7.1), the average value of the where Im ¼ Vm =R.
output can be found as Based on the relationships stated in Eqs. (7.43), (7.45), (7.46),
ð all the important design parameters of the three-phase star rec-
3 5π=6 tifier can be evaluated, as listed in Table 7.3, which is given at
Vdc ¼ Vm sin θdθ (7.42)
2π π=6 the end of Section 7.3.2. Note that, as with a single-phase half-
wave rectifier, the three-phase star rectifier shown in Fig. 7.7
or has direct currents in the secondary windings that can cause
pffiffiffi a transformer core saturation problem. In addition, the
3 3 currents in the primary do not sum to zero. Therefore, it is pref-
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 0:827Vm (7.43)
π 2 erable not to have star-connected primary windings.
wt
p 2p 3p
vL
Vm
wt
iD p 2p 3p
Vm/R
wt
p/6 5p/6 2p 3p
vD p
wt
–1.73Vm
FIG. 7.8 Waveforms of voltage and current of the three-phase star rectifier shown in Fig. 7.7.
184 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
TABLE 7.3 Important design parameters of the three-phase rectifier circuits with the resistive load
Three-phase double-star
rectifier with Three-phase
Three-phase star rectifier interphase transformer bridge rectifier
7.3.1.2 Three-Phase Interstar Rectifier Circuit 7.3.1.3 Three-Phase Double-Star Rectifier With
The transformer core saturation problem in the three-phase Interphase Transformer
star rectifier can be avoided by a special arrangement in its This circuit consists essentially of two three-phase star rec-
secondary windings, known as zigzag connection. The mod- tifiers with their neutral points interconnected through an
ified circuit is called the three-phase interstar or zigzag rec- interphase transformer or reactor (Fig. 7.10). The polarities
tifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 7.9. Each secondary-phase of the corresponding secondary windings in the two inter-
voltage is obtained from two equal-voltage secondary wind- connected systems are reversed with respect to each other,
ings (with a phase displacement of π/3) connected in series so that the rectifier output voltage of one three-phase unit
so that the dc magnetizing forces due to the two secondary is at a minimum when the rectifier output voltage of the
windings on any limb are equal and opposite. At the expense other unit is at a maximum as shown in Fig. 7.11. The func-
of extra secondary windings (increasing the transformer sec- tion of the interphase transformer is to cause the output
ondary rating factor from 1.51 to 1.74 VA/W), this circuit voltage vL to be the average of the rectified voltages v1
connection eliminates the effects of core saturation and and v2 as shown in Fig. 7.11. In addition, the ripple fre-
reduces the transformer primary rating factor to the mini- quency of the output voltage is now six times that of the
mum of 1.05 VA/W. Apart from transformer ratings, all mains, and therefore, the component size of the filter (if
the design parameters of this circuit are the same as those there is any) becomes smaller. In a balanced circuit, the
of a three-phase star rectifier (therefore not separately listed
in Table 7.3). Furthermore, a star-connected primary wind-
ing with no neutral connection is equally permissible
because the sum of all primary phase currents is zero at
all times.
v1
vL
Y’
v2
B
R
R’ Y B’
FIG. 7.9 Three-phase interstar rectifier. FIG. 7.10 Three-phase double-star rectifier with interphase transformer.
7 Diode Rectifiers 185
v1
v2
vL
wt
p /3
output currents of two three-phase units flowing in opposite Using Eq. (7.1), the average value of the output can be found
directions in the interphase transformer winding will pro- as
duce no dc magnetization current. Similarly, the dc magne- ð 2π=3
6 pffiffiffi
tization currents in the secondary windings of two three- Vdc ¼ 3Vm sin θdθ (7.47)
phase units cancel each other out. 2π π=3
By virtue of the symmetry of the secondary circuits, the three or
primary currents add up to zero at all times. Therefore, a star pffiffiffi
primary winding with no neutral connection would be equally 3 3
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 1:654Vm (7.48)
permissible. π
Similarly, using Eq. (7.6), the rms value of the output voltage
7.3.2 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers can be found as
Three-phase bridge rectifiers are commonly used for high- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
9 2π=3 2
power applications because they have the highest possible VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ dθ (7.49)
transformer utilization factor for a three-phase system. The cir- π π=3
cuit of a three-phase bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 7.12. The or
diodes are numbered in the order of conduction sequences, and sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the conduction angle of each diode is 2π/3. pffiffiffi
3 9 3
The conduction sequence for diodes is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 1:655Vm (7.50)
2 4π
and 61. The voltage and the current waveforms of the
three-phase bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.13. The line In addition, the rms current in each transformer secondary
voltage is 1.73 times the phase voltage of a three-phase star- winding can also be found as
connected source. It is permissible to use any combination sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
of star- or delta-connected primary and secondary windings pffiffiffiffi
2 π 3
because the currents associated with the secondary windings Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:78Im (7.51)
π 6 4
are symmetrical.
D3
D1 D5
B
R
vL
Y
D4 D2
D6
wt
p 2p
p/2 3p/2
vL
1.73Vm
wt
iDi
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
1.73Vm / R
wt
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
D5 conducts D1 conducts
D6 conducts D2 conducts D4 conducts
D3 conducts D5 conducts
FIG. 7.13 Voltage and current waveforms of the three-phase bridge rectifier.
and the rms current through a diode is of discussing the effects of the finite source inductance, a three-
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffi phase star rectifier with transformer leakage inductances is
1 π 3 shown in Fig. 7.14, where l1, l2, and l3 denote the leakage induc-
ID ¼ Im + ¼ 0:552Im (7.52)
π 6 4 tances associated with the transformer secondary windings.
Refer to Fig. 7.15. At the time when vYN is about to become
where Im ¼ 1:73Vm =R. larger than vRN, due to leakage inductance l1, the current in D1
Based on Eqs. (7.48), (7.50), (7.51), (7.52), all the important cannot fall to zero immediately. Similarly, due to the leakage
design parameters of the three-phase star rectifier can be eval- inductance l2, the current in D2 cannot increase immediately
uated, as listed in Table 7.3. The dc output voltage is slightly to the full value. The result is that both the diodes conduct
lower than the peak line voltage or 2.34 times the rms phase for a certain period, which is called the overlap (or commuta-
voltage. The VRRM rating of the employed diodes is 1.05 times tion) angle. The overlap reduces the rectified voltage vL as
the dc output voltage, and the IFRM rating of the employed shown in the upper voltage waveform of Fig. 7.15. If all the leak-
diodes is 0.579 times the dc output current. Therefore, this age inductances are equal, that is, l1 ¼ l2 ¼ l3 ¼ lc , then the
three-phase bridge rectifier is very efficient and popular wher- amount of reduction of dc output voltage can be estimated
ever both dc voltage and current requirements are high. In as mfilcIdc, where m is the ratio of the lowest ripple frequency
many applications, no additional filter is required because to the input frequency.
the output ripple voltage is only 4.2%. Even if a filter is required,
the size of the filter is relatively small because the ripple fre-
quency is increased to six times the input frequency.
l3 D3
B
7.3.3 Operation of Rectifiers With Finite Source l1 D1
Inductance N R
It has been assumed in the preceding sections that the commu- l2 D2 R vL
tation of current from one diode to the next takes place instan- Y
taneously when the interphase voltage assumes the necessary
polarity. In practice, this is hardly possible because there are FIG. 7.14 Three-phase star rectifier with the transformer leakage
finite inductances associated with the source. For the purpose inductances.
7 Diode Rectifiers 187
VL D1
vRN vYN
Vm
R D2
Y vL
D3
B
N
wt
iD Y D4
Overlap angle
Vm/R B R D5
D1 D2 D6
conducts conducts
FIG. 7.16 Six-phase star rectifier.
wt
of each phase and the load are shown in Fig. 7.17. It is clear
that, unlike the three-phase star rectifier circuit, the conduc-
FIG. 7.15 Waveforms during commutation in Fig. 7.14. tion angle of each diode is π/3, instead of 2π/3. Currents flow
in only one rectifying element at a time, resulting in a low
average current, but a high peak to an average current ratio
For example, for a three-phase star rectifier operating from a in the diodes and poor transformer secondary utilization. Nev-
60 Hz supply with an average load current of 50 A, the amount ertheless, the dc currents in the secondary of the six-phase star
of reduction of the dc output voltage is 2.7 V if the leakage rectifier cancel in the secondary windings like a full-wave rec-
inductance in each secondary winding is 300 μH. tifier and, therefore, core saturation is not encountered. This
six-phase star circuit is attractive in applications that require
a low ripple factor and a common cathode or anode for the
rectifiers.
7.4 Poly-Phase Diode Rectifiers By considering the output voltage provided by vRN between
π/3 and 2π/3, the average value of the output voltage can be
7.4.1 Six-Phase Star Rectifier found as
A basic six-phase star rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 7.16. The ð
6 2π=3
six-phase voltages on the secondary are obtained by means of Vdc ¼ Vm sin θdθ (7.53)
a center-tapped arrangement on a star-connected three-phase 2π π=3
winding. Therefore, it is sometimes referred to as a three- or
phase full-wave rectifier. The diode in a particular phase con-
ducts during the period when the voltage on that phase is 61
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 0:955Vm (7.54)
higher than that on the other phases. The voltage waveforms π2
vY N
vRN vB N
vYN vR N vBN
Vm
wt
2p
p/2 3p/2
VL
Vm
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
conducts conducts conducts conducts conducts conducts
wt
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
or
7.4.2 Six-Phase Series Bridge Rectifier
pffiffiffi
The star- and delta-connected secondaries have an inherent 12 3 1
Vdc ¼ Vm pffiffiffi ¼ 0:98862Vm (7.59)
π/6-phase displacement between their output voltages. When π 2 2
a star- and a delta-connected bridge rectifier are connected
in series as shown in Fig. 7.18, the combined output voltage will The rms value of the output voltage can be found as
have a doubled ripple frequency (12 times that of the mains). sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
The ripple of the combined output voltage will also be reduced 12 7π=12
from 4.2% (for each individual bridge rectifier) to 1%. The VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ2 dθ (7.60)
2π 5π=12
combined bridge rectifier is referred to as a six-phase series
bridge rectifier. or
In the six-phase series bridge rectifier shown in Fig. 7.18, sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
let Vm∗ be the peak voltage of the delta-connected secondary. 12 π 1
The peak voltage between the lines of the star-connected sec- VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 0:98867Vm (7.61)
2π 12 4
ondary is also Vm∗ . The peak voltage across the load, denoted
TABLE 7.4 Important design parameters of the six-phase rectifier circuits with resistive load
1
1
v2
vL
1
1
v1
1
v1
v2
vL
wt
p/6
FIG. 7.20 Voltage waveforms of the six-phase bridge rectifier with interphase transformer.
190 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
where fr is the ripple frequency, if R≫1=2πfr Cf . 7.5.1.3 Determining the Input Inductance for a Given
Ripple Factor
7.5.1.1 Voltage and Current Waveforms of Full-Wave
In practice, the choice of the input inductance depends on the
Rectifier With Inductor-Input DC Filter
required ripple factor of the output voltage. The ripple voltage
Fig. 7.22 shows a single-phase full-wave rectifier with an of a rectifier without filtering can be found by means of Fourier
inductor-input dc filter. The voltage and current waveforms
analysis. For example, the coefficient of the nth harmonic com-
are illustrated in Fig. 7.23.
ponent of the rectified voltage vL shown in Fig. 7.22 can be
When the inductance of Lf is infinite, the current through the
expressed as
inductor and the output voltage are constant. When inductor Lf
is finite, the current through the inductor has a ripple compo- 4Vm
vL n ¼ (7.68)
nent, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 7.23. If the input π ðn2 1 Þ
inductance is too small, the current decreases to zero (becom-
ing discontinuous) during a portion of the time between the where n ¼ 2, 4, 8, …, etc.
Lf Lf
Rectifier vL R vo
Rectifier
vL Cf R vo
(A) (B)
FIG. 7.21 Inductive-input dc filters. (A) Simple inductive-input dc filter. (B) L-section filter.
7 Diode Rectifiers 191
vs
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
is Inductor with
infinite inductance
Im
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
Inductor with
vL finite inductance
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
iL,vo
Inductor with
infinite inductance
Inductor with
finite inductance
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
FIG. 7.23 Voltage and current waveforms of full-wave rectifier with inductor-input dc filter.
The dc component of the rectifier voltage is given by where Isn is the rms value of the nth harmonic component of
Eq. (7.5). Therefore, in addition to Eq. (7.27), the ripple factor the input current.
can also be expressed as Moreover, the input power factor is defined as
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 2 Is1
u X 1 PF ¼ cos ϕ (7.73)
RF ¼ 2 t (7.69) Is
n¼2, 4, 8,
n2 1
where ϕ is the displacement angle between the fundamental
Considering only the lowest-order harmonic ðn ¼ 2Þ, the out- components of the input current and voltage.
put ripple factor of a simple inductor-input dc filter (without Assume that inductor Lf of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.22 has
Cf) can be found, from Eqs. (7.64) and (7.69), as an infinitely large inductance. The input current is then a
square wave. This input current contains undesirable higher
0:4714 harmonics that reduce the input power factor of the system.
Filtered RF ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 (7.70)
1 + 4πfi Lf =R The input current can be easily expressed as
4Im X 1
is ¼ sin 2nπfi t (7.74)
π n¼1, 3, 5, n
7.5.1.4 Harmonics of the Input Current
In general, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of an input
The rms values of the input
current
and its fundamental com-
current is defined as
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ponent are Im and 4Im = π√2 , respectively. Therefore, the
2
Is THD of the input current of this circuit is 0.484.
Since the dis-
THD ¼ 1 (7.71)
Is1 placement angle is ϕ ¼ 0, the power factor is 4= π√2 ¼ 0:9:
where Is is the rms value of the input current and Is1 and the The power factor of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.22 can be
rms value of the fundamental component of the input current. improved by installing an ac filter between the source and
The THD can also be expressed as the rectifier, as shown in Fig. 7.24.
Considering only the harmonic components, the equivalent
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u circuit of the rectifier given in Fig. 7.24 can be found as shown in
u X Isn 2
THD ¼ t (7.72) Fig. 7.25. The rms value of the nth harmonic current appearing
n¼2, 3, 4,
Is1 in the supply can then be obtained using the current divider rule:
192 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
TABLE 7.5 Important design parameters of typical rectifier circuits with inductor-input dc filter
Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 3.14Vdc 1.57Vdc 2.09Vdc 1.05Vdc 2.42Vdc
RMS input voltage per transformer leg Vs 1.11Vdc 1.11Vdc 0.885Vdc 0.428Vdc 0.885Vdc
Diode average current IF(AV) 0.5Idc 0.5Idc 0.333Idc 0.333Idc 0.167Idc
Peak repetitive forward current IFRM 2.00IF(AV) 2.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV)
Diode rms current IF(RMS) 0.707Idc 0.707Idc 0.577Idc 0.577Idc 0.289Idc
Form factor of diode current IF(RMS)/IF(AV) 1.414 1.414 1.73 1.73 1.73
Transformer rating primary VA 1.11Pdc 1.11Pdc 1.21Pdc 1.05Pdc 1.05Pdc
Transformer rating secondary VA 1.57Pdc 1.11Pdc 1.48Pdc 1.05Pdc 1.48Pdc
Output ripple frequency fr 2fi 2fi 3fi 6fi 6fi
Ripple component Vr at
(a) Fundamental 0.667Vdc 0.667Vdc 0.250Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.057Vdc
(b) Second harmonic 0.133Vdc 0.133Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.014Vdc 0.014Vdc
(c) Third harmonic of the ripple frequency 0.057Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.025Vdc 0.006Vdc 0.006Vdc
7 Diode Rectifiers 193
are therefore most suitable for high-frequency applications. operation (the current in L1 being continuous). These waveforms
However, Schottky diodes have relatively low reverse breakdown are obtained from PSpice simulations, based on the following
voltage (normally lower than 200 V) and large leakage current. assumptions:
If, due to these limitations, Schottky diodes cannot be used, ultra-
• Rectifier diode DR, flywheel diode DF, and magnetic-reset
fast diodes should be used in high-frequency converter circuits.
clamping diode DM are ideal diodes with infinitely fast
Using the example of a forward converter, the operations of a
switching speed.
forward rectifier diode, a flywheel diode, and a clamping diode
• Electronic switch M1 is an idealized MOS switch with
will be studied in Section 7.6.1. Because of the difficulties
infinitely fast switching speed and
encountered in the full analyses taking into account para-
sitic/stray/leakage components, PSpice simulations are exten- On-state resistance ¼ 0:067 Ω
sively used here to study the following: Off -state resistance ¼ 1 MΩ
• The idealized operation of the converter
It should be noted that PSpice does not allow a switch to
• The adverse effects of relatively slow rectifiers (e.g., the
have zero on-state resistance and infinite off-state
so-called ultrafast diodes, which are actually much slower
resistance.
than Schottky diodes)
• Transformer T1 has a coupling coefficient of 0.99999999.
• The improvement achievable by using high-speed recti-
PSpice does not accept a coupling coefficient of 1.
fiers (Schottky diodes)
• The switching operation of the converter has reached a
• The effects of leakage inductance of the transformer
steady state.
• The use of snubber circuits to reduce ringing
• The operation of a practical converter with snubber Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.28 and the waveforms
circuits shown in Fig. 7.29, the operation of the converter can be
explained as follows:
Using the example of a flyback converter, the operations of a
flyback rectifier diode and a clamping diode will also be studied 1. For 0 < t < DT (D is the duty cycle of the MOS switch M1
in Section 7.6.2. and T is the switching period of the converter. M1 is
The design considerations for high-frequency diode rectifier turned on when V1 (VPULSE) is 15 V and turned off
circuits will be discussed in Section 7.6.3. Some precautions that when V1(VPULSE) is 0 V).
must be taken in the interpretation of computer simulation The switch M1 is turned on at t ¼ 0.
results are briefed in Section 7.6.4. The voltage at node 3, denoted as V(3), is
V ð3Þ ¼ 0 f or 0 < t < DT (7.82)
7.6.1 Forward Rectifier Diode, Flywheel Diode,
and Magnetic-Reset Clamping Diode in a The voltage induced at node 6 of the secondary wind-
Forward Converter ing LS is
7.6.1.1 Ideal Circuit V ð6Þ ¼ VIN Ns =Np (7.83)
Fig. 7.28 shows the basic circuit of a forward converter. Fig. 7.29
shows the idealized steady-state waveforms for continuous-mode
DM 100
Notes:
T1
1 6 I(DR) 9 L1 99 Io VIN = 50 V
Vo
I(L1) L1 = 8 μH
DR
LPNP LSNS CL = 300 μF
DF CL RL
LP = 0.576 mH
VIN 3 LM = 0.576 mH
M1 LM 0
5 0V LS = 0.036 mH
Pulse NM RL = 0.35 Ω
NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
0
0V
This voltage drives a current I(DR) (current through Inductive current I(L1) continues to fall at the rate of
rectifier diode DR) into the output circuit to produce the
dI ðL1Þ Vo
output voltage Vo. The rate of increase of I(DR) is given by ¼ (7.92)
dt L1
dI ðDRÞ NS 1
¼ VIN Vo (7.84) The switching cycle restarts when the switch M1 is
dt NP L1
turned on again at t ¼ T.
where Vo is the dc output voltage of the converter. From the waveforms shown in Fig. 7.29, the following useful
The flywheel diode DF is reversely biased by V(9), the information (for continuous-mode operation) can be found:
voltage at node 9:
• The output voltage Vo is equal to the average value of V(9):
V ð9Þ ¼ VIN ðNS =NP Þ f or 0 < t < DT (7.85)
NS
Vo ¼ D VIN (7.93)
The magnetic-reset clamping diode DM is reversely NP
biased by the negative voltage at node 100. Assuming that
LM and LP have the same number of turns, we have • The maximum current in the forward rectifying diode DR
and flywheel diode DF is
V ð100Þ ¼ VIN f or 0 < t < DT (7.86)
I ðDRÞmax ¼ I ðDF Þmax
A magnetizing current builds up linearly in LP. This 1 Vo (7.94)
¼ Io + ð1 DÞT
magnetizing current reaches the maximum value of 2 L1
(VINDT)/LP at t ¼ DT.
2. For DT < t < 2DT where Vo ¼ DVIN ðNS =NP Þ and Io is the output loading
The switch M1 is turned off at t ¼ DT. current.
The collapse of magnetic flux induces a back emf in • The maximum reverse voltage of DR and DF is
LM, which is equal to LP, to turn-on the clamping diode V ðDRÞmax ¼ V ðDF Þmax
DM. The magnetizing current in LM drops (from the
NS (7.95)
maximum value of (VIN DT)/LP, as mentioned above) ¼ V ð6, 9Þmax ¼ VIN
at the rate of VIN/LP. It reaches zero at t ¼ 2DT. NP
The back emf induced across LP is equal to VIN. The
• The maximum reverse voltage of DM is
voltage at node 3 is
V ðDM Þmax ¼ VIN (7.96)
V ð3Þ ¼ 2VIN f or DT < t < 2DT (7.87)
• The maximum current in DM is
The back emf across LS forces DR to stop conducting.
The inductive current in L1 forces the flywheel diode VIN
DF to conduct. I(L1) (current through L1) falls at the I ðDM Þmax ¼ DT (7.97)
LP
rate of
• The maximum current in the switch M1, denoted as
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
5.0 A
0A
–5.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
20 A
15 A
10 A
I(L1)
5.1 V
5.0 V
4.9 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.29 Idealized steady-state waveforms of forward converter for continuous-mode operation.
7 Diode Rectifiers 197
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
40 A
0A
–40 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
100 A
0A
–100 A
I(DR)
100 A
0A
–100 A
I(DF)
15 A
10 A
5A
I(L1)
3.8 V
3.7 V
3.6 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.30 Waveforms of forward converter using “ultrafast” diodes (which are actually much slower than Schottky diodes).
198 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
• DM is an MUR460 ultrafast diode. DR and DF are • The effective series resistance of the output filtering capac-
MUR1560 ultrafast diodes. itor is 0.05 Ω.
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. • The switching operation of the converter has reached a
• Transformer T1 has a coupling coefficient of 0.99999999 steady state.
(which may be assumed to be 1).
The resultant waveforms shown in Fig. 7.32 indicate that
• The switching operation of the converter has reached a
there are large voltage and current ringings in the circuit. These
steady state.
ringings are caused by the resonant circuits formed by the leak-
It is observed that a large spike appears in the current wave- age inductance of the transformer and the parasitic capaci-
forms of diodes DR and DF (denoted as I(DR) and I(DF) in tances of diodes and transistor.
Fig. 7.30) whenever the MOS transistor M1 is turned on. This is A practical converter may therefore need snubber circuits to
due to the relatively slow reverse recovery of the flywheel diode damp these ringings, as described below.
DF. During the reverse recovery time, the positive voltage suddenly
appearing across L S (which is equal to VIN (NS/NP)) drives a large 7.6.1.5 Circuit With Snubber Across The Transformer
transient current through DR and DF. This current spike results in In order to suppress the ringing voltage caused by the resonant
large current stress and power dissipation in DR, DF, and M1. circuit formed by transformer leakage inductance and the par-
A method of reducing the current spikes is to use Schottky asitic capacitance of the MOS switch, a snubber circuit, shown
diodes as DR and DF, as described below. as R1 and C1 in Fig. 7.33, is now connected across the primary
winding of transformer T1. The new waveforms are shown in
7.6.1.3 Circuit Using Schottky Diodes Fig. 7.34. Here, the drain-to-source voltage waveform of the
In order to reduce the current spikes caused by the slow reverse MOS transistor, V(3), is found to be acceptable. However, there
recovery of rectifiers, Schottky diodes are now used as DR and are still large ringing voltages across the output rectifiers
DF. The assumptions made here are (referring to the circuit (V(6,9) and V(9)).
shown in Fig. 7.28) the following: In order to damp the ringing voltages across the output rec-
• DR and DF are MBR2540 Schottky diodes. tifiers, additional snubber circuits across the rectifiers may
• DM is an MUR460 ultrafast diode. therefore also be required in a practical circuit, as
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor.
described below.
• Transformer T1 has a coupling coefficient of 0.99999999.
7.6.1.6 Practical Circuit
• The switching operation of the converter has reached a
steady state. Fig. 7.35 shows a practical forward converter with snubber cir-
cuits added also to rectifiers (R2C2 for DR and R3C3 for DF) to
The new simulated waveforms are given in Fig. 7.31. It is reduce the voltage ringing. Figs. 7.36 and 7.37 show the resul-
found that, by employing Schottky diodes as DR and DF, the tant voltage and current waveforms. Fig. 7.36 is for continuous-
amplitudes of the current spikes in ID(M1), I(DR), and I(DF) mode operation ðRL ¼ 0:35ΩÞ, where I(L1) (current in L1) is
can be reduced to practically zero. This solves the slow-speed continuous. Fig. 7.37 is for discontinuous-mode operation
problem of ultrafast diodes. ðRL ¼ 10ΩÞ, where I(L1) becomes discontinuous due to an
increased value of RL. These waveforms are considered to be
7.6.1.4 Circuit With Practical Transformer acceptable.
The simulation results given above in Figs. 7.29–7.31 (for the The design considerations of diode rectifier circuits in
forward converter circuit shown in Fig. 7.28) are based on high-frequency converters will be discussed later in
the assumption that transformer T1 has effectively no leakage Section 7.6.3.
inductance (with coupling coefficient K ¼ 0:99999999). It is,
however, found that when a practical transformer (having a
slightly lower K) is used, severe ringings occur. Fig. 7.32 shows 7.6.2 Flyback Rectifier Diode and Clamping
some simulation results to demonstrate this phenomenon, Diode in a Flyback Converter
where the following assumptions are made: 7.6.2.1 Ideal Circuit
• DR and DF are MBR2540 Schottky diodes. DM is an Fig. 7.38 shows the basic circuit of a flyback converter. Due to
MUR460 ultrafast diode. its simple circuit, this type of converter is widely used in low-
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. cost low-power applications. Discontinuous-mode operation
• Transformer T1 has a practical coupling coefficient of (meaning that the magnetizing current in the transformer
0.996. falls to zero before the end of each switching cycle) is often
• The effective winding resistance of LP is 0.1 Ω. The effec- used because it offers the advantages of easy control and low
tive winding resistance of LM is 0.4 Ω. The effective wind- diode reverse recovery loss. Fig. 7.39 shows the idealized
ing resistance of LS is 0.01 Ω. steady-state waveforms for discontinuous-mode operation.
7 Diode Rectifiers 199
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
5.0 A
0A
–5.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
20 A
15 A
10 A
I(L1)
4.9 V
4.8 V
4.7 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.31 Waveforms of forward converter using Schottky (fast-speed) diodes as output rectifiers.
200 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(100)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(3)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(6)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(9)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2 V
4.1 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.32 Waveforms of forward converter with practical transformer and output filtering capacitor having nonzero series effective resistance.
7 Diode Rectifiers 201
T1 DR = MBR2540, DF = MBR2540
DR 9 L1
1 6 99 M1 = IRF640, R1 = 24 Ω
Vo
R1 C1 = 3000 pF, CL = 3500 μF
LP ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω, L1 = 8 µH
2 LSNS DF CL RL
N LP = 0.576 mH, LM = 0.576 mH
VIN C1 P
3 LS = 0.036 mH, NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
M1 LM 0
RL = 0.35 Ω
5
NM
Pulse Effective winding resistance of LP =0.1 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LM =0.4 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LS = 0.01 Ω
0 Coupling coefficient K = 0.996
FIG. 7.33 Forward converter with snubber circuit (R1C1) across transformer.
Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.38 and the waveforms and I(LS) falls to zero at t ¼ (D + D2)T. Since
shown in Fig. 7.39, the operation of the converter can be D2 Vo ¼ VIN ðNS =NP ÞD,
explained as follows: VIN NS
D2 ¼ D (7.105)
1. For 0 < t < DT Vo NP
The switch M1 is turned on at t ¼ 0:
D2 is effectively the duty cycle of the output rectifier
V ð3Þ ¼ 0 f or 0 < t < DT DR .
3. For ðD + D2 ÞT < t < T
The current in M1, denoted as ID(M1), increases at the
rate of The output rectifier DR is off.
dIDðM1Þ VIN The output capacitor CL provides the output current to
¼ (7.99) the load RL.
dt LP
The switching cycle restarts when the switch M1 is
The output rectifier DR is reversely biased. turned on again at t ¼ T.
2. For DT < t < ðD + D2 ÞT From the waveforms shown in Fig. 7.39, the following infor-
The switching M1 is turned off at t ¼ DT. mation (for discontinuous-mode operation) can be obtained:
The collapse of magnetic flux induces a back emf in LS
to turn-on the output rectifier DR. The initial amplitude • The maximum value of the current in the switch M1 is
of the rectifier current I(DR), which is also denoted as VIN
I(LS), can be found by equating the energy stored in IDðM1Þmax ¼ DT (7.106)
LP
the primary winding current I(LP) just before t ¼ DT
to the energy stored in the secondary winding current • The maximum value of the current in the output rectifier
I(LS) just after t ¼ DT: DR is
1 1 NP VIN
LP ½I ðLPÞ2 ¼ LS ½I ðLSÞ2 (7.100) I ðDRÞmax ¼ DT (7.107)
2 2 NS LP
202 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
50 V
0V
–50 V
V(6)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(9)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2V
4.1V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.34 Waveforms of forward converter with snubber circuit across the transformer.
7 Diode Rectifiers 203
VIN = 50 V, DM = MUR460
DM DR = MBR2540, DF = MBR2540
100 R2 C2
M1 = IRF640, R1 = 24 Ω
T1 69
DR L1 R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 10 Ω
1 6 9 99
Vo C1 = 3000 pF, C2 = 10 nF, C3 = 10 nF
R1 R3
LP LS CL = 3500 μF ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω,
DF CL
2 NP NS 90 RL L = 8 μH L = 0.576 mH
1 P
VIN C1 C3
3 LM = 0.576 mH LS = 0.036 mH
5 M1 LM 0 NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
Pulse NM Effective winding resistance of LP =0.1 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LM =0.4 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LS = 0.01 Ω
0 Coupling coefficient K = 0.996
FIG. 7.35 Practical forward converter with snubber circuits across the transformer and rectifiers.
• The maximum reverse voltage of DR, V(6,9) (which is the 7.6.3 Design Considerations
voltage at node 6 with respect to node 9), is
In the design of rectifier circuits, it is necessary for the designer
NS to determine the voltage and current ratings of the diodes. The
V ðDRÞmax ¼ V ð6, 9Þmax ¼ VIN + Vo (7.110) idealized waveforms and expressions for the maximum diode
NP
voltages and currents given under the heading of “Ideal Circuit”
above (for both forward and flyback converters) are a good
7.6.2.2 Practical Circuit starting point. However, when parasitic/stray components
When a practical transformer (with leakage inductance) is used are also considered, the simulation results given under
in the flyback converter circuit shown in Fig. 7.38, there will be “Practical Circuit” are much more useful for the determination
large ringings. In order to reduce these ringings to practically of the voltage and current ratings of the high-frequency rectifier
acceptable levels, snubber and clamping circuits have to be diodes.
added. Fig. 7.40 shows a practical flyback converter circuit where Assuming that the voltage and current ratings have been
a resistor-capacitor snubber (R2C2) is used to damp the ringing determined, proper diodes can be selected to meet the require-
voltage across the output rectifier DR and a resistor-capacitor- ments. The following are some general guidelines on the selec-
diode clamping (R1C1DS) is used to clamp the ringing voltage tion of diodes:
across the switch M1. What the diode DS does here is to allow
• For low-voltage applications, Schottky diodes should be
the energy stored by the current in the leakage inductance to
used because they have very fast switching speed and
be converted to the form of a dc voltage across the clamping
low forward voltage drop. If Schottky diodes cannot be
capacitor C1. The energy transferred to C1 is then dissipated
used, either because of their low reverse breakdown volt-
slowly in the parallel resistor R1, without ringing problems.
age or because of their large leakage current (when
The simulated waveforms of the flyback converter (circuit
reversely biased), ultrafast diodes should be used.
given in Fig. 7.40) for discontinuous-mode operation are
• The reverse breakdown voltage rating of the diode should
shown in Fig. 7.41, where the following assumptions are made:
be reasonably higher (e.g., 10% or 20% higher) than
• DR and DS are MUR460 ultrafast diodes. the maximum reverse voltage, the diode is expected to
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. encounter under the worst-case condition. However, an
204 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2 V
4.1 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
40
0V
–40 V
V(6,9)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DR)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DF)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(L1)
7.6 V
7.5 V
7.4 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
T1 DR
1 6 9
Vo
VIN = 60 V
LP LSNS CL RL CL = 100 μF
NP LP = 100 μH
3 LS = 400 μH
VIN 0
M1 RL = 400 Ω
5
NP : NS = 1 : 2
Pulse
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(6)
109.2 V
109.1 V
109.0 V
V(9)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(6,9)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
I(DR) or I(LS) DT (D + D2)T T
Time
FIG. 7.39 Idealized steady-state waveforms of flyback converter for discontinuous-mode operation.
overly conservative design (using a diode with much • The current rating of the diode should be substantially
higher breakdown voltage than necessary) would result higher than the maximum current the diode is expected
in a lower rectifier efficiency, because a diode having a to carry during normal operation. Using a diode with a
higher reverse voltage rating would normally have a larger relatively large current rating has the following
voltage drop when it is conducting. advantages:
7 Diode Rectifiers 207
R2 C2
VIN = 60 V, DS = MUR460
T1 DR DR = MUR460, M1 = IRF640
1 6 9
Vo R1 = 4.7 kΩ, R2 = 100 Ω
C1 = 0.1 μF,C2 = 680 pF
Lp LS
C1 R1 CL RL CL = 100 μF, ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω
Np NS
DS LP = 100 μH, LS = 400 mH
VIN 2 RL = 400 Ω
3 0
M1 NP : NS = 1 : 2
5
Effective winding resistance of LP = 0.025 Ω
Pulse
Effective winding resistance of LS = 0.1 Ω
Coupling coefficient K = 0.992
0
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(6)
98.8 V
98.7 V
98.6 V
V(9)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(6,9)
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DR)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
I(DS)
200 V
0V
–200 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(3,2) DT (D + D2)T T
Time
• It reduces the possibility of damage due to transients waveforms. This is due to the lack of a model in the com-
caused by start-up, accidental short circuit, or random puter simulation to simulate unwanted coupling among
turning on and off of the converter. the practical components.
• It reduces the forward voltage drop because the diode is • Most of the computer models of diodes, including those
operated in the lower current region of the V-I characteristic. used in the simulations given above, do not take into
account the effects of the forward recovery time. (The for-
In some of the “high-efficiency” converter circuits, the cur-
ward recovery time is not even mentioned in most man-
rent rating of the output rectifier can be many times larger than
ufacturers’ data sheets.) However, it is also interesting to
the actual current expected in the rectifier. In this way, a higher
note that in most cases, the effect of the forward recovery
efficiency is achieved at the expense of a larger silicon area.
time of a diode is masked by that of the effective induc-
In the design of R-C snubber circuits for rectifiers, it should
tance in series with the diode (e.g., the leakage inductance
be understood that a larger C (and a smaller R) will give better
of a transformer).
damping. However, a large C (and a small R) will result in a
large switching loss (which is equal to 0.5 CV2f ). As a guide-
line, a capacitor with five to ten times the junction capacitance
of the rectifier may be used as a starting point for iterations. The Further Reading
value of the resistor should be chosen to provide a slightly
[1] Rectifier Applications Handbook, third ed., Motorola, Inc, Phoenix,
underdamped operating condition. AZ, 1993.
[2] M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications,
7.6.4 Precautions in Interpreting Simulation second ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993
[3] Y.-S. Lee, Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Switch-Mode
Results Power Supplies, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1993
In using the simulated waveforms as references for design pur- [4] J.W. Nilsson, Introduction to PSpice Manual, Electric Circuits Using
poses, attention should be paid to the following: OrCAD Release 9.1, fourth ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River,
NJ, 2000
• The voltage/current spikes that appear in the practically [5] J. Keown, OrCAD PSpice and Circuit Analysis, fourth ed., Prentice
measured waveforms may not appear in the simulated Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ., 2001