7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers

7
Diode Rectifiers
Yim-Shu Lee 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Hung Hom, Hong Kong
7.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers • 7.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers
Martin H.L. Chow • 7.2.3 Performance Parameters • 7.2.4 Design Considerations
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 7.3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Hung Hom, Hong Kong 7.3.1 Three-Phase Star Rectifiers • 7.3.2 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers • 7.3.3 Operation
of Rectifiers With Finite Source Inductance
7.4 Poly-Phase Diode Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.4.1 Six-Phase Star Rectifier • 7.4.2 Six-Phase Series Bridge Rectifier • 7.4.3 Six-Phase
Parallel Bridge Rectifier
7.5 Filtering Systems in Rectifier Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.5.1 Inductive-Input DC Filters • 7.5.2 Capacitive-Input DC Filters
7.6 High-Frequency Diode Rectifier Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.6.1 Forward Rectifier Diode, Flywheel Diode, and Magnetic-Reset Clamping Diode in a Forward
Converter • 7.6.2 Flyback Rectifier Diode and Clamping Diode in a Flyback Converter
• 7.6.3 Design Considerations • 7.6.4 Precautions in Interpreting Simulation Results
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.1 Introduction 7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers

This chapter describes the application and design of diode rec- There are two types of single-phase diode rectifier that con-
tifier circuits. It covers single-phase rectifier circuits, three- vert a single-phase ac supply into a dc voltage, namely,
phase rectifier circuits, polyphase rectifier circuits, and high- single-phase half-wave rectifiers and single-phase full-wave
frequency rectifier circuits. The objectives of this chapter are rectifiers. In the following subsections, the operations of
the following: these rectifier circuits are examined, and their performances
are analyzed and compared in a tabulated form. For the sake
• To enable the readers to understand the operation of typ-
of simplicity, the diodes are considered to be ideal, that is,
ical rectifier circuits
they have zero forward voltage drop and reverse recovery
• To enable the readers to appreciate the different qualities
time. This assumption is generally valid for the case of diode
of rectifiers required for different applications
rectifiers that use the mains, a low-frequency source, as the
• To enable the reader to design practical rectifier circuits
input and when the forward voltage drop is small compared
The high-frequency rectifier waveforms given are obtained with the peak voltage of the mains. Furthermore, it is
from PSpice simulations, which take into account the second- assumed that the load is purely resistive such that the load
ary effects of stray and parasitic components. In this way, the voltage and the load current have similar waveforms. In
waveforms can closely resemble the real ones. These waveforms Section 7.5, Filtering Systems in Rectifiers Circuits, the
are particularly useful to help designers determine the practical effects of inductive load and capacitive load on a diode rec-
voltage, current, and other ratings of high-frequency rectifiers. tifier are considered in detail.
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 177

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811407-0.00007-6
178 Y.-S. Lee and M. H. L. Chow
7.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers current (IFRM) rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher
than the peak load current, Vm/R, in practice. In addition,
The simplest single-phase diode rectifier is the single-phase
the transformer has to carry a dc current that may result in a
half-wave rectifier. A single-phase half-wave rectifier with
dc saturation problem of the transformer core.
resistive load is shown in Fig. 7.1. The circuit consists of only
one diode that is usually fed with a secondary transformer as
shown. During the positive half cycle of the transformer sec- 7.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers
ondary voltage, diode D conducts. During the negative half
There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely,
cycle, diode D stops conducting. Assuming that the trans-
full-wave rectifiers with center-tapped transformer and bridge
former has zero internal impedance and provides perfect sinu-
rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer
soidal voltage on its secondary winding, the voltage and current
is shown in Fig. 7.3. It is clear that each diode, together with the
waveforms of resistive load R and the voltage waveform of
associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave rectifier.
diode D are shown in Fig. 7.2.
The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are combined to pro-
By observing the voltage waveform of diode D in Fig. 7.2, it is
duce full-wave rectification in the load. As far as the transformer
clear that the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of diode D is equal to
is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-wave rectifiers are
Vm during the negative half cycle of the transformer secondary
equal and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a
voltage. Hence, the peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM) rat-
transformer core saturation problem. The voltage and current
ing of diode D must be chosen to be higher than Vm to avoid
waveforms of the full-wave rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.4. By
reverse breakdown. In the positive half cycle of the transformer
observing diode voltage waveforms vD1 and vD2 in Fig. 7.4, it
secondary voltage, diode D has a forward current that is equal
is clear that the PIV of the diodes is equal to 2Vm during their
to the load current; therefore, the peak repetitive forward
blocking state. Hence, the VRRM rating of the diodes must be cho-
sen to be higher than 2Vm to avoid reverse breakdown. (Note
that, compared with the half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 7.1,
vD
the full-wave rectifier has twice the dc output voltage, as shown
iL
in Section 7.2.4.) During its conducting state, each diode has a
D forward current which is equal to the load current; therefore,
vs = Vm sin wt
the IFRM rating of these diodes must be chosen to be higher than
R vL
the peak load current, Vm/R, in practice.
Employing four diodes instead of two, a bridge rectifier as
shown in Fig. 7.5 can provide full-wave rectification without
FIG. 7.1 A single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load.
using a center-tapped transformer. During the positive half
cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, the current flows
vs to the load through diodes D1 and D2. During the negative half
cycle, D3 and D4 conduct. The voltage and current waveforms
Vm
of the bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.6. As with the full-
wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the IFRM rating
wt
p /2 p 2p 3p of the employed diodes must be chosen to be higher than the
vL peak load current, Vm/R. However, the PIV of the diodes is
Vm reduced from 2Vm to Vm during their blocking state.
wt
iL p /2 p 2p 3p vD1
Vm/R
D1
vs vL
wt iL
+
p /2 p 2p 3p –
vD R
vs
wt D2
p 2p 3p
–Vm vs = Vm sin w t
vD2
FIG. 7.2 Voltage and current waveforms of the half-wave rectifier with
resistive load. FIG. 7.3 Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer.
7 Diode Rectifiers 179
vs vs
Vm Vm
wt wt
p/2 p 2p 3p p/2 p 2p 3p
vL vL
Vm Vm
wt wt
iL p/2 p 2p 3p iL p/2 p 2p 3p
Vm/R Vm/R
D1, D2 D3, D4 D1, D2

D1 conducts D2 conducts D1 conducts conduct conduct conduct
wt wt
p/2 p 2p 3p p/2 p 2p 3p
vD1 vD1, vD2
wt wt
p 2p 3p p 2p 3p
–Vm
vD3, vD4
–2Vm wt
p 2p 3p
vD2
–Vm
wt
p 2p 3p
FIG. 7.6 Voltage and current waveforms of the bridge rectifier.
–2Vm ðT
1
Vdc ¼ vL ðt Þdt (7.1)
FIG. 7.4 Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier with T 0
center-tapped transformer.
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, Fig. 7.2 indicates that load
voltage vL ðt Þ ¼ 0 for the negative half cycle. Note that the
7.2.3 Performance Parameters angular frequency of the source ω ¼ 2π=T, and Eq. (7.1) can
be rewritten as
In this subsection, the performance of the rectifiers mentioned ð
above will be evaluated in terms of the following parameters. 1 π
Vdc ¼ Vm sin ωt dðωt Þ (7.2)
2π 0
7.2.3.1 Voltage Relationships
The average value of the load voltage vL is Vdc and it is Therefore,
defined as
Vm
Half -wave Vdc ¼ ¼ 0:318 Vm (7.3)
π
iL In the case of a full-wave rectifier, Figs. 7.4 and 7.6 indicate that
vL ðt Þ ¼ Vm j sin ωtj for both the positive and negative half
D1 D3 cycles. Hence, Eq. (7.1) can be rewritten as
ð
+ 1 π
vs R
Vdc ¼ Vm sin ωt d ðωt Þ (7.4)
− vL π 0
D4 D2 Therefore,
vs = Vm sin wt
2Vm
Full-wave Vdc ¼ ¼ 0:636 Vm (7.5)
FIG. 7.5 Bridge rectifier. π
The root-mean-square (rms) value of load voltage vL is VL, In the case of a full-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.5),
which is defined as
0:636Vm
ðT 1=2 Full-wave Idc ¼ (7.15)
1 R
VL ¼ vL2 ðt Þdt (7.6)
T 0 and from Eq. (7.10),
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, vL ðt Þ ¼ 0 for the negative Full-wave IL ¼

0:707Vm
(7.16)
half cycle; therefore, Eq. (7.6) can be rewritten as R
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
1 π 2 7.2.3.3 Rectification Ratio
VL ¼ ðVm sin ωt Þ d ðωt Þ (7.7)
2π 0 The rectification ratio, which is a figure of merit for comparing
the effectiveness of rectification, is defined as
or
Pdc Vdc Tdc
Vm σ¼ ¼ (7.17)
Half -wave VL ¼ ¼ 0:5Vm (7.8) PL VL IL
2
In the case of a half-wave diode rectifier, the rectification ratio
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, vL ðt Þ ¼ Vm j sin ωtj for both can be determined by substituting Eqs. (7.3), (7.13), (7.8), and
the positive and negative half cycles. Hence, Eq. (7.6) can be (7.14) into Eq. (7.17):
rewritten as
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð0:318Vm Þ2
ð Half -wave σ ¼ ¼ 40:5% (7.18)
1 π ð0:5Vm Þ2
VL ¼ ðVm sin ωt Þ2 d ðωt Þ (7.9)
π 0
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the rectification ratio is
or obtained by substituting Eqs. (7.5), (7.15), (7.10), and (7.16)
into Eq. (7.17):
Vm
Full-wave VL ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 0:707Vm (7.10) ð0:636Vm Þ2
2 Full-wave σ ¼ ¼ 81% (7.19)
ð0:707Vm Þ2
The result of Eq. (7.10) is as expected because the rms value of a
full-wave rectified voltage should be equal to that of the original
ac voltage. 7.2.3.4 Form Factor
The form factor (FF) is defined as the ratio of the root-mean-
square value (heating component) of a voltage or current to its
7.2.3.2 Current Relationships
average value:
The average value of load current iL is Idc, and because load R is
purely resistive, it can be found as VL IL
FF ¼ or (7.20)
Vdc Idc
Vdc
Idc ¼ (7.11) 0:5Vm
R Half -wave FF ¼ ¼ 1:57 (7.21)
0:318Vm
The rms value of load current iL is IL, and it can be found as
In the case of a full-wave rectifier, the FF can be found by
VL substituting Eqs. (7.16) and (7.15) into Eq. (7.20):
IL ¼ (7.12)
R 0:707Vm
Full-wave FF ¼ ¼ 1:11 (7.22)
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.3), 0:636Vm
0:318Vm
Half -wave Idc ¼ (7.13) 7.2.3.5 Ripple Factor
R
The ripple factor (RF), which is a measure of the ripple content,
and from Eq. (7.8), is defined as
0:5Vm Vac
Half -wave IL ¼ (7.14) RF ¼ (7.23)
R Vdc
where Vac is the effective (rms) value of the ac component of current that may cause magnetic core saturation. As a result,
load voltage vL: half-wave rectifiers are used only when the current require-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ment is small.
Vac ¼ VL2 Vdc 2 (7.24) In the case of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped trans-
former, the circuit can be treated as two half-wave rectifiers
Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq. (7.23), the RF can be expressed operating together. Therefore, the transformer secondary VA
as rating, VsIs, is double that of a half-wave rectifier, but the output
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi dc power is increased by a factor of four due to higher rectifi-
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cation ratio as indicated by Eqs. (7.5) and (7.15). Therefore, the
VL
RF ¼ 1 ¼ FF2 1 (7.25) TUF of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer can
Vdc
be found from Eq. (7.32):
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, 4 0:3182
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Full-wave TUF ¼ ¼ 0:572 (7.33)
Half -wave RF ¼ 1:572 1 ¼ 1:21 (7.26) 2 0:707 0:5
In the case of a bridge rectifier, it has the highest TUF in single-
In the case of a full-wave rectifier,
phase rectifier circuits because the currents flowing in both the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi primary and secondary windings are continuous sinewaves. By
Full-wave RF ¼ 1:112 1 ¼ 0:482 (7.27)
substituting Eqs. (7.5), (7.15), (7.29), and (7.31) into Eq. (7.28),
the TUF of a bridge rectifier can be found:
7.2.3.6 Transformer Utilization Factor
0:6362
The transformer utilization factor (TUF), which is a measure of Bridge TUF ¼ ¼ 0:81 (7.34)
the merit of a rectifier circuit, is defined as the ratio of the dc ð0:707Þ2
output power to the transformer volt-ampere (VA) rating
The transformer primary VA rating of a full-wave rectifier is
required by the secondary winding:
equal to that of a bridge rectifier since the current flowing in
Pdc Vdc Idc the primary winding is also a continuous sinewave.
TUF ¼ ¼ (7.28)
Vs Is V s Is
7.2.3.7 Harmonics
where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current ratings of Full-wave rectifier circuits with resistive load do not produce
the secondary transformer: harmonic currents in their transformers. In half-wave rectifiers,
Vm harmonic currents are generated. The amplitudes of the har-
Vs ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 0:707Vm (7.29) monic currents of a half-wave rectifier with resistive load, rel-
2
ative to the fundamental, are given in Table 7.1. The extra loss
The rms value of the transformer secondary current Is is the caused by the harmonics in the resistive loaded rectifier circuits
same as that of the load current IL. For a half-wave rectifier, is often neglected because it is not high compared with other
Is can be found from Eq. (7.14): losses. However, with nonlinear loads, harmonics can cause
appreciable loss and other problems such as poor power factor
0:5Vm and interference.
Half -wave Is ¼ (7.30)
R
For a full-wave rectifier, Is is found from Eq. (7.16): 7.2.4 Design Considerations
0:707Vm In a practical design, the goal is to achieve a given dc output
Full-wave Is ¼ (7.31)
R voltage. Therefore, it is more convenient to put all the design
parameters in terms of Vdc. For example, the rating and turn
Therefore, the TUF of a half-wave rectifier can be obtained by
ratio of the transformer in a rectifier circuit can be easily deter-
substituting Eqs. (7.3), (7.13), (7.29), and (7.30) into Eq. (7.28):
mined if the rms input voltage to the rectifier is in terms of the
0:3182 required output voltage Vdc.
Half -wave TUF ¼ ¼ 0:286 (7.32) Denote the rms value of the input voltage to the rectifier
0:707 0:5
as Vs, which is equal to 0.707Vm. Based on this relation
The poor TUF of a half-wave rectifier signifies that the trans- and Eq. (7.3), the rms input voltage to a half-wave rectifier is
former employed must have a 3.496 (1/0.286) VA rating found as
in order to deliver 1 W dc output power to the load. In addi-
tion, the transformer secondary winding has to carry a dc Half -wave Vs ¼ 2:22Vdc (7.35)
TABLE 7.1 Harmonic percentages of a half-wave rectifier with The important design parameters of basic single-phase
resistive load rectifier circuits with resistive loads are summarized in
Table 7.2.
Harmonic Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
% 21.2 0 4.2 0 1.8 0 1.01
7.3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers

Similarly, from Eqs. (7.5) and (7.29), the rms input voltage per
It has been shown in Section 7.2 that single-phase diode recti-
secondary winding of a full-wave rectifier is found as
fiers require a rather high transformer VA rating for a given dc
Full-wave Vs ¼ 1:11Vdc (7.36) output power. Therefore, these rectifiers are suitable only for
low-to-medium power applications. For power output higher
Another important design parameter is the VRRM rating of the than 15 kW, three-phase or polyphase diode rectifiers should
diodes employed. be employed. There are two types of three-phase diode rectifier
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.3), that convert a three-phase ac supply into a dc voltage, namely,
star rectifiers and bridge rectifiers. In the following subsections,
Vdc
Half -wave VRRM ¼ Vm ¼ ¼ 3:14Vdc (7.37) the operations of these rectifiers are examined, and their per-
0:318 formances are analyzed and compared in tabulated form. For
In the case of a full-wave rectifier with center-tapped trans- the sake of simplicity, the diodes and the transformers are con-
former, from Eq. (7.5), sidered to be ideal, that is, the diodes have zero forward voltage
drop and reverse current and the transformers possess no resis-
2Vdc tance and no leakage inductance. Furthermore, it is assumed
Full-wave VRRM ¼ 2Vm ¼ ¼ 3:14Vdc (7.38)
0:636 that the load is purely resistive, such that the load voltage
and the load current have similar waveforms. In Section 7.5,
In the case of a bridge rectifier, also from Eq. (7.5),
Filtering Systems in Rectifier Circuits, the effects of inductive
Vdc load and capacitive load on a diode rectifier are considered
Bridge VRRM ¼ Vm ¼ ¼ 1:57Vdc (7.39) in detail.
0:636
It is important to evaluate the IFRM rating of the employed
diodes in rectifier circuits. 7.3.1 Three-Phase Star Rectifiers
In the case of a half-wave rectifier, from Eq. (7.13),
7.3.1.1 Basic Three-Phase Star Rectifier Circuit
Vm Idc
Half -wave IFRM ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:41Idc (7.40) A basic three-phase star rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 7.7.
R 0:318 This circuit can be considered as three single-phase half-wave
In the case of full-wave rectifiers, from Eq. (7.15), rectifiers combined together. Therefore, it is sometimes
referred to as a three-phase half-wave rectifier. The diode in
Vm Idc a particular phase conducts during the period when the voltage
Full-wave IFRM ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:57Idc (7.41)
R 0:636 on that phase is higher than that on the other two phases. The
TABLE 7.2 Important design parameters of basic single-phase rectifier circuits with resistive load
Full-wave rectifier with

Half-wave rectifier center-tapped transformer Full-wave bridge rectifier
Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 3.14Vdc 3.14Vdc 1.57Vdc

RMS input voltage per transformer leg Vs 2.22Vdc 1.11Vdc 1.11Vdc
Diode average current IF(AV) 1.00Idc 0.50Idc 0.50Idc
Peak repetitive forward current IFRM 3.14IF(AV) 1.57IF(AV) 1.57IF(AV)
Diode rms current IF(RMS) 1.57Idc 0.785Idc 0.785Idc
Form factor of diode current IF(RMS)/IF(AV) 1.57 1.57 1.57
Rectification ratio 0.405 0.81 0.81
Form factor 1.57 1.11 1.11
Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
Transformer rating primary VA 2.69Pdc 1.23Pdc 1.23Pdc
Transformer rating secondary VA 3.49Pdc 1.75Pdc 1.23Pdc
Output ripple frequency fr 1fi 2fi 2fi
B
Similarly, using Eq. (7.6), the rms value of the output voltage
vRN vD can be found as
vBN
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
N R D iD 3 5π=6 2
vYN VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ dθ (7.44)
R vL 2π π=6
Y
or
FIG. 7.7 Three-phase star rectifier. sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
3 π 3
VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 0:84Vm (7.45)
2π 3 4
voltage waveforms of each phase and the load are shown in
Fig. 7.8. It is clear that, unlike the single-phase rectifier circuit, In addition, the rms current in each transformer secondary
the conduction angle of each diode is 2π/3, instead of π. This winding can also be found as
circuit finds uses where the required dc output voltage is rela- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
tively low, and the required output current is too large for a 1 π 3
Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:485Im (7.46)
practical single-phase system. 2π 3 4
Taking phase R as an example, diode D conducts from π/6
to 5π/6. Therefore, using Eq. (7.1), the average value of the where Im ¼ Vm =R.
output can be found as Based on the relationships stated in Eqs. (7.43), (7.45), (7.46),
ð all the important design parameters of the three-phase star rec-
3 5π=6 tifier can be evaluated, as listed in Table 7.3, which is given at
Vdc ¼ Vm sin θdθ (7.42)
2π π=6 the end of Section 7.3.2. Note that, as with a single-phase half-
wave rectifier, the three-phase star rectifier shown in Fig. 7.7
or has direct currents in the secondary windings that can cause
pffiffiffi a transformer core saturation problem. In addition, the
3 3 currents in the primary do not sum to zero. Therefore, it is pref-
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 0:827Vm (7.43)
π 2 erable not to have star-connected primary windings.
vRN vYN vBN

Vm
wt
p 2p 3p
vL
Vm
wt
iD p 2p 3p
Vm/R
wt
p/6 5p/6 2p 3p
vD p
wt
–1.73Vm
FIG. 7.8 Waveforms of voltage and current of the three-phase star rectifier shown in Fig. 7.7.
TABLE 7.3 Important design parameters of the three-phase rectifier circuits with the resistive load
Three-phase double-star
rectifier with Three-phase
Three-phase star rectifier interphase transformer bridge rectifier

Form factor 1.0165 1.0009 1.0009
Ripple factor 0.182 0.042 0.042
7.3.1.2 Three-Phase Interstar Rectifier Circuit 7.3.1.3 Three-Phase Double-Star Rectifier With
The transformer core saturation problem in the three-phase Interphase Transformer
star rectifier can be avoided by a special arrangement in its This circuit consists essentially of two three-phase star rec-
secondary windings, known as zigzag connection. The mod- tifiers with their neutral points interconnected through an
ified circuit is called the three-phase interstar or zigzag rec- interphase transformer or reactor (Fig. 7.10). The polarities
tifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 7.9. Each secondary-phase of the corresponding secondary windings in the two inter-
voltage is obtained from two equal-voltage secondary wind- connected systems are reversed with respect to each other,
ings (with a phase displacement of π/3) connected in series so that the rectifier output voltage of one three-phase unit
so that the dc magnetizing forces due to the two secondary is at a minimum when the rectifier output voltage of the
windings on any limb are equal and opposite. At the expense other unit is at a maximum as shown in Fig. 7.11. The func-
of extra secondary windings (increasing the transformer section of the interphase transformer is to cause the output
ondary rating factor from 1.51 to 1.74 VA/W), this circuit voltage vL to be the average of the rectified voltages v1
connection eliminates the effects of core saturation and and v2 as shown in Fig. 7.11. In addition, the ripple fre-
reduces the transformer primary rating factor to the mini- quency of the output voltage is now six times that of the
mum of 1.05 VA/W. Apart from transformer ratings, all mains, and therefore, the component size of the filter (if
the design parameters of this circuit are the same as those there is any) becomes smaller. In a balanced circuit, the
of a three-phase star rectifier (therefore not separately listed
in Table 7.3). Furthermore, a star-connected primary wind-
ing with no neutral connection is equally permissible
because the sum of all primary phase currents is zero at
all times.
v1
vL
Y’
v2
B
R
R’ Y B’
FIG. 7.9 Three-phase interstar rectifier. FIG. 7.10 Three-phase double-star rectifier with interphase transformer.
v1
v2
vL
wt
p /3
FIG. 7.11 Voltage waveforms of the three-phase double-star rectifier.
output currents of two three-phase units flowing in opposite Using Eq. (7.1), the average value of the output can be found
directions in the interphase transformer winding will pro- as
duce no dc magnetization current. Similarly, the dc magne- ð 2π=3
6 pffiffiffi
tization currents in the secondary windings of two three- Vdc ¼ 3Vm sin θdθ (7.47)
phase units cancel each other out. 2π π=3
By virtue of the symmetry of the secondary circuits, the three or
primary currents add up to zero at all times. Therefore, a star pffiffiffi
primary winding with no neutral connection would be equally 3 3
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 1:654Vm (7.48)
permissible. π
Similarly, using Eq. (7.6), the rms value of the output voltage
7.3.2 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers can be found as
Three-phase bridge rectifiers are commonly used for high- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
9 2π=3 2
power applications because they have the highest possible VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ dθ (7.49)
transformer utilization factor for a three-phase system. The cir- π π=3
cuit of a three-phase bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 7.12. The or
diodes are numbered in the order of conduction sequences, and sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the conduction angle of each diode is 2π/3. pffiffiffi
3 9 3
The conduction sequence for diodes is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 1:655Vm (7.50)
2 4π
and 61. The voltage and the current waveforms of the
three-phase bridge rectifier are shown in Fig. 7.13. The line In addition, the rms current in each transformer secondary
voltage is 1.73 times the phase voltage of a three-phase star- winding can also be found as
connected source. It is permissible to use any combination sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
of star- or delta-connected primary and secondary windings pffiffiffiffi
2 π 3
because the currents associated with the secondary windings Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:78Im (7.51)
π 6 4
are symmetrical.
D3
D1 D5
B
R
vL
Y
D4 D2
D6
FIG. 7.12 Three-phase bridge rectifier.

vBY vRY vRB vYB vYR vBR

1.73Vm
wt
p 2p
p/2 3p/2
vL
1.73Vm
wt
iDi
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
1.73Vm / R
wt
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
D5 conducts D1 conducts
D6 conducts D2 conducts D4 conducts
FIG. 7.13 Voltage and current waveforms of the three-phase bridge rectifier.
and the rms current through a diode is of discussing the effects of the finite source inductance, a three-
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffi phase star rectifier with transformer leakage inductances is
1 π 3 shown in Fig. 7.14, where l1, l2, and l3 denote the leakage induc-
ID ¼ Im + ¼ 0:552Im (7.52)
π 6 4 tances associated with the transformer secondary windings.
Refer to Fig. 7.15. At the time when vYN is about to become
where Im ¼ 1:73Vm =R. larger than vRN, due to leakage inductance l1, the current in D1
Based on Eqs. (7.48), (7.50), (7.51), (7.52), all the important cannot fall to zero immediately. Similarly, due to the leakage
design parameters of the three-phase star rectifier can be eval- inductance l2, the current in D2 cannot increase immediately
uated, as listed in Table 7.3. The dc output voltage is slightly to the full value. The result is that both the diodes conduct
lower than the peak line voltage or 2.34 times the rms phase for a certain period, which is called the overlap (or commuta-
voltage. The VRRM rating of the employed diodes is 1.05 times tion) angle. The overlap reduces the rectified voltage vL as
the dc output voltage, and the IFRM rating of the employed shown in the upper voltage waveform of Fig. 7.15. If all the leak-
diodes is 0.579 times the dc output current. Therefore, this age inductances are equal, that is, l1 ¼ l2 ¼ l3 ¼ lc , then the
three-phase bridge rectifier is very efficient and popular wher- amount of reduction of dc output voltage can be estimated
ever both dc voltage and current requirements are high. In as mfilcIdc, where m is the ratio of the lowest ripple frequency
many applications, no additional filter is required because to the input frequency.
the output ripple voltage is only 4.2%. Even if a filter is required,
the size of the filter is relatively small because the ripple fre-
quency is increased to six times the input frequency.
l3 D3
B
7.3.3 Operation of Rectifiers With Finite Source l1 D1
Inductance N R
It has been assumed in the preceding sections that the commu- l2 D2 R vL
tation of current from one diode to the next takes place instan- Y
taneously when the interphase voltage assumes the necessary
polarity. In practice, this is hardly possible because there are FIG. 7.14 Three-phase star rectifier with the transformer leakage
finite inductances associated with the source. For the purpose inductances.
VL D1
vRN vYN
Vm
R D2
Y vL
D3
B
N
wt
iD Y D4
Overlap angle
Vm/R B R D5
D1 D2 D6
conducts conducts
FIG. 7.16 Six-phase star rectifier.
wt
of each phase and the load are shown in Fig. 7.17. It is clear
that, unlike the three-phase star rectifier circuit, the conduc-
FIG. 7.15 Waveforms during commutation in Fig. 7.14. tion angle of each diode is π/3, instead of 2π/3. Currents flow
in only one rectifying element at a time, resulting in a low
average current, but a high peak to an average current ratio
For example, for a three-phase star rectifier operating from a in the diodes and poor transformer secondary utilization. Nev-
60 Hz supply with an average load current of 50 A, the amount ertheless, the dc currents in the secondary of the six-phase star
of reduction of the dc output voltage is 2.7 V if the leakage rectifier cancel in the secondary windings like a full-wave rec-
inductance in each secondary winding is 300 μH. tifier and, therefore, core saturation is not encountered. This
six-phase star circuit is attractive in applications that require
a low ripple factor and a common cathode or anode for the
rectifiers.
7.4 Poly-Phase Diode Rectifiers By considering the output voltage provided by vRN between
π/3 and 2π/3, the average value of the output voltage can be
7.4.1 Six-Phase Star Rectifier found as
A basic six-phase star rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 7.16. The ð
6 2π=3
six-phase voltages on the secondary are obtained by means of Vdc ¼ Vm sin θdθ (7.53)
a center-tapped arrangement on a star-connected three-phase 2π π=3
winding. Therefore, it is sometimes referred to as a three- or
phase full-wave rectifier. The diode in a particular phase con-
ducts during the period when the voltage on that phase is 61
Vdc ¼ Vm ¼ 0:955Vm (7.54)
higher than that on the other phases. The voltage waveforms π2
vY N
vRN vB N
vYN vR N vBN
Vm
wt
2p
p/2 3p/2
VL
Vm
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
conducts conducts conducts conducts conducts conducts
wt
p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3 2p
FIG. 7.17 Voltage waveforms of the six-phase star rectifier.

Similarly, the rms value of the output voltage can be found as

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi 1 1
6 2π=3 2
VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ dθ (7.55)
2π π=3
1
vL
or
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi 1
6 π 3
VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 0:956Vm (7.56) 1
2π 6 4
1
In addition, the rms current in each transformer secondary
winding can also be found as FIG. 7.18 Six-phase series bridge rectifier.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
1 π 3
Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:39Im (7.57)
2π 6 4 as Vm, is equal to 2Vm∗ cos ðπ=12Þ or 1.932Vm∗ because there
is π/6-phase displacement between the secondaries. The ripple
where Im ¼ Vm =R. frequency is twelve times the mains frequency. The average
Based on the relationships stated in Eqs. (7.55)–(7.57), all the value of the output voltage can be found as
important design parameters of the six-phase star rectifier can
ð 7π=12
be evaluated, as listed in Table 7.4 (given at the end of 12
Section 7.4.3). Vdc ¼ Vm sin θdθ (7.58)
2π 5π=12
or
7.4.2 Six-Phase Series Bridge Rectifier
pffiffiffi
The star- and delta-connected secondaries have an inherent 12 3 1
Vdc ¼ Vm pffiffiffi ¼ 0:98862Vm (7.59)
π/6-phase displacement between their output voltages. When π 2 2
a star- and a delta-connected bridge rectifier are connected
in series as shown in Fig. 7.18, the combined output voltage will The rms value of the output voltage can be found as
have a doubled ripple frequency (12 times that of the mains). sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð ffi
The ripple of the combined output voltage will also be reduced 12 7π=12
from 4.2% (for each individual bridge rectifier) to 1%. The VL ¼ ðVm sin θÞ2 dθ (7.60)
2π 5π=12
combined bridge rectifier is referred to as a six-phase series
bridge rectifier. or
In the six-phase series bridge rectifier shown in Fig. 7.18, sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

let Vm∗ be the peak voltage of the delta-connected secondary. 12 π 1
The peak voltage between the lines of the star-connected sec- VL ¼ Vm + ¼ 0:98867Vm (7.61)
2π 12 4
ondary is also Vm∗ . The peak voltage across the load, denoted
TABLE 7.4 Important design parameters of the six-phase rectifier circuits with resistive load
Six-phase series Six-phase parallel bridge rectifier

Six-phase star rectifier bridge rectifier (with interphase transformer)

Form factor 1.0009 1.00005 1.00005
Ripple factor 0.042 0.01 0.01
The function of the interphase transformer is to cause the

The rms current in each transformer secondary winding is
output voltage vL to be the average of the rectified voltages v1
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi and v2 as shown in Fig. 7.20. As with the six-phase series bridge
4 π 1
Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:807Im (7.62) rectifier, the output ripple frequency of the six-phase parallel
π 12 4 bridge rectifier is also 12 times that of the mains. Further filter-
ing on the output voltage is usually not required. Assuming a
The rms current through a diode is balanced circuit, the output currents of two three-phase units
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi (flowing in opposite directions in the interphase transformer
2 π 1
Is ¼ Im + ¼ 0:57Im (7.63) winding) produce no dc magnetization current.
π 12 4 All the important design parameters of the six-phase parallel
rectifiers with interphase transformer are also listed in
where Im ¼ Vm =R. Table 7.4.
Based on Eqs. (7.59), (7.61), (7.62), (7.63), all the important
design parameters of the six-phase series bridge rectifier can be
evaluated, as listed in Table 7.4 (given at the end of 7.5 Filtering Systems in Rectifier Circuits
Section 7.4.3).
Filters are commonly employed in rectifier circuits for smooth-
7.4.3 Six-Phase Parallel Bridge Rectifier ing out the dc output voltage of the load. They are classified
as inductor-input dc filters and capacitor-input dc filters.
The six-phase series bridge rectifier described above is useful Inductor-input dc filters are preferred in high-power applica-
for high-output voltage applications. However, for high-output tions because more efficient transformer operation is obtained
current applications, the six-phase parallel bridge rectifier (with due to the reduction in the form factor of the rectifier current.
an interphase transformer) shown in Fig. 7.19 should be used. Capacitor-input dc filters can provide volumetrically efficient
1
1
v2
vL
1
1
v1
1
FIG. 7.19 Six-phase parallel bridge rectifier.
v1
v2
vL
wt
p/6
FIG. 7.20 Voltage waveforms of the six-phase bridge rectifier with interphase transformer.
operation, but they demand excessive turn-on and repetitive iL Lf

surge currents. Therefore, capacitor-input dc filters are suitable is
only for lower-power systems where close regulation is usually
achieved by an electronic regulator cascaded with the rectifier. +
vs
−
vL vo
R
7.5.1 Inductive-Input DC Filters
The simplest inductive-input dc filter is shown in Fig. 7.21A.
The output current of the rectifier can be maintained
at a steady
FIG. 7.22 A full-wave rectifier with inductor-input dc filter.
value if the inductance of Lf is sufficiently large ωLf ≫R . The
filtering action is more effective in heavy load conditions than
peaks of the rectifier output voltage. The minimum value
in light load conditions. If the ripple attenuation is not suffi-
of inductance required to maintain a continuous current is
cient even with large values of inductance, an L-section filter
known as the critical inductance LC.
as shown in Fig. 7.21B can be used for further filtering. In prac-
tice, multiple L-section filters can also be employed if the 7.5.1.2 Critical Inductance LC
requirement on the output ripple is very stringent.
In the case of single-phase full-wave rectifiers, the critical
For a simple inductive-input dc filter shown in Fig. 7.21A the
inductance can be found as
ripple is reduced by the factor
R
vo R Full-wave LC ¼ (7.66)
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi (7.64) 6πfi
vL
R2 + 2πfr Lf
where fi is the input mains frequency.
where vL is the ripple voltage before filtering, vo is the ripple In the case of polyphase rectifiers, the critical inductance can
voltage after filtering, and fr is the ripple frequency. be found as
For the inductive-input dc filter shown in Fig. 7.21B, the R
amount of reduction in the ripple voltage can be estimated as Poly-phase LC ¼ (7.67)
3πmðm2 1Þfi

vo 1

¼ (7.65) where m is ratio of the lowest ripple frequency to the input fre-
vL 1 ð2πfr Þ2 Lf Cf quency, for example, m ¼ 6 for a three-phase bridge rectifier.
where fr is the ripple frequency, if R≫1=2πfr Cf . 7.5.1.3 Determining the Input Inductance for a Given
Ripple Factor
7.5.1.1 Voltage and Current Waveforms of Full-Wave
In practice, the choice of the input inductance depends on the
Rectifier With Inductor-Input DC Filter
required ripple factor of the output voltage. The ripple voltage
Fig. 7.22 shows a single-phase full-wave rectifier with an of a rectifier without filtering can be found by means of Fourier
inductor-input dc filter. The voltage and current waveforms
analysis. For example, the coefficient of the nth harmonic com-
are illustrated in Fig. 7.23.
ponent of the rectified voltage vL shown in Fig. 7.22 can be
When the inductance of Lf is infinite, the current through the
expressed as
inductor and the output voltage are constant. When inductor Lf
is finite, the current through the inductor has a ripple compo- 4Vm
vL n ¼ (7.68)
nent, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 7.23. If the input π ðn2 1 Þ
inductance is too small, the current decreases to zero (becom-
ing discontinuous) during a portion of the time between the where n ¼ 2, 4, 8, …, etc.
Lf Lf
Rectifier vL R vo
Rectifier
vL Cf R vo
(A) (B)
FIG. 7.21 Inductive-input dc filters. (A) Simple inductive-input dc filter. (B) L-section filter.
vs
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
is Inductor with
infinite inductance
Im
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
Inductor with
vL finite inductance
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
iL,vo
Inductor with
infinite inductance
Inductor with
finite inductance
wt
p/2 p 2p 3p
FIG. 7.23 Voltage and current waveforms of full-wave rectifier with inductor-input dc filter.
The dc component of the rectifier voltage is given by where Isn is the rms value of the nth harmonic component of
Eq. (7.5). Therefore, in addition to Eq. (7.27), the ripple factor the input current.
can also be expressed as Moreover, the input power factor is defined as
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 2 Is1
u X 1 PF ¼ cos ϕ (7.73)
RF ¼ 2 t (7.69) Is
n¼2, 4, 8,
n2 1
where ϕ is the displacement angle between the fundamental
Considering only the lowest-order harmonic ðn ¼ 2Þ, the out- components of the input current and voltage.
put ripple factor of a simple inductor-input dc filter (without Assume that inductor Lf of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.22 has
Cf) can be found, from Eqs. (7.64) and (7.69), as an infinitely large inductance. The input current is then a
square wave. This input current contains undesirable higher
0:4714 harmonics that reduce the input power factor of the system.
Filtered RF ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 (7.70)
1 + 4πfi Lf =R The input current can be easily expressed as
4Im X 1
is ¼ sin 2nπfi t (7.74)
π n¼1, 3, 5, n
7.5.1.4 Harmonics of the Input Current
In general, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of an input
The rms values of the input

current
and its fundamental com-
current is defined as
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ponent are Im and 4Im = π√2 , respectively. Therefore, the
2
Is THD of the input current of this circuit is 0.484.
Since the dis-
THD ¼ 1 (7.71)
Is1 placement angle is ϕ ¼ 0, the power factor is 4= π√2 ¼ 0:9:
where Is is the rms value of the input current and Is1 and the The power factor of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.22 can be
rms value of the fundamental component of the input current. improved by installing an ac filter between the source and
The THD can also be expressed as the rectifier, as shown in Fig. 7.24.
Considering only the harmonic components, the equivalent
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u circuit of the rectifier given in Fig. 7.24 can be found as shown in
u X Isn 2
THD ¼ t (7.72) Fig. 7.25. The rms value of the nth harmonic current appearing
n¼2, 3, 4,
Is1 in the supply can then be obtained using the current divider rule:
Li a freewheeling diode is required to be connected across the

input of the dc filters such that the flow of load current can
be maintained during the negative half cycle of the supply
+ Ci voltage.
−
7.5.2 Capacitive-Input DC Filters

Fig. 7.26 shows a full-wave rectifier with capacitor-input dc fil-
FIG. 7.24 Rectifier with input ac filter. ter. The voltage and current waveforms of this rectifier are
shown in Fig. 7.27. When the instantaneous voltage of the sec-
ondary winding vs is higher than the instantaneous value of
Li
capacitor voltage vL, either D1 or D2 conducts, and the capacitor
C is charged up from the transformer. When the instantaneous
+ I voltage of the secondary winding vs falls below the instanta-
Isn Ci – rn neous value of capacitor voltage vL, both the diodes are reverse
biased and the capacitor C is discharged through load resis-
tance R. The resulting capacitor voltage vL varies between a
FIG. 7.25 Equivalent circuit for input ac filter. maximum value of Vm and a minimum value of Vm VrðppÞ
as shown in Fig. 7.27. (Vr(pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage.)
As shown in Fig. 7.27, the conduction angle θc of the diodes

1
Isn ¼ I (7.75) becomes smaller when the output ripple voltage decreases.
1 ð2nπfi Þ2 Li Ci rn Consequently, the power supply and the diodes suffer from
high repetitive surge currents. An LC ac filter, as shown in
where Irn is the rms value of the nth harmonic current of the Fig. 7.24, may be required to improve the input power factor
rectifier. of the rectifier.
Applying Eq. (7.73) and knowing Irn =Ir1 ¼ 1=n from
Eq. (7.74), the THD of the rectifier with input filter shown
D1
in Fig. 7.24 can be found as
Rinrush
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi
u vs
u X 1 1
+ is
Filtered THD ¼ t 2
(7.76) − vL C R
i i
2
n¼3, 5
n 1 ð 2nπf i Þ L C vs
The important design parameters of typical single-phase and vs = Vm sin w t D2

three-phase rectifiers with inductor-input dc filter are listed
in Table 7.5. Note that, in a single-phase half-wave rectifier, FIG. 7.26 Full-wave rectifier with capacitor-input dc filter.
TABLE 7.5 Important design parameters of typical rectifier circuits with inductor-input dc filter
Full-wave rectifier with Full-wave Three-phase Three-phase double-star

center-tapped bridge Three-phase bridge rectifier with interphase
transformer rectifier star rectifier rectifier transformer
Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 3.14Vdc 1.57Vdc 2.09Vdc 1.05Vdc 2.42Vdc
RMS input voltage per transformer leg Vs 1.11Vdc 1.11Vdc 0.885Vdc 0.428Vdc 0.885Vdc
Diode average current IF(AV) 0.5Idc 0.5Idc 0.333Idc 0.333Idc 0.167Idc
Peak repetitive forward current IFRM 2.00IF(AV) 2.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV) 3.00IF(AV)
Diode rms current IF(RMS) 0.707Idc 0.707Idc 0.577Idc 0.577Idc 0.289Idc
Form factor of diode current IF(RMS)/IF(AV) 1.414 1.414 1.73 1.73 1.73
Transformer rating primary VA 1.11Pdc 1.11Pdc 1.21Pdc 1.05Pdc 1.05Pdc
Transformer rating secondary VA 1.57Pdc 1.11Pdc 1.48Pdc 1.05Pdc 1.48Pdc
Output ripple frequency fr 2fi 2fi 3fi 6fi 6fi
Ripple component Vr at
(a) Fundamental 0.667Vdc 0.667Vdc 0.250Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.057Vdc
(b) Second harmonic 0.133Vdc 0.133Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.014Vdc 0.014Vdc
(c) Third harmonic of the ripple frequency 0.057Vdc 0.057Vdc 0.025Vdc 0.006Vdc 0.006Vdc
vs where Rsec is the equivalent resistance looking from the second-

Vm ary transformer and RESR is the equivalent series resistance
(ESR) of the filtering capacitor. Hence, the employed diode
wt should be able to withstand the inrush current for a half cycle
p/2 p 2p 3p of the input voltage. In other words, the maximum allowable
vL Vr(pp) surge current (IFSM) rating of the employed diodes must be
Vm higher than the inrush current. The equivalent resistance asso-
ciated with the transformer windings and the filtering capacitor
wt is usually sufficient to limit the inrush current to an acceptable
p/2 p 2p 3p
is qc level. However, in cases where the transformer is omitted, for
example, the rectifier of an off-line switch-mode supply, resis-
tor Rinrush must be added for controlling the inrush current.
D2 conducts Consider as an example, a single-phase bridge rectifier,
wt which is to be connected to a 120 V to 60 Hz source (without
p/2 p 2p 3p transformer). Assume that the IFSM rating of the diodes is 150 A
for an interval of 8.3 ms. If the ESR of the filtering capacitor is
zero, the value of the resistor for limiting inrush current resis-
tance can be estimated to be 1.13 Ω using Eq. (7.81).
FIG. 7.27 Voltage and current waveforms of the full-wave rectifier with
capacitor-input dc filter.
7.6 High-Frequency Diode Rectifier
In practice, if the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is small, it can Circuits
be approximated as
In high-frequency converters, diodes perform various func-
Vm
VrðppÞ ¼ (7.77) tions, such as rectifying, flywheeling, and clamping. One special
fr RC quality a high-frequency diode must possess is a fast switching
speed. In technical terms, it must have a short reverse recovery
where fr is the output ripple frequency of the rectifier.
time and a short forward recovery time.
Therefore, the average output voltage Vdc is given by
The reverse recovery time of a diode may be understood as

1 the time a forwardly conducting diode takes to recover to a
Vdc ¼ Vm 1 (7.78) blocking state when the voltage across it is suddenly reversed
2fr RC
(which is known as forced turnoff ). The temporary short cir-
The rms output ripple voltage Vac is approximately given by cuit during the reverse recovery period may result in large
reverse current, excessive ringing, and large power dissipation,
Vm
Vac ¼ pffiffiffi (7.79) all of which are highly undesirable.
2 2fr RC The forward recovery time of a diode may be understood as
the time a nonconducting diode takes to change to the fully on
The ripple factor RF can be found from state when a forward current is suddenly forced into it (which is
1 known as forced turn-on). Before the diode reaches the fully on
RF ¼ pffiffiffi (7.80) state, the forward voltage drop during the forward recovery
2ð2fr RC 1Þ
time can be significantly higher than the normal on-state volt-
age drop. This may cause voltage spikes in the circuit.
7.5.2.1 Inrush Current It should be interesting to note that, as far as circuit opera-
The resistor Rinrush in Fig. 7.26 is used to limit the inrush cur- tion is concerned, a diode with a long reverse recovery time is
rent imposed on the diodes during the instant when the recti- similar to a diode with a large parasitic capacitance. A diode
fier is being connected to the supply. The inrush current can be with a long forward recovery time is similar to a diode with
very large because capacitor C has zero charge initially. The a large parasitic inductance. (Spikes caused by the slow forward
worst case occurs when the rectifier is connected to the supply recovery of diodes are often wrongly thought to be caused by
at its maximum voltage. The worst-case inrush current can be leakage inductance.) Comparatively, the adverse effect of a long
estimated from reverse recovery time is much worse than that of a long forward
recovery time.
Vm Among commonly used diodes, the Schottky diode has the
Iinrush ¼ (7.81)
Rsec + RESR shortest forward and reverse recovery times. Schottky diodes
are therefore most suitable for high-frequency applications. operation (the current in L1 being continuous). These waveforms
However, Schottky diodes have relatively low reverse breakdown are obtained from PSpice simulations, based on the following
voltage (normally lower than 200 V) and large leakage current. assumptions:
If, due to these limitations, Schottky diodes cannot be used, ultra-
• Rectifier diode DR, flywheel diode DF, and magnetic-reset
fast diodes should be used in high-frequency converter circuits.
clamping diode DM are ideal diodes with infinitely fast
Using the example of a forward converter, the operations of a
switching speed.
forward rectifier diode, a flywheel diode, and a clamping diode
• Electronic switch M1 is an idealized MOS switch with
will be studied in Section 7.6.1. Because of the difficulties
infinitely fast switching speed and
encountered in the full analyses taking into account para-
sitic/stray/leakage components, PSpice simulations are exten- On-state resistance ¼ 0:067 Ω
sively used here to study the following: Off -state resistance ¼ 1 MΩ
• The idealized operation of the converter
It should be noted that PSpice does not allow a switch to
• The adverse effects of relatively slow rectifiers (e.g., the
have zero on-state resistance and infinite off-state
so-called ultrafast diodes, which are actually much slower
resistance.
than Schottky diodes)
• Transformer T1 has a coupling coefficient of 0.99999999.
• The improvement achievable by using high-speed recti-
PSpice does not accept a coupling coefficient of 1.
fiers (Schottky diodes)
• The switching operation of the converter has reached a
• The effects of leakage inductance of the transformer
steady state.
• The use of snubber circuits to reduce ringing
• The operation of a practical converter with snubber Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.28 and the waveforms
circuits shown in Fig. 7.29, the operation of the converter can be
explained as follows:
Using the example of a flyback converter, the operations of a
flyback rectifier diode and a clamping diode will also be studied 1. For 0 < t < DT (D is the duty cycle of the MOS switch M1
in Section 7.6.2. and T is the switching period of the converter. M1 is
The design considerations for high-frequency diode rectifier turned on when V1 (VPULSE) is 15 V and turned off
circuits will be discussed in Section 7.6.3. Some precautions that when V1(VPULSE) is 0 V).
must be taken in the interpretation of computer simulation The switch M1 is turned on at t ¼ 0.
results are briefed in Section 7.6.4. The voltage at node 3, denoted as V(3), is
V ð3Þ ¼ 0 f or 0 < t < DT (7.82)
7.6.1 Forward Rectifier Diode, Flywheel Diode,
and Magnetic-Reset Clamping Diode in a The voltage induced at node 6 of the secondary wind-
Forward Converter ing LS is

7.6.1.1 Ideal Circuit V ð6Þ ¼ VIN Ns =Np (7.83)
Fig. 7.28 shows the basic circuit of a forward converter. Fig. 7.29
shows the idealized steady-state waveforms for continuous-mode
DM 100
Notes:
T1
1 6 I(DR) 9 L1 99 Io VIN = 50 V
Vo
I(L1) L1 = 8 μH
DR
LPNP LSNS CL = 300 μF
DF CL RL
LP = 0.576 mH
VIN 3 LM = 0.576 mH
M1 LM 0
5 0V LS = 0.036 mH
Pulse NM RL = 0.35 Ω
NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
0
0V
FIG. 7.28 Basic circuit of forward converter.

This voltage drives a current I(DR) (current through Inductive current I(L1) continues to fall at the rate of
rectifier diode DR) into the output circuit to produce the
dI ðL1Þ Vo
output voltage Vo. The rate of increase of I(DR) is given by ¼ (7.92)
dt L1

dI ðDRÞ NS 1
¼ VIN Vo (7.84) The switching cycle restarts when the switch M1 is
dt NP L1
turned on again at t ¼ T.
where Vo is the dc output voltage of the converter. From the waveforms shown in Fig. 7.29, the following useful
The flywheel diode DF is reversely biased by V(9), the information (for continuous-mode operation) can be found:
voltage at node 9:
• The output voltage Vo is equal to the average value of V(9):
V ð9Þ ¼ VIN ðNS =NP Þ f or 0 < t < DT (7.85)
NS
Vo ¼ D VIN (7.93)
The magnetic-reset clamping diode DM is reversely NP
biased by the negative voltage at node 100. Assuming that
LM and LP have the same number of turns, we have • The maximum current in the forward rectifying diode DR
and flywheel diode DF is
V ð100Þ ¼ VIN f or 0 < t < DT (7.86)
I ðDRÞmax ¼ I ðDF Þmax
A magnetizing current builds up linearly in LP. This 1 Vo (7.94)
¼ Io + ð1 DÞT
magnetizing current reaches the maximum value of 2 L1
(VINDT)/LP at t ¼ DT.
2. For DT < t < 2DT where Vo ¼ DVIN ðNS =NP Þ and Io is the output loading
The switch M1 is turned off at t ¼ DT. current.
The collapse of magnetic flux induces a back emf in • The maximum reverse voltage of DR and DF is
LM, which is equal to LP, to turn-on the clamping diode V ðDRÞmax ¼ V ðDF Þmax
DM. The magnetizing current in LM drops (from the
NS (7.95)
maximum value of (VIN DT)/LP, as mentioned above) ¼ V ð6, 9Þmax ¼ VIN
at the rate of VIN/LP. It reaches zero at t ¼ 2DT. NP
The back emf induced across LP is equal to VIN. The
• The maximum reverse voltage of DM is
voltage at node 3 is
V ðDM Þmax ¼ VIN (7.96)
V ð3Þ ¼ 2VIN f or DT < t < 2DT (7.87)
• The maximum current in DM is
The back emf across LS forces DR to stop conducting.
The inductive current in L1 forces the flywheel diode VIN
DF to conduct. I(L1) (current through L1) falls at the I ðDM Þmax ¼ DT (7.97)
LP
rate of
• The maximum current in the switch M1, denoted as
dI ðL1Þ Vo ID(M1), is

¼ (7.88)
dt L1 NS
IDðM1Þmax ¼ I ðDRÞmax + I ðDM Þmax
NP
The voltage across DR, denoted as V(6,9) (the voltage (7.98)
NS 1 Vo VIN
at node 6 with respect to node 9), is ¼ Io + ð1 DÞT + DT
NP 2 L1 LP
V ðDRÞ ¼ V ð6, 9Þ
(7.89) It should, however, be understood that, due to the nonideal
¼ VIN ðNS =NP Þ f or DT < t < 2DT characteristics of practical components, the idealized wave-
forms shown in Fig. 7.29 cannot actually be achieved in the real
3. For 2DT < t < T
world. In the following, the effects of nonideal diodes and
DM stops conducting at t ¼ 2DT. The voltage across
transformers will be examined.
LM then falls to zero.
The voltage across LP is zero: 7.6.1.2 Circuit Using Ultra-Fast Diodes
V ð3Þ ¼ VIN (7.90) Fig. 7.30 shows the waveforms of the forward converter (circuit
given in Fig. 7.28) when ultrafast diodes are used as DM, DR, and
The voltage across LS is also zero: DF. (Note that ultrafast diodes are actually much slower than
Schottky diodes.) The waveforms are obtained by PSpice sim-
V ð6 Þ ¼ 0 (7.91) ulations, based on the following assumptions:
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
5.0 A
0A
–5.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
20 A
15 A
10 A
I(L1)
5.1 V
5.0 V
4.9 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.29 Idealized steady-state waveforms of forward converter for continuous-mode operation.
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
40 A
0A
–40 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
100 A
0A
–100 A
I(DR)
100 A
0A
–100 A
I(DF)
15 A
10 A
5A
I(L1)
3.8 V
3.7 V
3.6 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.30 Waveforms of forward converter using “ultrafast” diodes (which are actually much slower than Schottky diodes).
• DM is an MUR460 ultrafast diode. DR and DF are • The effective series resistance of the output filtering capac-
MUR1560 ultrafast diodes. itor is 0.05 Ω.
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. • The switching operation of the converter has reached a
• Transformer T1 has a coupling coefficient of 0.99999999 steady state.
(which may be assumed to be 1).
The resultant waveforms shown in Fig. 7.32 indicate that
there are large voltage and current ringings in the circuit. These
steady state.
ringings are caused by the resonant circuits formed by the leak-
It is observed that a large spike appears in the current wave- age inductance of the transformer and the parasitic capaci-
forms of diodes DR and DF (denoted as I(DR) and I(DF) in tances of diodes and transistor.
Fig. 7.30) whenever the MOS transistor M1 is turned on. This is A practical converter may therefore need snubber circuits to
due to the relatively slow reverse recovery of the flywheel diode damp these ringings, as described below.
DF. During the reverse recovery time, the positive voltage suddenly
appearing across L S (which is equal to VIN (NS/NP)) drives a large 7.6.1.5 Circuit With Snubber Across The Transformer
transient current through DR and DF. This current spike results in In order to suppress the ringing voltage caused by the resonant
large current stress and power dissipation in DR, DF, and M1. circuit formed by transformer leakage inductance and the par-
A method of reducing the current spikes is to use Schottky asitic capacitance of the MOS switch, a snubber circuit, shown
diodes as DR and DF, as described below. as R1 and C1 in Fig. 7.33, is now connected across the primary
winding of transformer T1. The new waveforms are shown in
7.6.1.3 Circuit Using Schottky Diodes Fig. 7.34. Here, the drain-to-source voltage waveform of the
In order to reduce the current spikes caused by the slow reverse MOS transistor, V(3), is found to be acceptable. However, there
recovery of rectifiers, Schottky diodes are now used as DR and are still large ringing voltages across the output rectifiers
DF. The assumptions made here are (referring to the circuit (V(6,9) and V(9)).
shown in Fig. 7.28) the following: In order to damp the ringing voltages across the output rec-
• DR and DF are MBR2540 Schottky diodes. tifiers, additional snubber circuits across the rectifiers may
• DM is an MUR460 ultrafast diode. therefore also be required in a practical circuit, as
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor.
described below.
7.6.1.6 Practical Circuit
steady state. Fig. 7.35 shows a practical forward converter with snubber cir-
cuits added also to rectifiers (R2C2 for DR and R3C3 for DF) to
The new simulated waveforms are given in Fig. 7.31. It is reduce the voltage ringing. Figs. 7.36 and 7.37 show the resul-
found that, by employing Schottky diodes as DR and DF, the tant voltage and current waveforms. Fig. 7.36 is for continuous-
amplitudes of the current spikes in ID(M1), I(DR), and I(DF) mode operation ðRL ¼ 0:35ΩÞ, where I(L1) (current in L1) is
can be reduced to practically zero. This solves the slow-speed continuous. Fig. 7.37 is for discontinuous-mode operation
problem of ultrafast diodes. ðRL ¼ 10ΩÞ, where I(L1) becomes discontinuous due to an
increased value of RL. These waveforms are considered to be
7.6.1.4 Circuit With Practical Transformer acceptable.
The simulation results given above in Figs. 7.29–7.31 (for the The design considerations of diode rectifier circuits in
forward converter circuit shown in Fig. 7.28) are based on high-frequency converters will be discussed later in
the assumption that transformer T1 has effectively no leakage Section 7.6.3.
inductance (with coupling coefficient K ¼ 0:99999999). It is,
however, found that when a practical transformer (having a
slightly lower K) is used, severe ringings occur. Fig. 7.32 shows 7.6.2 Flyback Rectifier Diode and Clamping
some simulation results to demonstrate this phenomenon, Diode in a Flyback Converter
where the following assumptions are made: 7.6.2.1 Ideal Circuit
• DR and DF are MBR2540 Schottky diodes. DM is an Fig. 7.38 shows the basic circuit of a flyback converter. Due to
MUR460 ultrafast diode. its simple circuit, this type of converter is widely used in low-
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. cost low-power applications. Discontinuous-mode operation
• Transformer T1 has a practical coupling coefficient of (meaning that the magnetizing current in the transformer
0.996. falls to zero before the end of each switching cycle) is often
• The effective winding resistance of LP is 0.1 Ω. The effec- used because it offers the advantages of easy control and low
tive winding resistance of LM is 0.4 Ω. The effective wind- diode reverse recovery loss. Fig. 7.39 shows the idealized
ing resistance of LS is 0.01 Ω. steady-state waveforms for discontinuous-mode operation.
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
5.0 A
0A
–5.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
20 A
15 A
10 A
I(L1)
4.9 V
4.8 V
4.7 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.31 Waveforms of forward converter using Schottky (fast-speed) diodes as output rectifiers.
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(100)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(3)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(6)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(9)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2 V
4.1 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.32 Waveforms of forward converter with practical transformer and output filtering capacitor having nonzero series effective resistance.
DM 100 VIN = 50 V, DM = MUR460
T1 DR = MBR2540, DF = MBR2540
DR 9 L1
1 6 99 M1 = IRF640, R1 = 24 Ω
Vo
R1 C1 = 3000 pF, CL = 3500 μF
LP ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω, L1 = 8 µH
2 LSNS DF CL RL
N LP = 0.576 mH, LM = 0.576 mH
VIN C1 P
3 LS = 0.036 mH, NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
M1 LM 0
RL = 0.35 Ω
5
NM
Pulse Effective winding resistance of LP =0.1 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LM =0.4 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LS = 0.01 Ω
0 Coupling coefficient K = 0.996
FIG. 7.33 Forward converter with snubber circuit (R1C1) across transformer.
These waveforms are obtained from PSpice simulations, based 2

1 VIN 1
on the following assumptions: LP DT ¼ LS ½I ðLSÞ2 (7.101)
2 LP 2
• DR is an idealized rectifier diode with infinitely fast rffiffiffiffiffi
switching speed. LP VIN
I ðLSÞ ¼ DT (7.102)
• M1 is an idealized MOS switch with infinitely fast switch- LS LP
ing speed and NP VIN
I ðLSÞ ¼ DT (7.103)
On-stateresistance ¼ 0:067 Ω NS L P
Off -stateresistance ¼ 1 MΩ
The amplitude of I(LS) falls at the rate of
dI ðLSÞ Vo
• The switching operation of the converter has reached a ¼ (7.104)
steady state. dt LS
Referring to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.38 and the waveforms and I(LS) falls to zero at t ¼ (D + D2)T. Since
shown in Fig. 7.39, the operation of the converter can be D2 Vo ¼ VIN ðNS =NP ÞD,
explained as follows: VIN NS
D2 ¼ D (7.105)
1. For 0 < t < DT Vo NP
The switch M1 is turned on at t ¼ 0:
D2 is effectively the duty cycle of the output rectifier
V ð3Þ ¼ 0 f or 0 < t < DT DR .
3. For ðD + D2 ÞT < t < T
The current in M1, denoted as ID(M1), increases at the
rate of The output rectifier DR is off.
dIDðM1Þ VIN The output capacitor CL provides the output current to
¼ (7.99) the load RL.
dt LP
The switching cycle restarts when the switch M1 is
The output rectifier DR is reversely biased. turned on again at t ¼ T.
2. For DT < t < ðD + D2 ÞT From the waveforms shown in Fig. 7.39, the following infor-
The switching M1 is turned off at t ¼ DT. mation (for discontinuous-mode operation) can be obtained:
The collapse of magnetic flux induces a back emf in LS
to turn-on the output rectifier DR. The initial amplitude • The maximum value of the current in the switch M1 is
of the rectifier current I(DR), which is also denoted as VIN
I(LS), can be found by equating the energy stored in IDðM1Þmax ¼ DT (7.106)
LP
the primary winding current I(LP) just before t ¼ DT
to the energy stored in the secondary winding current • The maximum value of the current in the output rectifier
I(LS) just after t ¼ DT: DR is
1 1 NP VIN
LP ½I ðLPÞ2 ¼ LS ½I ðLSÞ2 (7.100) I ðDRÞmax ¼ DT (7.107)
2 2 NS LP
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
50 V
0V
–50 V
V(6)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(9)
40 V
0V
–40 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2V
4.1V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.34 Waveforms of forward converter with snubber circuit across the transformer.
VIN = 50 V, DM = MUR460
DM DR = MBR2540, DF = MBR2540
100 R2 C2
M1 = IRF640, R1 = 24 Ω
T1 69
DR L1 R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 10 Ω
1 6 9 99
Vo C1 = 3000 pF, C2 = 10 nF, C3 = 10 nF
R1 R3
LP LS CL = 3500 μF ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω,
DF CL
2 NP NS 90 RL L = 8 μH L = 0.576 mH
1 P
VIN C1 C3
3 LM = 0.576 mH LS = 0.036 mH
5 M1 LM 0 NP : NM : NS = 4 : 4 : 1
Pulse NM Effective winding resistance of LP =0.1 Ω
Effective winding resistance of LM =0.4 Ω
0 Coupling coefficient K = 0.996
FIG. 7.35 Practical forward converter with snubber circuits across the transformer and rectifiers.
• Transformer T1 has a practical coupling coefficient of

• The output voltage Vo can be found by equating the input
0.992.
energy to the output energy within a switching cycle.
• The effective winding resistance of LP is 0.025 Ω. The
Vo2 effective winding resistance of LS is 0.1 Ω.
VIN ½Charge taken from VIN in a switching cycle ¼ T • The effective series resistance of the output filtering capac-
RL
itor CL is 0.05 Ω.
1 DT V2 • The switching operation of the converter has reached a
VIN DT VIN ¼ o T (7.108)
2 LP RL steady state.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RL T The waveforms shown in Fig. 7.40 are considered to be
Vo ¼ DVIN (7.109) acceptable.
2LP
• The maximum reverse voltage of DR, V(6,9) (which is the 7.6.3 Design Considerations
voltage at node 6 with respect to node 9), is
In the design of rectifier circuits, it is necessary for the designer
NS to determine the voltage and current ratings of the diodes. The
V ðDRÞmax ¼ V ð6, 9Þmax ¼ VIN + Vo (7.110) idealized waveforms and expressions for the maximum diode
NP
voltages and currents given under the heading of “Ideal Circuit”
above (for both forward and flyback converters) are a good
7.6.2.2 Practical Circuit starting point. However, when parasitic/stray components
When a practical transformer (with leakage inductance) is used are also considered, the simulation results given under
in the flyback converter circuit shown in Fig. 7.38, there will be “Practical Circuit” are much more useful for the determination
large ringings. In order to reduce these ringings to practically of the voltage and current ratings of the high-frequency rectifier
acceptable levels, snubber and clamping circuits have to be diodes.
added. Fig. 7.40 shows a practical flyback converter circuit where Assuming that the voltage and current ratings have been
a resistor-capacitor snubber (R2C2) is used to damp the ringing determined, proper diodes can be selected to meet the require-
voltage across the output rectifier DR and a resistor-capacitor- ments. The following are some general guidelines on the selec-
diode clamping (R1C1DS) is used to clamp the ringing voltage tion of diodes:
across the switch M1. What the diode DS does here is to allow
• For low-voltage applications, Schottky diodes should be
the energy stored by the current in the leakage inductance to
used because they have very fast switching speed and
be converted to the form of a dc voltage across the clamping
low forward voltage drop. If Schottky diodes cannot be
capacitor C1. The energy transferred to C1 is then dissipated
used, either because of their low reverse breakdown volt-
slowly in the parallel resistor R1, without ringing problems.
age or because of their large leakage current (when
The simulated waveforms of the flyback converter (circuit
reversely biased), ultrafast diodes should be used.
given in Fig. 7.40) for discontinuous-mode operation are
• The reverse breakdown voltage rating of the diode should
shown in Fig. 7.41, where the following assumptions are made:
be reasonably higher (e.g., 10% or 20% higher) than
• DR and DS are MUR460 ultrafast diodes. the maximum reverse voltage, the diode is expected to
• M1 is an IRF640 MOS transistor. encounter under the worst-case condition. However, an
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DM)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6,9)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DR)
20 A
0A
–20 A
I(DF)
15.0 A
12.5 A
10.0 A
I(L1)
4.2 V
4.1 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.36 Waveforms of practical forward converter for continuous-mode operation.

20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
500 mA
0A
–500 mA
I(DM)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
ID(M1)
100 V
0V
–100 V
V(100)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(6)
20 V
0V
–20 V
V(9)
40
0V
–40 V
V(6,9)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DR)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(DF)
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
I(L1)
7.6 V
7.5 V
7.4 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(99) DT T
Time
FIG. 7.37 Waveforms of practical forward converter for discontinuous-mode operation.

T1 DR
1 6 9
Vo
VIN = 60 V
LP LSNS CL RL CL = 100 μF
NP LP = 100 μH
3 LS = 400 μH
VIN 0
M1 RL = 400 Ω
5
NP : NS = 1 : 2
Pulse
FIG. 7.38 Basic circuit of flyback converter.
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(6)
109.2 V
109.1 V
109.0 V
V(9)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(6,9)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
I(DR) or I(LS) DT (D + D2)T T
Time
FIG. 7.39 Idealized steady-state waveforms of flyback converter for discontinuous-mode operation.
overly conservative design (using a diode with much • The current rating of the diode should be substantially
higher breakdown voltage than necessary) would result higher than the maximum current the diode is expected
in a lower rectifier efficiency, because a diode having a to carry during normal operation. Using a diode with a
higher reverse voltage rating would normally have a larger relatively large current rating has the following
voltage drop when it is conducting. advantages:
R2 C2
VIN = 60 V, DS = MUR460
T1 DR DR = MUR460, M1 = IRF640
1 6 9
Vo R1 = 4.7 kΩ, R2 = 100 Ω
C1 = 0.1 μF,C2 = 680 pF
Lp LS
C1 R1 CL RL CL = 100 μF, ESR of CL = 0.05 Ω
Np NS
DS LP = 100 μH, LS = 400 mH
VIN 2 RL = 400 Ω
3 0
M1 NP : NS = 1 : 2
5
Effective winding resistance of LP = 0.025 Ω
Pulse
Coupling coefficient K = 0.992
0
FIG. 7.40 Practical flyback converter circuit.
20 V
ON OFF ON OFF
0V
V1(VPULSE) DT T
4.0 A
0A
–4.0 A
ID(M1)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(3)
200 V
0V
–200 V
V(6)
98.8 V
98.7 V
98.6 V
V(9)
400 V
0V
–400 V
V(6,9)
1.0 A
0A
–1.0 A
I(DR)
2.0 A
0A
–2.0 A
I(DS)
200 V
0V
–200 V
0s 4 μs 5 μs 10 μs 15 μs 20 μs
V(3,2) DT (D + D2)T T
Time
FIG. 7.41 Waveforms of practical flyback converter for discontinuous-mode operation.

• It reduces the possibility of damage due to transients waveforms. This is due to the lack of a model in the com-
caused by start-up, accidental short circuit, or random puter simulation to simulate unwanted coupling among
turning on and off of the converter. the practical components.
• It reduces the forward voltage drop because the diode is • Most of the computer models of diodes, including those
operated in the lower current region of the V-I characteristic. used in the simulations given above, do not take into
account the effects of the forward recovery time. (The for-
In some of the “high-efficiency” converter circuits, the cur-
ward recovery time is not even mentioned in most man-
rent rating of the output rectifier can be many times larger than
ufacturers’ data sheets.) However, it is also interesting to
the actual current expected in the rectifier. In this way, a higher
note that in most cases, the effect of the forward recovery
efficiency is achieved at the expense of a larger silicon area.
time of a diode is masked by that of the effective induc-
In the design of R-C snubber circuits for rectifiers, it should
tance in series with the diode (e.g., the leakage inductance
be understood that a larger C (and a smaller R) will give better
of a transformer).
damping. However, a large C (and a small R) will result in a
large switching loss (which is equal to 0.5 CV2f ). As a guide-
line, a capacitor with five to ten times the junction capacitance
of the rectifier may be used as a starting point for iterations. The Further Reading
value of the resistor should be chosen to provide a slightly
[1] Rectifier Applications Handbook, third ed., Motorola, Inc, Phoenix,
underdamped operating condition. AZ, 1993.
[2] M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices, and Applications,
7.6.4 Precautions in Interpreting Simulation second ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993
[3] Y.-S. Lee, Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Switch-Mode
Results Power Supplies, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1993
In using the simulated waveforms as references for design pur- [4] J.W. Nilsson, Introduction to PSpice Manual, Electric Circuits Using
poses, attention should be paid to the following: OrCAD Release 9.1, fourth ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River,
NJ, 2000
• The voltage/current spikes that appear in the practically [5] J. Keown, OrCAD PSpice and Circuit Analysis, fourth ed., Prentice
measured waveforms may not appear in the simulated Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ., 2001

7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers

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7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers

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7

Yim-Shu Lee 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 177

D1, D2 D3, D4 D1, D2

In the case of a half-wave rectifier, vL ðt Þ ¼ 0 for the negative Full-wave IL ¼

% 21.2 0 4.2 0 1.8 0 1.01

7.3 Three-Phase Diode Rectifiers

Full-wave rectifier with

Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 3.14Vdc 3.14Vdc 1.57Vdc

vRN vYN vBN

Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 2.092Vdc 1.06Vdc 1.05Vdc

FIG. 7.11 Voltage waveforms of the three-phase double-star rectifier.

FIG. 7.12 Three-phase bridge rectifier.

vBY vRY vRB vYB vYR vBR

FIG. 7.17 Voltage waveforms of the six-phase star rectifier.

Similarly, the rms value of the output voltage can be found as

Six-phase series Six-phase parallel bridge rectifier

Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM 2.09Vdc 0.524Vdc 1.05Vdc

The function of the interphase transformer is to cause the

FIG. 7.19 Six-phase parallel bridge rectifier.

operation, but they demand excessive turn-on and repetitive iL Lf

Li a freewheeling diode is required to be connected across the

7.5.2 Capacitive-Input DC Filters

The important design parameters of typical single-phase and vs = Vm sin w t D2

Full-wave rectifier with Full-wave Three-phase Three-phase double-star

vs where Rsec is the equivalent resistance looking from the second-

FIG. 7.28 Basic circuit of forward converter.

dI ðL1Þ Vo ID(M1), is

DM 100 VIN = 50 V, DM = MUR460

These waveforms are obtained from PSpice simulations, based 2

• Transformer T1 has a practical coupling coefficient of

FIG. 7.36 Waveforms of practical forward converter for continuous-mode operation.

FIG. 7.37 Waveforms of practical forward converter for discontinuous-mode operation.

FIG. 7.38 Basic circuit of flyback converter.

FIG. 7.40 Practical flyback converter circuit.

FIG. 7.41 Waveforms of practical flyback converter for discontinuous-mode operation.

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