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Course Contents: 1.2 Traditional Prototyping Vs
Course Contents: 1.2 Traditional Prototyping Vs
Introduction
Course Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Traditional Prototyping Vs.
Rapid Prototyping
1.3 Classification of Rapid
Prototyping Systems
1.1 Introduction
The current marketplace is undergoing an accelerated pace of change that
challenges companies to innovate new techniques to rapidly respond to the ever-
changing global environment.
A country's economy is highly dependent on the development of new products that
are innovative with shorter development time.
Organizations now fail or succeed based upon their ability to respond quickly to
changing customer demands and to utilize new innovative technologies.
In this environment, the advantage goes to the firm that can offer greater varieties
of new products with higher performance and greater overall appeal.
At the center of this environment is a new generation of customers.
These customers have forced organizations to look for new methods and techniques
to improve their business processes and speed up the product development cycle.
As the direct result of this, the industry is required to apply new engineering
philosophy such as Rapid Prototyping.
Prototype:
It is the first or preliminary version of a product from which other forms are
developed.
It is a model from which further models and eventually the final product will be
derived.
It is the representation of a solution to a design problem in such a way that a user
can experience it. It is not meant to function but rather to let users interact with
them so as to provide feedback.
Rapid Prototyping:
The term rapid prototyping (RP) refers to a class of technologies that can
automatically construct physical models from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data.
It is a process for rapidly creating a system or part representation before final
release or commercialization.
It is a process for fabricating of a physical, three – dimensional part of arbitrary
shape directly from a numerical description (typically a CAD model) by a quick,
totally automated and highly flexible process.
Alternative names for RP:
Additive Manufacturing
Layer Manufacturing
Direct CAD Manufacturing
Solid Freeform Fabrication
1.1.1 Fundamental Automated Processes
There are three fundamental fabrication processes as shown in the below figure.
They are Subtractive, Additive and Formative processes.
The Indirect method of rapid tooling (RT) uses the RP pattern as mold. This is
considered as a good alternative to the traditional mold making since it is more
efficient and requires less lead-time.
This approach is also less expensive and allows for quick validation of designs. In
direct RT method, the RP process is used for direct fabrication of the tools.
1.1.3 A TYPICAL RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS
There are many different RP processes, but the basic operating principles are very
similar. Below figure shows the data-flow diagram of the basic process.
Fig 1.4 A triangle with three vertices. The sequence of the storage of the vertices indicates
the direction of the triangular face.
The model presenting the physical part to be built should be presented as closed
surfaces that define an enclosed volume.
The meaning of this is that the data must specify the inside, outside, and boundary
of the model. This requirement is redundant if the modeling used is solid modeling.
This approach ensures that all horizontal cross-sections essential to RP are closed
curves.
The internal representation of a CAD model as shown in the below figure can be in B-
rep or CSG representations, while its STL representation is shown in the next figure.
The STL representation is often used as the standard format to interact between the
CAD model and an RP machine.
The STL representation approximates the surfaces of the model by polygons,
meaning that STL files for curved parts can be very large in order to represent the
original geometry well.
In other words, the CAD models can have smooth curved surfaces, but the RP
process must have the model broken down into discrete volumes to build the part.
To have a continuous smooth curved surface, the volumes for each discrete piece
would have to be close to zero, which would require the number of entities to be
infinite, which makes for a very large file size in the real world.
In order to minimize the file size to something that is more manageable, the system
makes the volumes of the discrete pieces larger.
The larger these volumes, the fewer are needed to approximate the part. Keep in
mind that the fewer the pieces used, the less accurate the approximation is when
compared to the original model.
Triangulation, as shown in figure, is breaking the model into these discrete pieces
and the trick is balancing the number and size of these pieces to make a practical file
size without sacrificing too much accuracy.
1.2 Traditional Prototyping Vs. Rapid Prototyping
Prototypes play a very important role in product development as stated above it can
be very easy to have a negative impact on the development of a product.
Prototyping has huge implications on product cost, quality, and time. Obviously
prototypes are necessary for all products and the more useful prototypes that are
made, the higher the quality of the product.
However, it is important when building prototypes that they are built by adding low
cost to the overall product and that the final product still has the shortest time-to-
market possible.
Therefore, it is important that the prototype serves a purpose for the development
of the product.
Whether it is to study the function of the product, the appearance or ‘‘feel’’ of a
product, to visualize improvements to a product, etc. there is a point where
prototyping can increase the cost of a product and its time-to-market. This is why
material and process criteria for every prototype are important.
When building a prototype, to keep cost to a minimum, it is very important to use
cheap, readily available materials that will still serve the same purpose as the actual
product materials.
Depending on availability, function, and cost, it is also important to select a
prototyping process that not only serves the prototype’s purpose, but also keeps
cost low.
It could be a study of the product features and models to refine difficult features, a
simulated walk-through of product activities, or simply the creation of a
photographic quality model to create a demonstration video for marketing and
evaluating the product in use.
Since product development is an iterative process, it usually requires building several
prototypes in the iterative manner to produce a quality product.
These prototypes may need to serve in various purposes and in various stages of
product development.
Sometimes it is required to create as soon as possible a 3-D ‘‘free-form’’ part for
evaluation in its application context that could include visualization, tactile feedback,
function verification, and simulation of final use.
Evolution of Prototyping:
Prototyping methods started from traditional prototyping and moved to virtual
prototyping and rapid prototyping.
Conventional Prototyping
Digital or Virtual Prototyping (i. e. CAD Model)
Rapid Prototyping
Table 1.1 Traditional Prototyping Vs. Rapid Prototyping
Traditional Prototyping Rapid Prototyping
It could include building a model from It could include building a model from
CLAY, carving from wood, bending wire thermoplastic, photopolymer, metals,
meshing etc. paper, titanium alloys etc.
These methods are time consuming. These methods consume less time.
Generally these methods are performed Generally these methods are performed
manually. automatically.
8) Denken’s SLP
9) Mitsui’s COLAMM
10) Fockele & Schwarze’s LMS
11) Light Sculpting
12) Aaroflex
13) Rapid Freeze
14) Two Laser Beams
15) Microfabrication
Each of these RP systems will be described in more detail in next chapters.
1.3.2 Solid-based RP systems
Except for powder, solid-based RP systems are meant to encompass all forms of
material in the solid state.
In this context, the solid form can include the shape in the form of a wire, a roll,
laminates and pellets.
The following RP systems fall into this definition:
1) Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
2) Stratasys’ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
3) 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM)
4) Kira Corporation’s Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)
5) Solidscape’s ModelMaker and PatternMaster
6) CAM-LEM’s CL 100
7) Ennex Corporation’s Offset Fabbers
8) Beijing Yinhua’s Slicing Solid Manufacturing (SSM), Melted Extrusion Modeling
(MEM) and Multi-Functional RPM Systems (M-RPM)
1.3.3 Powder-Based RP systems
In a strict sense, powder is by-and-large in the solid state.
However, it is intentionally created as a category outside the solid-based RP systems
to mean powder in grain-like form.
The following RP systems fall into this definition:
1) 3D Systems’s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
2) Precision Optical Manufacturing’s Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)
3) Z Corporation’s Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
4) Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
5) Acram’s Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
6) Soligen’s Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC)
7) Fraunhofer’s Multiphase Jet Solidification (MJS)
8) Aeromet Corporation’s Lasform Technology
9) EOS’s EOSINT Systems
10) Generis’ RP Systems (GS)
11) Therics Inc.’s Theriform Technology
12) Extrude Hone’s Prometal 3D Printing Process
Following table shows some important RP systems and materials used for that
particular technology.
Table 1.2 RP systems and related base materials
Prototyping Technologies Base Materials
Selective laser sintering (SLS) Thermoplastics, Metals powders
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Thermoplastics, Eutectic metals.
Stereolithography (SLA) Photopolymer
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Paper
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) Titanium alloys
3D Printing (3DP) Various materials
Course Contents
2.1 Data Interfacing Formats
2.2 CAD Model Preparation
2.3 Part Orientation and Support
Generation
2.4 Support Structure Design
2.5 Model Slicing and Skin
Contour Determination
2.6 Identification of Internal and
External Contours
2.7 Contour Data Organization
2.8 Direct and Adaptive Slicing
2.9 Tool Path Generation
Besides, many commercial CAD models are not robust enough to generate the facet
model (STL file) and frequently have problems.
Nevertheless, there are several advantages of the STL file. First, it provides a simple
method of representing 3D CAD data.
Second, it is already a widely accepted standard and has been used by most CAD
systems and rapid prototyping systems.
Finally, it can provide small and accurate files for data transfer for certain shapes.
On the other hand, several disadvantages of the STL file exist. First, the STL file is
many times larger than the original CAD data file for a given accuracy parameter.
The STL file carries much redundancy information such as duplicate vertices and
edges shown in the below figure.
Fig 2.9 An invalid model being sliced, its tessellated model and top view of a layer of being scanned
If this error is not corrected and the model is subsequently sliced, as shown in figure,
in preparation for it to be built layer by layer, the missing facet in the geometrical
model would cause the system to have no predefined stopping boundary on the
particular slice, thus the building process would continue right to the physical limit of
the RP machine, creating a stray physical solid line and ruining the part being
produced, as illustrated in the figure.
Therefore, it is of paramount importance that the model be “repaired” before it is
sent for building.
2.1.2 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) is a standard used to exchange graphics
information between commercial CAD systems.
It was set up as an American National Standard in 1981. The IGES file can precisely
represent CAD models.
It includes not only the geometry information (Parameter Data Section) but also
topological information (Directory Entry Section).
In the IGES, surface modeling, constructive solid geometry (CSG) and boundary
representation (B-rep) are introduced.
Especially, the ways of representing the regularized operations for union,
intersection, and difference have also been defined.
The advantages of the IGES standard are its wide adoption and comprehensive
coverage.
Since IGES was set up as American National Standard, virtually every commercial
CAD/CAM system has adopted IGES implementations.
Furthermore, it provides the entities of points, lines, arcs, splines, NURBS surfaces
and solid elements. Therefore, it can precisely represent CAD model.
However, several disadvantages of the IGES standard in relation to its use as a RP
format include the following objections:
o Because IGES is the standard format to exchange data between CAD systems,
it also includes much redundant information that is not needed for rapid
prototyping systems.
o The algorithms for slicing an IGES file are more complex than the algorithms
slicing a STL file.
o The support structures needed in RP systems such as the SLA cannot be
created according to the IGES format.
IGES is a generally used data transfer medium which interfaces with various CAD
systems. It can precisely represent a CAD model.
Advantages of using IGES over current approximate methods include precise
geometry representations, few data conversions, smaller data files and simpler
control strategies.
However, the problems are the lack of transfer standards for a variety of CAD
systems and system complexities.
An STL file is a triangular surface representation of a CAD model. Since the CAD data
must be translated to this faceted representation, the surface of the STL file is only
an approximation of the real surface of an object.
The facets created by STL translation are sometimes noticeable on rapid prototyping
parts (such as the AutoCAD Designer part).
When the number of STL triangles is increased to produce smoother part surfaces,
STL files become very large and the time required for a rapid prototyping system to
calculate the slices can increase.
SLC attempts to solve these problems by taking two-dimensional slices directly from
a CAD model instead of using an intermediate tessellated STL model.
According to 3D Systems, these slices eliminate the facets associated with STL files
because they approximate the contours of the actual geometry.
Three problems may arise from this new approach. Firstly, in slicing a CAD model, it
is not always necessarily more accurate as the contours of each slice are still
approximations of the geometry.
Secondly, slicing in this manner requires much more complicated calculations (and
therefore, is very time-consuming) when compared to the relatively straightforward
STL files.
Thirdly, a feature of a CAD model which falls between two slices, but is just under
the tolerances set for inclusion on either of the adjacent slices, may simply
disappear.
SLC File Specification:
The SLC file format is a “2.5 - D” contour representation of a CAD model.
It consists of successive cross-sections taken at ascending Z intervals in which solid
material is represented by interior and exterior boundary polylines.
SLC data can be generated from various sources, either by conversion from CAD solid
or surface models, or more directly from systems which produce data arranged in
layers, such as CT-scanners.
Definition of Terms
Segment: A segment is a straight line connecting two X/Y vertice points.
o The objects at leaves of the tree — P3, P4 and S — must have been,
evidently, sliced with the same z-values so that the required operations, in
this case or and binary-or, can be performed and the layers of P1 and P2
constructed.
o In LEAF, the properties support-structure and open can also be attached to
layer or even polyline objects allowing the sender to represent the
original model and the support structures as one single part.
o In Figure, all parts inherit the properties of object, their ultimate parent.
o Likewise, all layers of the object S inherit the open property indicating that
the contours in the layers are always interpreted as open, even if they are
geometrically closed.
o Amongst the many advantages of the LEAF format are:
(1) It is easy to implement and use.
(2) It is not ambiguous.
(3) It allows for data compression and for a human-readable representation.
(4) It is machine independent and LMT process independent.
(5) Slices of CSG models can be represented almost directly in LEAF.
(6) The part representing the support structures can be easily separated from
the original part.
o The disadvantages of the LEAF format include the following items:
(1) The new interpreter is needed for connecting the rapid prototyping
systems.
(2) The structure of the format is more complicated than that of the STL
format.
(3) The STL format cannot be changed into this format.
o The LEAF format is described at several levels, mainly at a logical level using a
data model based on object-oriented concepts, and at a physical level using a
LISP-like syntax.
o At the physical level, the syntax rules are specified by several translation
phases.
o Thus defined, it allows one to choose at which level, interaction with LEAF is
desirable and at each level there is clear and easy-to-use interface.
o It is doubtful that LEAF currently supports the needs of all processes currently
available but it is hoped it is a step forward in the direction.
2.2 CAD Model Preparation
Rapid prototyping includes a class of fully automatic manufacturing technologies
that are capable of producing prototype models of any shape provided a computer
description of the object is available.
With most of today's rapid prototyping systems, a valid STL model is required as
input. To reliably produce a valid STL model, a non-ambiguous CAD solid model is
often needed.
The model surface must uniquely distinguish between 'inside' and the 'outside' of
the object concerned.
A solid model provides a complete, valid and unambiguous representation mostly
suited for automatic processing, such as interference analysis between individual
objects, mass property calculation, automatic mesh generation for finite element
analysis, and rapid prototyping.
A CAD surface model provides only geometric information. Surface representations
are the main building blocks for solid modeling and a solid model is built upon
surface representations.
CAD surfaces created through reverse engineering techniques discussed in the
previous chapter often need to be further processed and converted into a solid
model for downstream applications, such as for rapid prototyping.
To convert a CAD surface model into a solid model, one often needs to extend the
CAD surfaces, find intersections between surfaces, apply chamfering and fillets, and
finally form a closed watertight solid model.
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is one of the important schemes for solid
modeling. CSG is built upon three key building blocks: solid primitives,
transformation operations and Boolean operations.
Solid primitives are standard solid features, such as a block, a cylinder, a sphere or a
solid wedge. These primitives can be easily defined through just a few parameters.
Boolean operations include union, intersection and subtraction.
Starting from simple solid primitives and combining with transformation operations
such as translation, rotation, shearing, scaling and their combinations, one can
gradually progress to very complex engineering parts.
Following figure highlights the idea of CSG solid modeling represented as a CSG tree.
To provide users both a friendly and intuitive interface and a powerful database,
most of the computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems use a
hybrid solid modeling scheme with B-rep for flexible model representation and CSG
for user interfacing.
To the user, the CAD/ CAM system looks like a CSG solid modeling system with solid
primitives and Boolean operations. However, for internal data representation, the B-
rep data structure is used.
Thus, all possible modeling operations applicable to a CSG solid modeler are
available to the user.
The user can also define any freeform features built upon surface modeling
techniques.
When equipped with other modeling operations such as sweep solid modeling,
automatic filleting and chamfering, today's CAD/CAM systems offer powerful and
sophisticated modeling tools for advanced solid modeling.
In addition to CSG and B-rep solid modeling, there are also some voxel based
modeling schemes, such as cell decomposition and octree encoding, often used for
scientific and medical visualization.
These modeling schemes could be very useful for rapid prototyping of colored
models.
2.3 Part Orientation and Support Generation
Part orientation and support generation are two closely related issues in layered
manufacturing.
By selecting an optimal part orientation for model prototyping, it is possible to
shorten build time and minimize the overall prototyping cost.
Part orientation has a significant effect on the final part quality and prototyping cost.
The general part orientation characteristics are as follows:
o Most of the important faces should be positioned either vertically or
horizontally without support.
o Ensure that the part is firmly supported during the entire prototyping
process.
o For processes that need supports structures, part orientations should also be
optimized such that it would require minimal support.
o Wherever the supports meet the part there will be small marks and reducing
the amount of supports would reduce the amount of part cleanup and post
process finishing.
o The total support volume should also be minimized to save time and
material(s) for building the support structures.
o Parts that have thick walls may be designed to include hollow features if this
does not reduce the part’s functionality.
o A honeycomb or truss-like internal structure can assist in providing support
and strength within a part, while reducing its overall mass and volume.
o There are two key parameters to be optimized in this respect. While ensuring
that the part is firmly supported during the entire prototyping process, the
overall support contact area should be minimized. This helps in minimizing
the influence of the support on the surface quality of the prototype. It also
reduces further efforts during post-processing.
o We should also make good use of the allowable overhang angle that needs
no further support.
o The external surfaces produced should be as smooth as possible.
o As RP models are built in a layered fashion, a staircase effect is unavoidable,
but it should be minimized.
o This can be achieved by reducing the number and areas of inclined faces, i.e.,
by trying to position the part such that most of the faces or, at least, most of
the important faces are positioned either vertically or horizontally without
support, to the extent possible.
2.4 Support Structure Design
Depending on the nature of a particular RP process, there will be a need for part
supports while implementing the prototyping process.
The Functions of Part Supports are as following:
o To separate parts from the platform: The use of supports will make it easier
to safely remove the part from the platform after model production. It will
also be easier to control the layer thickness and surface quality of the bottom
layers. Marks on the platform would not be printed on the final part.
o To provide support to hanging structures: First of all, it provides support to
hanging structures and prevents such structures from collapsing. In addition,
it can also strengthen overhanging regions for the prevention of deformation
and curling for stereolithography as well as other processes.
Depending on the design and the application, a support structure may be
decomposed into three functional areas with different building strategies for
practical applications. For an area connecting to part surfaces, the support structure
should be easily removable while providing sufficient support.
The support structure for this area is often defined as sierras or needles with
minimum contact with the part surface.
The main support should be strong enough to withstand both the vertical weight and
other horizontal disturbances.
A different strategy may be applied for areas between the main support and the
platform for easy removal while providing a stable base support.
The structure should be designed such that its total weight is minimized. Thus, the
three functional areas are:
o Sierras or Needles: connections between the main support and the part
o Supports: the main support structure
o Separators: connections between the main support and the platform
Fig 2.18 Incidences where supports are needed: (a) separation between part and platform; (b) down
facing regions below the equator of the surface normal curvature; (c) supports for hanging
structures; (d) internal supports; (e) support for part stability; and (f) supports for islands.
There exist a variety of designs for the main support structure. Some of the
approaches are illustrated in below figure.
Fig 2.19 Support structure design : (a) gussets; (b) projected feature edges; (c) single webs; (d) webs;
(e) triangle webs; (f) perforated wall structures for various web-based support design; (g)
columns; and (h) zigzag and perimeter support
The following are some commonly used support structures:
1) Gussets: As illustrated in Figure a, gussets (a single one or a set) are used to support
lightweight overhang areas during the part building process and attach to a vertical
wall near the overhang areas. Gussets provide the optimal support for overhang
areas while requiring minimal resources during the building process. The supports
are also easily identified during cleanup.
2) Projected feature edges (Figure b): The edges of unsupported lightweight areas
where gussets cannot reach are projected downwards to provide support. Projected
feature edges support the edges of the feature and provide excellent control against
curling and warpage.
3) Single webs (Figure c): Thin walls can be supported by single webs produced by
projecting the center-line along the narrow side of the thin walled feature. Cross
members are added to provide stability of the support structure.
4) Webs (Figures d, e): Large unsupported areas may be supported by various web
structures, such as those shown in Figures d and e. Contact of such support
structures with vertical part walls should be avoided to protect the final part surface.
To minimize support material consumption, perforated walls may be used in the web
structure as shown in Figure f.
5) Honeycomb: Other sophisticated support structures similar to the honeycomb style
for hollowing master prototype models initially developed may also be used as
support structures.
6) Columns: For isolated small islands, column type support structures can be used as
shown in Figure g. For large islands, columns defined by other web structures may
also be used.
7) Zigzag and perimeter support: Delicate support structures are most suitable for
processes such as steoreolithography as the laser beam can be easily blocked
anytime anywhere to prevent the resin from solidification. For processes such as
FDM that use nozzles for material injection, a continuous path is preferred whether
for support generation or for building the part. The zigzag and perimeter support
structure shown in Figure h is most suited for FDM prototyping with a continuous
path for each layer.
For all the above mentioned support structures, the thickness of the thin webs can
be just a single cured line (usually 0.18mm to 0.3mm thick) in the case of laser
lithography or a single road width (often two times the layer thickness) in the case of
fused deposition modeling.
Sierras or needles for connecting the part surface, if used, should penetrate into part
surface by a few layer thicknesses. The intersection will ensure that the supports
physically connect to the part features.
2.5 Model Slicing and Skin Contour Determination
A STL facet model used for rapid prototyping applications contains a collection of
planar faces. These faces define an approximate boundary representation for the
object.
During subsequent tool path generation, we need to slice the model based on either
uniform layer thickness or adaptively variable layer thickness.
In this section, we use uniform slicing to illustrate the slicing algorithm. As for
adaptive slicing, one only needs to determine the corresponding adaptive layer
thickness and the slicing algorithms are the same.
Based on a user-entered layer thickness, a sequence of parallel slicing planes can be
defined for model slicing.
As a convention, we assume that the model has been properly oriented such that
the z-axis will be the building direction.
Let d be the layer thickness and n be the total number of slicing planes excluding the
bottom plane with Z = Zmin that are not used during the slicing procedure.
Further, let Zmax and Zmin be the extreme z-coordinates of the STL model.
The total number of layers (valid slicing planes) required is then defined by the
following equation:
n = (Zmax - Zmin) / d
The term (Zmax - Zmin) defines the dimension of the object along the z-axis.
In this case, the slicing planes are defined as planes parallel to the x-y coordinate
plane as follows:
Zi = Zi+1 + d for i = 1, 2, ···, n
For each of the slicing planes, a slicing procedure is performed.
Following figure highlights a generalized procedure for slicing faceted models.
To efficiently use this algorithm, contour points should be sorted first in the slicing
direction, i.e., sorted following the z-coordinates.
After completing model slicing and having determined the skin contours, we should
have arrived at a list of skin contours.
Each of the contours is defined by a list of chain contour points.
One can use an arbitrary starting point and the direction of ordering, i .e. clockwise
or counter clockwise, is also arbitrary at this point and will be decided later.
Figure a shows an object being cut by a slicing plane and Figure b shows the
individual triangles with cutting lines. Figures c and d show the surface contours
(scaled) produced after mode l slicing with two alternative orientations.
Fig 2.21 Facet model slicing and contour data initial sorting: (a) A STL model with a slicing plane; (b)
related individual triangles cut by the slicing plane; (c)-(d) the identified contour (scaled) after
initial contour points sorting with two possible orientations.
2.6 Identification of Internal and External Contours
The contour data identified during the previous step include both external contours
and internal contours as shown in following figure.
Any continuous solid area is defined by one external contour and one or more
immediate internal contours.
The algorithm for the identification of the internal and external contours can be
interpreted as follows.
For each slice, a line located on the slicing plane is drawn across the contours as
shown in figure. Since all slicing planes are parallel to the x-y coordinate plane, the
line can either be parallel to the x-axis or they-axis.
The intersection points between the line and the contours are then computed.
If no single line satisfies the purpose, more lines should be constructed until
intersection occurs for all contours as shown in the following figure.
Fig 2.23 Contour type identification with two horizontal lines (L-1 and L-2) or with a single inclined
line (L-3).
If there is any contour with no intersection, one can simply add another line going
through one of its contour points. In theory, one may also use inclined lines as
shown in figure.
For each of the casting lines, the intersections are sorted and registered from one
side, such as from left to right for horizontal lines or downwards for vertical lines.
For each of the contours, a registration code is reserved for indicating the status of a
particular intersection, with an odd number indicating the 'in' condition and an even
number indicating the 'out' condition.
An initial registration code of "0" is assigned to all the intersecting contours before
processing.
The registration code of a contour will be incremented by one when the intersection
line meets an intersection point of that contour during the identification process.
Each of the intersection points will also have a unique registration code equaling the
registration code of the corresponding contour at that intersection point.
2.7 Contour Data Organization
A variety of contour data interfaces are being used by the RP community.
One of the commonly used contour data interfaces is the Common Layer Interface
(CLI) developed through a Brite Euram project.
In addition, individual RP machine manufacturers also use their proprietary contour
data interfaces.
Typical examples include SLC from 3D Systems, Inc. and SSL (Stratasys Slicing
Language) from Stratasys, Inc.
Following figure illustrates a data structure adapted from the C LI interface for
contour data organization.
Following figure shows an example indicating how the directions of internal and
external contours are defined in a CLI file.
Fig 2.25 Contour data organization: external contours - counter clockwise; internal contours –
clockwise
With the CLI contour data interface, all contours are organized layer by layer. Strictly
speaking, contour formats only include closed contours.
Sometimes, open contours also need to be supported in order to represent support
structures or hatching.
Closed contours could be either external or internal contours as discussed in the
previous subsection.
The internal and external contours are arranged clockwise and counter clockwise,
respectively, in the direction of the slicing axis, i.e., in the direction of the z-axis if the
slicing planes are parallel to the xy-plane.
2.8 Direct and Adaptive Slicing
This section addresses adaptive slicing for obtaining a smooth surface finish while
ensuring high building speed.
Instead of working with a STL model, direct slicing algorithms are presented, i.e., the
algorithms directly work with a CAD model.
The procedure is subdivided into the following major steps.
o Peak feature point identification: When producing prototype models with
uniform layer thickness, there is no guarantee that important features of an
object, such as horizontal features and other important feature points, are
properly reproduced. With adaptive slicing, one can place a layer anywhere
and hence all the peak features can be reproduced on the prototype model.
In order to do so, all the peak features in a CAD model are first identified
from the model surfaces as a set of feature points. These feature points
subdivide the CAD model into slabs along the slicing direction, i.e., the z-
direction. Feature points are sorted according to the slicing direction and will
be used as inputs for the adaptive slicing algorithms.
Fig 2.26 An example illustrating various types of tool paths for model prototyping: (a) the original
part with a slicing plane and sliced contours; (b) the sliced contours on the xy-plane.
In general, one can classify tool paths for all RP processes into the following basic
categories:
1) Raster scanning: Raster scanning refers to scanning along one coordinate axis for
model solidification. This is the simplest tool path for layered manufacturing.
o The scanning strategy can be applied to processes such as stereolithography
(SL), selective laser sintering (SLS) and some other 3-D printing processes for
internal hatching.
Fig 2.27 Typical tool paths for model prototyping: (a) x- and y-raster scanning for internal hatching
(may be used separately); (b) perimeter scanning; (c) a typical tool path with a single perimeter
surface scanning and orthogonal internal xy-hatching; (d) single perimeter surface scanning with
internal directional hatching; (e) single perimeter with internal horizontal/vertical zigzag paths;
(f) three perimeters with internal inclined zigzag paths; (g) contouring or equidistant paths; (h)
line-by-line scanning; (i) area-based solidification using masks; and (j) boundary cutting with
orthogonal cross-cutting for LOM
Fig 2.28 Special scanning patterns used for QuickCast 1.0: (a) first level scanning pattern; (b) top
view of the scanning pattern after several levels with solid lines indicating odd levels and broken
lines indicating even levels
During the first level of the building process, the basic pattern of above figure (a) is
used.
During the second level of the building process, the pattern shown in above figure
(b) that is produced by offsetting the pattern of figure (a) is used.
The offsetting is produced such that the vertices of the pattern for the even levels
will be located at the center of the triangles of the odd levels.
The entire process is then repeated till the completion of the QuickCast master
model.
The entire internal volume is composed of interconnected triangular cells and hence
the resin contained within can be easily released after the building process.
A similar approach is used for QuickCast 1.1 with orthogonal grid cells as shown in
following figure.
Fig 2.29 Special scanning patterns used for QuickCast I .I: (a) first level scanning pattern; (b) top
view of the scanning pattern after several levels with solid lines indicating odd levels and broken
lines indicating even levels
Fig 2.30 Special scanning patterns used for QuickCast 2.0: (a) first level scanning pattern; (b) second
level scanning pattern; (c) third level scanning pattern; (b) top view of the scanning pattern after
more than three levels
The above figure illustrates the pattern used for QuickCast 2.0. The build style
produces hexagons in three levels.
The three levels of this structure use the same scanning pattern with a rotation of
120° as shown in Figures a-c.
Together, the three levels produce a complete hexagon when seen from the top,
often called a honeycomb structure.
3.1 Introduction
The term Rapid Prototyping (RP) refers to a class of technologies that can automatically
construct physical models from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data. The goal of Rapid
Prototyping (RP) is to be able to quickly fabricate complex-shaped, three dimensional parts
directly from CAD models
3.2 Principle of Rapid Prototyping
The principal of RP is illustrated in fig.1(a). The CAD model of the object shown is sliced by
parallel planes. The edges of the slices thus obtained are squared. Thus, a complex 3D
object is decomposed into several 2D objects or slices. In other words, a complex 3D
manufacturing problem is converted into several simple 2D manufacturing problems. These
slices are physically realized in one of several ways, stacked and pasted together as shown
in fig, to obtain the physical prototype. The accuracy of these prototypes, due to the
staircase effect, can be improved by decreasing the slice thickness. For even better finish,
polishing can be applied.
1. Indirect Tooling
Most rapid tooling today is indirect: RP parts are used as patterns for making
molds and dies. RP models can be indirectly used in a number of manufacturing
processes:
• Vacuum Casting: In the simplest and oldest rapid tooling technique, a RP
positive pattern is suspended in a vat of liquid silicone or room temperature
vulcanizing (RTV) rubber. When the rubber hardens, it is cut into two halves and
the RP pattern is removed. The resulting rubber mold can be used to cast up to 20
polyurethane replicas of the original RP pattern.
A more useful variant, known as the Keltool powder metal sintering process, uses
the rubber molds to produce metal tools. Developed by 3M and now owned by
3D Systems, the Keltool process involves filling the rubber molds with powdered
tool steel and epoxy binder. When the binder cures, the "green" metal tool is
removed from the rubber mold and then sintered. At this stage the metal is only
70% dense, so it is infiltrated with copper to bring it close to its theoretical
maximum density. The tools have fairly good accuracy, but are limited to less than
25 centimeters in size.
• Sand Casting: A RP model is used as the positive pattern around which the sand
mold is built. LOM models, which resemble the wooden models traditionally used
for this purpose, are often used. If sealed and finished, a LOM pattern can
produce about 100 sand molds.
• Investment Casting: Some RP prototypes can be used as investment casting
patterns. The pattern must not expand when heated, or it will crack the ceramic
shell during autoclaving. Both Stratasys and Cubital make investment casting wax
for their machines. Paper LOM prototypes may also be used, as they are
dimensionally stable with temperature. The paper shells burn out, leaving some
ash to be removed. To counter thermal expansion in stereo lithography parts, 3D
Systems introduced Quick Cast, a build style featuring a solid outer skin and
mostly hollow inner structure. The part collapses inward when heated. Likewise,
DTM sells True form polymer, a porous substance that expands little with
temperature rise, for use in its SLS machines.
• Injection molding: CEMCOM Research Associates, Inc. has developed the NCC
Tooling System to make metal/ceramic composite molds for the injection molding
of plastics. First, a stereo lithography machine is used to make a match-plate
positive pattern of the desired molding. To form the mold, the SLA pattern is
plated with nickel, which is then reinforced with a stiff ceramic material. The two
mold halves are separated to remove the pattern, leaving a matched die set that
can produce tens of thousands of injection moldings.
2. Direct Tooling: -
To directly make hard tooling from CAD data is the Holy Grail of rapid
tooling.Realization of this objective is still several years away, but some strong
strides are being made:
• RapidTool: A DTM process that selectively sinters polymer-coated steel pellets
together to produce a metal mold. The mold is then placed in a furnace where the
polymer binder is burned off and the part is infiltrated with copper (as in the
Keltool process). The resulting mold can produce up to 50,000 injection moldings.
• Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS): It is a process being developed at Sandia
National Laboratories and Stanford University that will create metal tools from
CAD data. Materials include 316 stainless steel, Inconel 625, H13 tool steel,
tungsten, and titanium carbide cermets. A laser beam melts the top layer of the
part in areas where material is to be added. Powder metal is injected into the
molten pool, which then solidifies. Layer after layer is added until the part is
complete. Unlike traditional powder metal processing, LENS produces fully dense
parts, since the metal is melted, not merely sintered. The resulting parts have
exceptional mechanical properties, but the process currently works only for parts
with simple, uniform cross sections. Commercialization is still several years away.
• Direct AIM (ACES Injection Molding): A technique from 3D Systems in which
stereo lithography-produced cores are used with traditional metal molds for
injection molding of high and low-density polyethylene, polystyrene,
polypropylene and ABS plastic. Very good accuracy is achieved for fewer than 200
moldings. Long cycle times (five minutes) are required to allow the molding to
cool enough that it will not stick to the SLA core.
In another variation, cores are made from thin SLA shells filled with epoxy and
aluminum shot. Aluminum’s high conductivity helps the molding cool faster, thus
shortening cycle time. The outer surface can also be plated with metal to improve
wear resistance. Production runs of 1000-5000 moldings are envisioned to make
the process economically viable.
• LOM Composite: Helysis and the University of Dayton are working to develop
ceramic composite materials for Laminated Object Manufacturing. LOM
Composite parts would be very strong and durable, and could be used as tooling
in a variety of manufacturing processes.
• Sand Molding: At least two RP techniques can construct sand molds directly
from CAD data. DTM sells sand-like material that can be sintered into molds, while
Soligen 3D Printing machines can produce ceramic molds as well.
3.4 Prototyping materials
• Prototyping and material properties
When selecting a material, material properties are critical since they are the link
between basic material composition and service performance. Material processing is
also critical since it determines part manufacturing processes. Prototyping materials
often are different that the final product materials, especially for lower fidelity
prototypes, due to the differences in project objectives and time constraints in
prototyping. For quick prototyping purposes, there are several materials available.
1. Modeling clay: Modeling clay is easy to work with, is useful for visualization and
airflow studies, always remains soft, and is available in hobby and craft shops. Each
time Congress authorizes a new coin or medal, an artist sketches out ideas for the
design. After one design has been approved, the U.S. Mint sculptor engraver.
2. Machining wax: Wax can be machined well and is useful for prototyping tooling
patterns.
3. Foam board: Foam board has a good finish, is easily carved, useful for painting
(aesthetic=appearance models), and machinable. Pressurized cans of insulating foam
are available that harden quickly and may be cut and formed with a knife and
sanding board.
4. Foam core: The foam core is made of sheets of hard paper with internal foam, is
useful for mock-ups and layout of square objects, can be used with bondo/clay for
more complex shapes, and is more durable and rigid than cardboard.
5. Rubber, elastomer: Rubber and elastomer are useful in energy absorption
applications or seals, can be used as a removable mold for castings of other
materials, and can be carved.
6. Cardboard, paper, cloth: Cloth and paper can serve as joints in mock-ups and are
very cheap
.
EXAMPLES:
Metallic materials – Plain Carbon Steel, Tool Steel, Stainless steel, Aluminium,
Copper, Titanium, Bronze, Nickel Alumides
Polymers and Polymeric Composites - ABS, Nylon (Polyamide), Polycarbonate, PP,
Epoxies, Glass filled polyamide, Windform, Polystyrene, Polyester,
Polyphenylesulfone
Others - Sand, Ceramics, Elastomers, Tungsten, Wax, Starch, Plaster
Bio Compatible Materials - Polycaprolactone (PCL), polypropylene-tricalcium
phosphate, (PP-TCP), PCL-hydroxyapatite (HA), polyetheretherketone-
hydroxyapatite, (PEEK-HA), tetracalcium phosphate (TTCP), beta – tricalcium
phosphate (TCP), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
3.5 Material selection
• In the 21st century, one of the hallmarks of modern, industrialized society is the
rising use of materials.
• Not only human beings are consuming materials more rapidly, but also they are
using an increasing diversity of materials.
• Indeed, it has been postulated that assuming current trends in world production and
population growth, the materials requirements for the next decade and a half could
equal all the materials used throughout the history up to date.
• People interact with these vast numbers of materials mostly via products. The
interaction involves a number of attributes.
• For instance, material of a product with its technical properties should fulfill the
functional requirements for an intended use and with its sensorial properties it
should appeal to the senses of its user.
• Therefore, product designers are responsible for selecting appropriate materials for
their products by taking these technical and sensorial characteristics of materials
into consideration.
• However, the competitive market rising from the increase in product and material
consumption have made product designers consider some aspects besides the
technical and sensorial ones.
• For instance, designers have started to make use of materials in order to attribute
particular meanings to their products or support the existing meanings. There are
plenty of examples that provide sufficient proof for this statement.
• For instance, metal appears cold and can connote precision, and it seems durable
and robust; for this reason, designers can use metal to emphasize the technological
superiority and high level engineering.
• Existing materials selection sources can serve a useful function in giving up to date
information on the technical (physical, quantifiable) aspects of materials.
• However, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, product designers use also some
intangible aspects, in order to express their intentions through the selected
materials.
• Conversely, even though these intangible aspects in materials selection process are
crucial for designers, the existing materials selection sources neither consider them,
nor offer a systematic way for involving them into materials selection process.
• For engineering designers, it is easy to access to information they need- handbook,
selection software, advisory services from material suppliers- and to analysis and
optimization codes for safe, economical design.
Factors effective in materials selection in engineering design
• The selection of a material for a specific application is a thorough, lengthy and
expensive process.
• Almost always more than one material is suited to an application, and the final
selection is a compromise that brings some advantages as well as disadvantages.
• There are many factors or constraints to be considered in selecting materials. There
are of course some situations that the certain criteria for a material are defined at
the beginning of the design.
• Although at such situations the required criteria dominate the selection process,
most of the time one material among a range of materials is selected depending on
some factors.
• At different engineered based sources, the factors that affect the materials selection
are grouped under various subtitles, which can be followed as shown in figure
below.
Fig 4.1 Review of different sources defining the effective material aspects for material
selection process
• Although most of these sources define the design process as an entire process
covering both technical and non-technical issues of design, they mostly concentrate
on the technical side; which shape the content of the engineering based sources.
• When a designer selects a material, he must consider fulfilling the three basic
requirements:
1) Service requirements,
2) Fabrication requirements and
3) Economic requirements.
• According to him, the service requirements are supreme.
• The material must stand up to service demands which commonly include
dimensional stability, corrosion resistance, adequate strength, hardness, toughness
and heat resistance.
• The material must be possible to shape and join to other materials. Patton puts
those properties of materials under ‘fabrication requirements’.
• Finally, he states that, the objective of a designer is to minimize overall cost of the
product and manufacturing.
• For example, a more expensive free machining metal may be substituted for a
standard metal, since the savings in machining cost may overweigh the increased
cost of the more expensive metal.
• Life of component factors herein relate to the length of time the materials perform
their intended function in the environment to which they are exposed.
• The properties in this group are the corrosion, oxidation, and wear resistance, creep,
and the fatigue or corrosion fatigue life properties in dynamic loading.
• As it is seen, he combines cost and availability criteria, and explains that, in a market-
driven economy, these two factors are inseparable.
• For the last category- codes, statutory, and other factors which had been called as
'business issues', Codes arc sets of technical requirements that are imposed on the
material or the component.
• These are usually set by the customer, or are based from those of technical
organizations.
• Statutory factors relate to local, state, and federal regulations about materials and
processes used or the disposal of the material.
• These are regarding to health, safety, and environmental requirements.
Interestingly, at most of the sources, the environmental issues are placed at the
bottom of the listed requirements for design engineers.
• Another classification for the current design engineers, and organizes the factors
under three topics:
o Property profile
o Processing profile and
o Environmental profile
• As indicated above, selection based on the environmental profile covers the impact
of the material, its manufacture, its use and reuse, and its disposal on the
environment topics.
• It adds that designers and companies feel that if the costs of incorporating them in
design are prohibitive, the environmental aspects arc usually laid aside, unless law
mandates it.
• Designing for the environment is a good strategy because it can be a good marketing
tool for environment-conscious consumers.
• The emphasis on:
o General properties
o Mechanical properties
o Thermal properties
o Wear and corrosion/ oxidation properties of materials
• The basic design limiting properties of materials also to be consider and these are as:
o General properties of materials (density and price)
o Mechanical properties
o Thermal properties
o Electrical properties
o Optical properties
o Eco- properties
• Reducing costs, without a reduction in the quality of a product; should be the aim of
every designer. Reducing costs can be beneficial to the environment.
• For instance, using cheaper recycled materials, which leads to a cheaper final
product, is both an advantage to the manufacturer and customer.
• This approach also helps to reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing.
• Further to this, the economic necessity to reduce costs and customer pressure on
manufacturers to protect the environment, often leads to innovation in design.
3.8 Material evaluation for selection
• The competitive market rising from the increase in product consumption makes
product designers consider more about materials than before.
• Existing materials selection sources can serve as useful function in giving up to date
information on technical (physical, quantifiable) characteristics of materials.
• However, designers also use some intangible aspects with the aim of expressing their
intentions; attributing some meanings to their products through their appropriate
choices of material.
• The main objective is to evaluate materials selection process in product design in
order to find out what kinds of aspects of materials are significant for product
designers in their selections.
3.8.1 Initial Screening of Materials
• In the first stages of development of a new product, such questions as the following
arc posed:
What is it?
What does it do?
How does it do it?
• After answering these questions it is possible to specify the performance
requirements of the different parts involved in the design and to broadly outline the
main materials performance and processing requirements.
• This is then followed by the initial screening of materials whereby certain classes of
materials and manufacturing processes may be eliminated and others chosen as
likely candidates.
3.8.2 Analysis of Material Performance Requirements
• The material performance requirements can be divided into five broad categories:
functional requirements, processability requirements, cost consideration, reliability,
and resistance to service conditions.
1. Functional Requirements
• Functional requirements are directly related to the required characteristics of the
part or the product.
• For example, if the part carries a uniaxial tensile load, the yield strength of a
candidate material can be directly related to the load-carrying capacity of the
product.
• However, some characteristics of the part or product may not have simple
correspondence with measurable material properties, as in the case of thermal
shock resistance, wear resistance, reliability, etc.
• Under these conditions, the evaluation process can be quite - complex and may
depend upon predictions based on simulated service tests or upon the most closely
related mechanical, physical, or chemical properties.
• For example, thermal shock resistance can be related to the thermal expansion
coefficient, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, ductility; and tensile
strength.
• On the other hand, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking can be related to tensile
strength and electrochemical potential.
2. Processability Requirements
• The processability of a material is a measure of its ability to be worked and shaped
into a finished part.
• With reference to a specific manufacturing method, processability can be defined as
castability, weldability, machinability, etc.
• Ductility and hardenability can be relevant to processability if the material is to be
deformed or hardened by heat treatment, respectively.
• The closeness of the stock form to the required product form can be taken as a
measure of processability in some cases.
• It is important to remember that processing operations will almost always affect the
material properties so that processability considerations arc closely related to
functional requirements.
3. Cost consideration
• Cost is usually an important factor in evaluating materials, because in many
applications there is a cost limit for a given component.
• When the cost limit is exceeded, the design may have to be changed to allow for the
use of a less expensive material or process.
• In some cases, a relatively more expensive material may eventually yield a less
expensive component than a low-priced material that is more expensive to process.
4. Reliability Requirements
• Reliability of a material can be defined as the probability that it will perform the
intended function for the expected life without failure.
• Material reliability is difficult to measure, because it is not only dependent upon the
material's inherent properties, but it is also greatly affected by its production and
processing history.
• Generally, new and nonstandard materials will tend to have lower reliability than
established, standard materials.
• Despite difficulties of evaluating reliability, it is often an important selection factor
that must be taken into account.
• Failure analysis techniques are usually used to predict the different ways in which a
product can fail and can be considered as a systematic approach to reliability
evaluation.
• The causes of failure of a part in service can usually be traced back to defects in
materials and processing, faulty design, unexpected service conditions, or misuse of
the product.
5. Resistance to Service Conditions
• The environment in which the product or part will operate plays an important role in
determining the material performance requirements.
• Corrosive environments, as well as high or low temperatures, can adversely affect
the performance of most materials in service.
• Whenever more than one material is involved in an application, compatibility
becomes a selection consideration.
• In a thermal environment, for example, the coefficients of thermal expansion of all
the materials involved may have to be similar in order to avoid thermal stresses.
• In wet environments, materials that will be in electrical contact should be chosen
carefully to avoid galvanic corrosion.
• In applications where, relative movement exists between different parts, wear
resistance of the materials involved should be considered.
• The design should provide access for lubrication; otherwise self-lubricating materials
have to be used.
3.9.2 Limitations of RP
• Cost
• Accuracy
• Finish
• Strength
• Material Options
3.9.3 Applications of RP
• Historical Developments
• Rapid Tooling
1. At the start of the process, in which the initial layer is added to the platform
2. After several layers have been added so that the part geometry gradually takes form.
Steps
• Support structures are automatically added to the model wherever required.
• Slicing is done.
• Each slice or layer is realized using the following steps:
• The table (called vat) dips and comes up to the required Z level.
• A blade wipes off the excess liquid.
• The beam scans the liquid layer. For each loop, the border is made and then area
filling is done. Area filling is not in zig-zag pattern but in grids .
• After all layers are made, the table rises completely revealing the part.
• After the liquid has drained, it is removed from the table and the support structure is
carefully cut off.
• The part is kept in a post-cure apparatus where it is kept under UV radiation for an
hour or so. This completes polymerization.
• The part is finished and painted as required
Steps
• When the slicing is done, The working volume is maintained with appropriate
temperature so that laser supplies the energy required to cross the threshold
sintering temperature. An inert environment is created using continuous supply of
gas such as Nitrogen. This is to minimize fire harards as the fine particles have high
activation.
• Each slice or layer is realized using the following steps:
• The table dips by a layer thickness.
• A layer of powder is spread and leveled using a contra-rotating roller.
• The beam scans the layer of powder. Thus, the required region is “selectively
sintered”.
• After all layers are made, the table rises completely revealing a block of cake with
the part inside.
• The surrounding powder is soft and it is removed using suitable brushes. This
powder is reusable.
• The part is kept in a suitable hot chamber to complete the sintering.
• The metallic prototypes require copper impregnation in another furnace to improve
their polishability.
• The part is finished and painted as required.
Advantages
• A wide variety of powders can be used.
• Fast due to tiny moving mirror parts as in SLA.
• Metallic parts can be made.
• Suitable for making injection molding tools.
Limitations
• Surface finish is less and dictated by the particle size.
• Z accuracy is poor due to the absence of milling.
Laser beams heat the powder when photons are absorbed by powder particles.
Electron beams, however, heat powder by transfer of kinetic energy from incoming
electrons into powder particles. As powder particles absorb electrons they gain an
increasingly negative charge. This has two potentially detrimental effects: (1) if the
repulsive force of neighboring negatively charged particles overcomes the gravitational
and frictional forces holding them in place, there will be a rapid expulsion of powder
particles from the powder bed, creating a powder cloud (which is worse for fine powders
than coarser powders) and (2) increasing negative charges in the powder particles will
tend to repel the incoming negatively charged electrons, thus creating a more diffuse
beam. There are no such complimentary phenomena with photons. As a result, the
conductivity of the powder bed in EBM must be high enough that powder particles do not
become highly negatively charged, and scan strategies must be used to avoid build-up of
regions of negatively charged particles. In practice, electron beam energy is more diffuse,
in part, so as not to build up too great a negative charge in any one location. As a result,
the effective melt pool size increases, creating a larger heat-affected zone. Consequently,
the minimum feature size, median powder particle size, layer thickness, resolution, and
surface finish of an EBM process are typically larger than for an mLS process.
As mentioned above, in EBM the powder bed must be conductive. Thus, EBM can
only be used to process conductive materials (e.g., metals) whereas, lasers can be used
with any material that absorbs energy at the laser wavelength (e.g., metals, polymers, and
ceramics).
Electron beam generation is typically a much more efficient process than laser beam
generation.
Advantages
• Any thermoplastic material can be used as long as the appropriate head is available.
• It does not employ lasers and hence no safety related issues. It does not use liquid/
powder raw materials and hence clean. It can be kept in an office environment as a
3D printer.
• Very easy to remove the support. This is probably the easiest of all RP processes.
• This is the cheapest machine. However, this is also due to their business policy since
the costs of all RP machines are comparable.
Limitations
• As every point of the volume is addressed by a „mechanical device“, it is very slow.
• Not very accurate compared SLA, SGC etc.
• Not isotropic.
II. 3D Printing
Very similar to SLS except that a binder liquid is spayed in selected regions instead of
laser. Raw material is powder. Concept models can be prepared rapidly using a multi-jet
multi-color spray over starch (ZCorp). Green parts will require sintering inside another
furnace.
When a binder is sprayed through thin nozzles on the selected region over a layer of
powder, the particles in that region stick together. The remaining powder acts as support
as in the case of LOM.
Binder spray makes use of mechanical movement. However, use of multiple jets
make it faster. Explicit support structures are not required. A wide variety of powders can
be used.
Steps
• Raw material is powder.
• The binder liquid is selectively deposited on the layer of powder.
• This is followed by a curing after which unbound powder is separated.
Steps
• If multiple parts are to be made, one has to arrive at a cluster of optimal packing (an
automatic program for this is still not available!). It is preferable to pack as many
pieces as possible in processes such as LOM, SLS, SGC and 3DPrinitng.
• The object/ cluster is positioned and oriented in the desired place. Some users tilt it
by 10 to 15 deg. to avoid any surface becoming horizontal (why?).
• Set the machine with the desired process parameters such as beam diameter, beam
offset flag, grid sizes, number of dummy layers, bridging gap between two cuts etc.
• Load the paper roll of appropriate width.
• Identify the location for the build on the table and feed it to the machine. Paste a
double-sided adhesive in that zone.
• Each slice or layer is realized using the following steps:
The paper reel indexes by a fixed distance. It has adhesive at the bottom surface.
The table rises to the required height.
A hot roller (laminating tool) rolls over it causing it to stick to the previous layer.
The height is measured and it is passed on to the slicing software.
The loops of the slice are cut by the laser. It is possible to offset the laser beam
by beam radius in such a direction as to compensate for it.
This is followed by grid cutting around the bounding box of the stock. Note that
the grids of all layers coincide.
Finally, a parting off cut is made.
The table lowers by a considerable distance so that the cut portion is stripped off
from the reel.
• After all layers are made, the built volume is a rectangular block. This is parted off
from the table using a thin wire rope.
• The unwanted material inside and surrounding are removed using hand tools. This is
called ‘decubing’. This operation takes several hours.
• The part is finished and painted as required. It can be given a lacquer coat to prevent
it from absorbing moisture.
Advantages
• Only boundaries are to be addressed and not their interiors.
• It employs CO2 laser which is cheaper. No protective environment is required.
• Paper is very cheap.
• It gives strong wood-like parts. Ideal as patterns for casting
Limitations
By the introduction of CNC machining, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of
UAM end products is not dependent on the foil thickness, but on the CNC milling approach
that is used. This eliminates the stair-stepping effects and layerthickness- dependent
accuracy aspects of other AM processes. Due to the combination of low-temperature
ultrasonic bonding, and additive-plus-subtractive processing, the UAM process is capable
of creating complex, multifunctional 3D parts, including objects with complex internal
features, objects made up of multiple materials, and objects integrated with wiring, fiber
optics, sensors, and instruments. The lack of an automated support material in
commercial systems, however, means that many types of complex overhanging
geometries cannot be built using UAM. However, on-going support material research for
UAM will hopefully result in an automated support material approach in the future.
Steps
• A deposition head supplies metal powder to the focus of a high powered Nd:YAG
laser beam to be melted. This laser is typically directed by fiber optics or precision
angled mirrors.
• The laser is focused on a particular spot by a series of lenses, and a motion system
underneath the platform moves horizontally and laterally as the laser beam traces
the cross-section of the part being produced. The fabrication process takes place in a
low-pressure argon chamber for oxygen-free operation in the melting zone, ensuring
that good adhesion is accomplished.
• When a layer is completed, the deposition head moves up and continues with the
next layer. The process is repeated layer by layer until the part is completed. The
entire process is usually enclosed to isolate the process from the atmosphere.
Generally, the prototypes need additional finishing, but are fully dense products with
good grain formation.
Principle
The LENS process is based on the following two principles:
• A high powered Nd: YAG laser focused onto a metal substrate creates a molten
puddle on the substrate surface. Powder is then injected into the molten puddle to
increase material volume.
• A “printing” motion system moves a platform horizontally and laterally as the laser
beam traces the cross-section of the part being produced. After formation of a layer
of the part, the machine’s powder delivery nozzle moves upwards prior to building
next layer.
Advantages
• Superior material properties. The LENS process is capable of producing fully dense
metal parts. Metal parts produced can also include embedded structures and superior
material properties. The microstructure produced is also relatively good.
• Complex parts. Functional metal parts with complex features are the forte of the
LENS system.
• Reduced post-processing requirements. Post-processing is minimized, thus reducing
cycle time.
Disadvantages
• Limited materials. The process is currently narrowly focused to produce only metal
parts.
• Large physical unit size. The unit requires a relatively large area to house.
• High power consumption. The laser system requires very high wattage.
The laser beam is moved back and forth across the part and creates a molten pool of
metal where a precise stream of metal powder is injected into the pool to increase its size.
This process is the hybrid of several technologies: lasers, CAD, CAM, sensors, and powder
metallurgy. This process also improves on other methods of metalworking in that there is
no waste material or subtractive processes necessary. It can also mix metals to specific
standards and specifications in a manner that has never been possible before.
Advantages
• The strength of DLD lies in the process’ ability to fabricate fully dense metal parts
with good metallurgical properties at reasonable speeds.
• DLD is an efficient approach that reduces production costs and speeds time to market
for high-value components.
• The DLD systems enable the fabrication of novel shapes, hollow structures, and
material gradients that are not otherwise feasible.
Disadvantages
• Since DLD is a freeform process, there is a limit to the overhang angle that can be
built.
• The traditional DLD or RP processes are using three-axis tables, and thus support
structures are very often needed in building overhang parts. These structures are not
desirable in laser-based processes involving metals. One could use a high melting-
point material to build the support structures and use other processes, such as
chemical etching, to remove the support material afterward.
Course Contents
4.1 Problems with STL Files
4.2 Accuracy Problems in SLA
Processes
4.3 STL File Repair
4.4 Solving the “Missing Facets”
Problem
4.5 Solving the “Wrong
Orientation of Facets”
Problem
For example, the number of faces of a proper solid defined using STL must be
an even number.
Furthermore, the number of edges must be divisible by three and follow the
equation:
Fig 4.3 Two surface patches that do not match up with each other, resulting in holes
Degenerated facets:
These facets normally result from numerical truncation. A triangle may be so
small that all three points virtually coincide with each other.
After truncation, these points lay on top of each other causing a triangle with
no area. This can also occur when a truncated triangle returns no height and
all three vertices of the triangle lie on a single straight line.
While the resulting slicing algorithm will not cause incorrect slices, there may
be some difficulties with any checking algorithms and so such triangles
should really be removed from the STL file.
It is worth mentioning that, while a few errors may creep into some STL files, most
professional 3D CAD systems today produce high-quality and error-free results.
In the past, problems more commonly occurred from surface modeling systems,
which are now becoming scarcer, even in fields outside of engineering CAD-like
computer graphics and 3D gaming software.
Also, in earlier systems, STL generation was not properly checked and faults were
not detected within the CAD system.
Nowadays, potential problems are better understood and there are well-known
algorithms for detecting and correcting such problems.
4.2 Accuracy Problems in SLA Processes
RP processes are integrated manufacturing processes that include CAD/CAM, control
of laser devices, materials, manufacturing parameter setup, and post-processing.
Individual processes can introduce some errors one way or another, as explained
below.
These errors severely reduce RP product accuracy and obstruct its further
applications in rapid tooling and functional part fabrication.
(i) CAD/CAM induced error: Most rapid prototyping systems use the de facto standard
STL CAD file format of solid representation to define parts to be built. However, STL
files pose the problems of dimension, form and surface errors resulting from
(iii) If edge exists, store this under a temporary file (e.g., file B) for approved
edges.
(iv) Do the same for 2 and 3 below.
Assuming all the “erroneous” edges are stored according to the detection routine
(see above figure for all the erroneous edges), then file C can appear as in the
following table.
Table 4.2 File C containing all the “Erroneous” edges that would form the boundary of
each gaps
*Represent all the other edges that would form the boundaries of other gaps
As can be seen in the above table, all the edges are unordered. Hence, a sort would
have to be carried out to group all the edges into a closed loop.
When the edges have been sorted, it would then be stored in a temporary file, say
file D.
Following table is an illustration of what could be stored in file D.
Following figure is a representation of the gap, with all the edges forming a sorted
closed loop.
(a) 1st facet (b) 2nd facet (c) 3rd facet (d) 4th facet
generated generated generated generated
Fig 4.7 Generation of Facets
With reference to File D,
(a) Generating the first facet: First two vertices (V3 and V2) in the first two edges of file
D will be connected to the first vertex in the last edge (V11) in file D and the facet is
stored in a temporary file E (see the following table on how the first generated facet
would be stored in file E).
The facet is then checked for its orientation using the information stored in file
B1. Once its orientation is determined to be correct, the first vertex (V3) from file
D will be temporarily removed.
(b) Generating the second facet: Of the remaining vertices in file D, the previous second
vertex (V2) will become the first edge of file D.
The second facet is formed by connecting the first vertex (V2) of the first edge
with that of the last two vertices in file D (V9, V11), and the facet is stored in
temporary file E.
It is then checked to confirm if its orientation is correct.
Once it is determined to be correct, the vertex (V11) of the last edge in file D is
then removed temporarily.
(c) Generating the third facet: The whole process is repeated as it was done in the
generation of facets 1 and 2.
The first vertex of the first two edges (V2, V5) is connected to the first vertex of
the last edge (V9) and the facet is stored in temporary file E.
Once its orientation is confirmed, the first vertex of the first edge (V2) will be
removed from file D temporarily.
(d) Generating the fourth facet: The first vertex in the first edge will then be connected
to the first vertices of the last two edges to form the fourth facet and it will again be
stored in the temporary file E.
Once the number of edges in file D is less than three, the process of facet
generation will be terminated.
After the last facet is generated, the data in file E will be written to file A and its
content (file E’s) will be subsequently deleted.
Following table shows how file E may appear.
The above procedures work for both types of gaps whose boundaries consist either
of odd or even number of edges.
Following figure and Table illustrate how the algorithm works for an even number of
edges or vertices in file D.
Table 4.6 Process of facet generation for gaps with even number of edges
Table 4.7 Process of facet generation for gaps with odd number of edges
The process of facet generation for odd vertices are also done in the same way as
even vertices. The process of facet generation has the following pattern:
F1 → First and second vertices are combined with the last vertex. Once
completed, eliminate first vertex. The remainder is ten vertices.
F2 → First vertex is combined with the last two vertices. Once completed,
eliminate the last vertex. The remainder is nine vertices.
F3 → First and second vertices are combined with the last vertex. Once
completed, eliminate first vertex. The remainder is eight vertices.
F4 → First vertex is combined with last two vertices. Once completed,
eliminate the last vertex. The remainder is seven vertices.
This process is continued until all the gaps are patched.
4.5 Solving the “Wrong Orientation of Facets” Problem
In the case when the generated facet’s orientation is wrong, the algorithm should be
able to detect it and corrective action can be taken to rectify this error.
Following figure shows how a generated facet with a wrong orientation can be
corrected.
It can be seen that facet Z (vertices 1, 2, 11) is oriented in a clockwise direction and
this contradicts the right-hand rule adopted by the STL format. Thus, this is not
acceptable and needs corrections.
This can be done by shifting the last record in file D of following table to the position
of the first edge in file D of next to the following table.
All the edges, including the initial first one will be shifted one position to the right
(assuming that the records are stored in the left to right structure).
Once this is done, step 4 of facet generation can be implemented.
As can be seen from the above example, vertices 1 and 2 are used initially as the first
edge to form a facet. However, this resulted in a facet having a clockwise direction.
After the shift, vertices 11 and 1 are used as the first edge to form a facet.
Facet Z, as shown on the right-hand-side in the above figure, is again generated
(vertices 1, 2, 11) and checked for its orientation.
When its orientation is correct (i.e., in the anti-clockwise direction), it is saved and
stored in temporary file E.
All subsequent facets are then generated and checked for its orientation.
If any of its subsequently generated facets has an incorrect orientation, the whole
process would be restarted using the initial temporary file D.
If all the facets are in the right orientation, it will then be written to the original file
A.