Hindawi

Applied and Environmental Soil Science

Volume 2019, Article ID 4037379, 15 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4037379

Research Article
Application of Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (Rusle)
Model to Assess Soil Erosion in “Kalu Ganga” River Basin in
Sri Lanka

D. L. D. Panditharathne ,1 N. S. Abeysingha ,1 K. G. S. Nirmanee,1

and Ananda Mallawatantri2
1
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka,
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
2
International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Office, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Correspondence should be addressed to N. S. Abeysingha; [email protected]

Received 18 July 2019; Revised 19 September 2019; Accepted 26 September 2019; Published 1 December 2019

Academic Editor: Rafael Clemente

Copyright © 2019 D. L. D. Panditharathne et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Soil erosion is one of the main forms of land degradation. Erosion contributes to loss of agricultural land productivity and
ecological and esthetic values of natural environment, and it impairs the production of safe drinking water and hydroenergy
production. Thus, assessment of soil erosion and identifying the lands more prone to erosion are vital for erosion management
process. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (Rusle) model supported by a GIS system was used to assess the spatial variability of
erosion occurring at Kalu Ganga river basin in Sri Lanka. Digital Elevation Model (30 × 30 m), twenty years’ rainfall data measured
at 11 rain gauge stations across the basin, land use and soil maps, and published literature were used as inputs to the model. The
average annual soil loss in Kalu Ganga river basin varied from 0 to 134 t ha− 1 year− 1 and mean annual soil loss was estimated at
0.63 t ha− 1 year− 1. Based on erosion estimates, the basin landscape was divided into four different erosion severity classes: very low,
low, moderate, and high. About 1.68% of the areas (4714 ha) in the river basin were identified with moderate to high erosion
severity (>5 t ha− 1 year− 1) class which urgently need measures to control soil erosion. Lands with moderate to high soil erosion
classes were mostly found in Bulathsinghala, Kuruwita, and Rathnapura divisional secretarial divisions. Use of the erosion severity
information coupled with basin wide individual RUSLE parameters can help to design the appropriate land use management
practices and improved management based on the observations to minimize soil erosion in the basin.

1. Introduction subsoil, and decreased water availability to plant [4].

Worldwide, the average soil erosion rate in crop lands is
Soil erosion is a natural process of removal of soil material about 30 t ha− 1 yr− 1 ranging from 0.5 to 400 t ha− 1 yr− 1 [5].
and transportation through the action of erosive agents Estimates indicate that about 85% of land attenuation,
such as water, wind, gravity, and human disturbance [1], globally, is due to soil erosion reducing crop productivity
and it has been accelerated by human activities such as by about 17%, affecting the soil fertility initially and in the
intensive agriculture, improper land management, de- long term resulting land desertion [6].
forestation, and cultivation on steep slopes [2]. It is a se- Though soil erosion is a naturally occurring process,
rious and continuous environmental problem when this has been accelerated by human activities such as in-
combined with climate-induced high-intensity rainfall [3]. tensive agriculture, improper land management, de-
Degradation of agricultural land by soil erosion is a forestation, and cultivation on steep slopes [2]. Removal of
worldwide phenomenon leading to loss of nutrient rich vegetation cover and shaping of surface topography induce
surface soil, increased runoff from more impermeable or accelerate soil displacement and movement [7]. Serious
2 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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N
Location map
N

6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
Kalutara Ratnapura

Elevation (m)
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
High: 2149

Low: 0 0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Stream

Figure 1: Geographical location and DEM of Kalu Ganga river basin.

soil erosion is occurring in most of the world’s major identify the areas more prone to soil erosion, so that
agricultural regions [5] due to the expansion of agriculture farmers and land managers can incorporate appropriate
without adequate soil conservation practices. soil conservation measures to minimize extensive soil
Several areas in Sri Lanka are subjected to severe soil erosion.
erosion [2, 8, 9]. Soil loss in agricultural areas in steep central There are several erosion prediction approaches
highlands of Sri Lanka is 10–100 times more compared to widely used [16] comprised of empirical, conceptual, and
natural rates of erosion [8]. Soil erosion in intensively physical based models [6, 17]. The Universal Soil Loss
cultivated vegetable and tea lands with poor land man- Equation (USLE), Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation
agement is higher than that in the forested landscapes or in (MUSLE), and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
well-managed tea and home gardens in Kurudu Oya sub- (RUSLE) are the most popular empirical models used
catchment in upper Mahaweli area [9]. globally for erosion prediction and control [14, 18].
Moreover, crop residues are removed for fodder, RUSLE developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
biofuel, and industrial uses leaving the soil surfaces bared is used as a decision support system in soil conservation
from a protective cover enhancing the vulnerability to and land use planning [19]. It uses a set of mathematical
lands to erosion. The resulting runoff ultimately trans- equations to describe ecological processes related to
ports sediments, organic material, nutrients, and pesticide conservation practices and erosion in a given landscape
residues off-site impacting both water and soil quality. [20].
When lands are left as fallow to recover, the erosion RUSLE is a flexible tool that has been adapted to
problem is worsened due to minimal vegetative cover [10]. landscape and watershed scales combined with Geographic
Soil erosion is reported to increase with higher magnitude Information Systems (GIS) [21–26] in soil erosion as-
of rainfall and frequent occurrences of heavy precipitation sessments. The study of annual soil loss using GIS-based
[11]. RUSLE to the Pamba watershed in a mountain landscape
Soil erosion and degradation of lands in Sri Lanka are demonstrated the applicability of RUSLE in investigating
affecting the national food production and sustainability erosion hazard where soil erosion rate is minimum in
of natural eco systems [2]. Erosion rates are high in natural forest areas and maximum in places with human
highlands as well as in low lands due to land use changes influence [22]. In Sri Lanka, a few studies have been
including the removal of vegetative cover and urbaniza- conducted to assess soil erosion using the RUSLE model
tion [7]. Several studies conducted in Sri Lanka to assess [14, 15].
soil erosion, based on both numerical modeling and actual Kalu Ganga is the 4th longest river (129 km) in Sri
quantification, have shown that soil erosion is a severe Lanka and entirely located in the wet zone of the country
problem in Sri Lanka [12–15]. Therefore, it is useful to [27]. As a result, it accounts for the largest amount of
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 3

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N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
Pussella

Halwatura Alupolla
Galatura estate
Ratnapura
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
Geekiyanakanda estate

Kalutara Wellandura estate

Agalawatta, agmet
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
Depedena group
Kudawa
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 5 10 20 kilometers

79°50′0″E 80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E 80°50′0″E

Average annual rainfall

(mm)
2500–2750 3500–4000
2750–3000 4000–4250
3000–3250 4250–4500
3250–3500

4,400 Average annual

ST_no Station
4,200 rainfall (mm)
4,000 1 Agalawatta, agmet 4160.65
3,800 2 Alupolla 4380.97
Average annual rainfall

3,600 3 Depedena group 3219.4

3,400 4 Galatura estate 4204.87
3,200 5 Geekiyanakanda estate 3910.58
3,000 6 Halwatura 4204.51
2,800 7 Kalutara 2612.8
2,600 8 Kudawa 4465.75
2,400 9 Pussella 4209.64
2,200 10 Ratnapura 3938.68
11 Wellandura estate 2724.48
2,000
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Station

Figure 2: Average annual rainfall variation.

discharge to the sea in the country [28]. There are drinking 2. Materials and Methods
water scheme and mini and medium scale hydropower
generation stations associated with the river [29]. In 2.1. Study Area. The Kalu Ganga river basin (2,766 km2) is
addition, the main land use of the basin is agriculture. located in the Southwestern part of Sri Lanka. The river
Kalu Ganga basin is in the area where the climate-induced length is about 130 km long and extends from 80.00° to
rainfall expected to increase with an elevated potential for 80.67°E and 6.42° to 6.83°N. The Kalu Ganga starts in the
floods and landslides [30]. Thus, it is worth analyzing the central hills of the country at an altitude of 2,250 m and runs
spatial variation of soil loss in the basin so that planner into the Indian Ocean near the town Kalutara after travelling
can take precautions to minimize soil erosion. The present through one of the highest rainfall areas of the country.
study estimates the average annual soil loss in the Kalu Upstream area of the basin is higher in gradient while
Ganga river basin using the Revised Universal Soil Loss downstream area of the basin is more or less flat and ele-
Equation (RUSLE) in combination with an ArcGIS in- vation varied from 2149 m to 0 m [28] (Figure 1).
terface to develop the soil erosion hazard map of the Kalu The annual rainfall average is about 4,000 mm and the
Ganga river basin. annual water flow is about 4,000 million m3 [28]. Average
4 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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6°50′0″N N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 4.75 9.5 19 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Land use types

Agricultural farms Clay pits Grass land
Abandoned paddy Cemetery Gravel pits
Aquatic farms Coffee Home garden
Abandoned rubber Coconut with pineapple Industrial park
Abandoned tea Dense forest Industrial site
Banana Distorted surfaces Lakes
Express way Livestock farms
Bare land
Factories
Coconut Marsh
Flowering plants
Canals Area used for manning
Forest plantation
Cinnomon Major reservoirs
Chena
Streams Swamp
Water holes
Unutilized lands Power plant Water supply scheme
Minor reservoirs Quarries
Mixed tree and other perennials Rubber
Natural ponds Rambutan
Open forest Areas with exposed rocks
Oil palm River
Paddy Rubber with pineapple
Pepper Seasonal crops
Playgrounds Security camps
Pineapple Scrub land
Parks Urban area
Tea

Figure 3: Land use and land cover map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

annual rainfall variation of the basin is shown in Figure 2. The year 2016 land use and land cover map of the Survey
The maximum rainfall value of 4,466 mm was recorded in Department of Sri Lanka (Figure 3) indicates that land uses
Kudawa and the lowest average annual rainfall value of of the Kalu Ganga river basin comprised agricultural lands,
2,613 mm was recorded in Kaluthara rain gauge station. bare lands, built up areas, forests, rocky areas, water bodies,
Compared to average annual rainfall of Sri Lanka, this river and wetlands. Rubber is the main commercial crop grown in
basin receives higher rainfall [27]. the Kalu Ganga river basin along with home gardens and
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 5

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N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Major soil type

Lithosols Red-yellow podzolic
Alluvial Reddish brown earths
Bog and half-bog
Figure 4: Major soil types in Kalu Ganga river basin.

Table 1: Soil erodibility values for soil types in Kalu Ganga river collected from 1997 to 2017. The soil map of Sri Lanka was
basin (source: [12, 14, 15]). obtained from the Natural Resource Management Center
Soil Erodibility (K) (NRMC), Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Land use maps of the
Red Yellow Podzolic 0.22
districts (Kaluthara and Rathnapura) located in Kalu
Reddish brown earth 0.27 Ganga river basin were collected from the Survey De-
Alluvial 0.31 partment of Sri Lanka. To cover the spatial extent of the
Lithosols 0.25 Kalu Ganga area, relevant grids of 30 ∗ 30 m resolution
Bog and Half Bog/organic soils 0.05 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) were downloaded from
ASTER website (https://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov) and pro-
cessed to developed the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of
small holder tea. The forest cover of the basin is more than the basin.
30% with a 77% canopy cover. The soil map of the basin
(Figure 4) indicates that Red Yellow Podzolic is the main soil
type found in the basin and Alluvial soil is found in the flood 2.3. RUSLE Parameter Estimation. The RUSLE was used as
areas of the river (Figure 4). Bog and Half Bog and Lithosols the model and it was interfering with the ArcGIS 10.2.1.
are the other soil types found in the basin but to a lesser RUSLE [19] can be expressed as
extent. A  R ∗ K ∗ L ∗ S ∗ C ∗ P, (1)

where A  average annual soil loss per unit area (t ha− 1 yr− 1),
2.2. Data Collection. Monthly rainfall data at eleven rain R  rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (MJ mm ha− 1 h− 1 yr− 1),
gauging stations within and near the Kalu Ganga river K  soil erodibility factor (t ha h MJ− 1 mm− 1), L  slope
basin (Figure 2) were obtained from the Department of length factor, S  slope steepness factor, C  cover and
Meteorology and the Natural Resource Management center management factor, and P  support and conservation
(NRMC), Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Rainfall data were practices factor.
 6

6°20′0″N 6°30′0″N 6°40′0″N 6°50′0″N

C value

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

R factor
Bare land, unutilized…
Industrial park, industrial…

275–300
Tea

80°0′0″E
80°0′0″E
Home garden

P value
C value

350.001–375
325.001–350
300.001–325
Rubber
Paddy

(MJ mm ha–1 h–1 year–1)

Scrub land
Abandoned paddy
Streams, lakes
Dense forest
Grass land
Open forest
River

80°10′0″E
80°10′0″E
Coconut
Cinnamon
Abandoned rubber
Areas with exposed rocks
Aquatic farms
Abandoned tea
Playgrounds
Forest plantation

0
Oil palm
Cemetery

80°20′0″E
80°20′0″E
Mixed tree and other…

5
Seasonal crops
Livestock farms

10
Natural ponds
Marsh
Water supply scheme

425.001–455
400.001–425
375.001–400
Rambutan
Water holes

Figure 6: Map of estimated R factor.

Agricultural farms

80°30′0″E
80°30′0″E

Banana
Canals
Coffee
Coconut with pineapple
Flowering plants

20 kilometers
Rubber with pineapple
Chena
Swamp
Area used for mining…
Major and minor reservoirs

80°40′0″E
80°40′0″E

Pepper
N

Pineapple
0
1

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

P value
Figure 5: C factor and P factor values for different land use types in Kalu Ganga river basin (2, 14, and 15).

6°20′0″N 6°30′0″N 6°40′0″N 6°50′0″N

Applied and Environmental Soil Science
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 7

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

K factor
t h MJ–1 mm–1
0.05 0.27
0.22 0.31
0.25

Figure 7: K factor map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

Table 2: Area coverage by different soil types.

the average soil erosion assessment for the period from 1996
Soil type Distribution area (%) to 2016.
Alluvial 4.76 (972.75 + 9.95 × F)
Bog and Half Bog 1.69 R , (2)
100
Lithosols 1.09
Red Yellow Podzolic 92.41 where R  rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (MJ mm ha− 1
Reddish Brown earth 0.04 h− 1 yr− 1) and F  average annual rainfall (mm).
The rain gauge stations shape file was created by using
latitude and longitude values with ArcGIS 10.2.1.
2.3.1. Rainfall-Runoff Erosivity Factor (R). The erosive Among the available interpolation techniques, two
power of rainfall can be estimated by calculating the erosivity types of interpolation techniques were used to select the
factor for a particular location [31]. It depends on the suitable technique to create rainfall and R factor maps.
amount and the intensity of rainfall [2]. The original One method was simple Kriging in geostatistical wizard
equation proposed by Wischmeier and Smith [32] and with spherical semivariogram model. The other one was
Renard et al. [33] was not used due to nonavailability of IDW method, with power 2. According to the cross
rainfall intensities. As a substitute, regression equations are validation results, IDW provides the least error
developed for different regions to calculate the R values. We (RMSE  163.39) for mapping rainfall data over Kriging
used the rainfall-erosivity relationship developed by Pre- method (RMSE  190.25). Therefore, both annual rainfall
malal [34] as in equation (2). The same equation has been variability map and rainfall erosivity factor map for Kalu
used in Kirindi Oya [14], in Kelani river basins [15], and for Ganga river basin were generated using IDW
mapping soil erosion hazard in Sri Lanka [2]. In our study, interpolation.
rainfall-runoff erosivity factor was determined from the
average annual rainfall from 1996 to 2016 along with the
rainfall erosivity factor equation developed for Sri Lanka 2.3.2. Soil Erodibility Factor (K). Soil erodibility factor (K) is
conditions by [34] (equation (2)). Thus, this study concerns one of the main factors governing soil erosion. It expresses
8 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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6°50′0″N N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Slope
(degrees)
0–5 15.00–20 30.001–40
5.001–10 20.001–25 40.001–50
10.001–15 25.001–30 50.001–90

Figure 8: Slope map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

the susceptibility of soil towards erosion and measures the where L  slope length factor, λ  horizontal projected slope
contribution of soil types [24]. K factor raster map was length (m) (λ  flow accumulation ∗ cell size), and m  slope
generated from vector soil map with 30 m resolution using length exponent.
the Feature to Raster tool in ArcGIS (Table 1). In this equation, “m” is the slope length exponent
that varies based on slope steepness. Slope length ex-
ponent equals 0.5 if the slope is 4.5% or more, 0.4 on
2.3.3. Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS). Slope length slopes between 3% and 4.5%, 0.3 on slopes between 1%
and steepness has the greatest influence on soil loss and and 3%, and 0.2 for flatter terrains with gradient less
describes the effect of topography on soil erosion. than 1% [25]. L and S factors were calculated by using
S factor measures the effect of slope steepness and was flow accumulation and slope in degree as inputs and
calculated by equations (3) and (4) using raster calculator finally LS factor map was generated by the multiplica-
based on the relationship given by [33] tion of both L and S factors in raster calculator in
S  10.8 sin θ + 0.03 for slope percent < 9%, (3) ArcGIS.

S  16.8 sin θ − 0.50 for slope percent ≥ 9%, (4) 2.3.4. Cover and Management Factor (C). The land use and
where S  slope steepness factor and θ  slope angle in land cover map of the basin was extracted from the land use
degree. map produced by the survey department in 2016, and this
L factor was calculated by equation (5) using raster study assumed that the land use and land cover was not
calculator based on equation given by [32] changed significantly during the past 20 years. C factor
values (Figure 5) for different land uses were obtained from
λ
L   m, (5) available literature [14, 15, 35, 36] and matched with the
22.1 land use map. Based on these C factor values, C factor raster
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 9

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N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
LS factor
High: 56.767
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
Low: 0
0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Figure 9: LS factor map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

map with 30 m resolution was generated for the Kalu this equation to estimate the sediment delivery ratios in
Ganga river basin. different river basins.
SDR  0.627 ×(SCS)0.403 , (6)
2.3.5. Support and Conservation Practices Factor (P). P where SCS is main stream channel slope measured in
value varies from 0 for good conservation practices to 1 for percent unit.
poor conservation practices. The P factor map was created After determining the flow direction, flow accumula-
based on the land use map of the Kalu Ganga river basin. P tion, and stream network using DEM, main stream channel
values (Figure 5) were added to the attribute table of land use slope was computed using ArcGIS HEC-GeoHMS exten-
map and P factor raster map was created with the conversion sion. Then using those SCS values, SDR for the main river
tool in ArcGIS 10.2.1. of the Kalu Ganga river basin was calculated in raster
calculator. Finally, sediment yield was calculated by
overlaying the mean annual soil loss raster layer and
2.3.6. Creation of Soil Erosion Severity Map. Soil erosion
sediment delivery ratio of the main stream using raster
severity map was created using a raster overlay analysis
calculator.
with rainfall-runoff erosivity factor, soil erodibility fac-
tor, slope length and steepness factor, cover and man-
agement factor, and support and conservation practices 3. Results and Discussion
factor. The soil erosion hazard map was created by using all the five
RUSLE layers, rainfall-runoff erosivity factor, soil erod-
ibility factor, slope length and steepness factor, cover and
2.3.7. Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) and Sediment Yield
management factor, and support and conservation prac-
(SY) of the Main Stream. Sedimentary Delivery Ratio (SDR)
tices factor. These factors were estimated on a 30 × 30 m
is a fraction of gross erosion that is transported from a given
grid.
area at a given time interval. It indicates the capability of a
catchment for storing and transporting the eroded soil [37].
According to [38], the average slope of the stream channel is 3.1. Rainfall-Runoff Erosivity Factor Map (R). Management
more significant than other parameters in estimating sedi- practices to reduce the impact of rainfall and sediment control
ment delivery ratio, and it is a function of slope of main measures can be adopted based on the R values. Estimated R
stream channel (equation (6)). The papers [39, 40] also used factor ranged from 269.70 to 454.07 MJ mm ha− 1 h− 1 yr− 1 and
10 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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6°50′0″N N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 4.75 9.5 19 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

C factor
1 0.43 0.01
0.80 0.40 0.001
0.73 0.30 0.0001
0.54 0.20 0
0.50
Figure 10: C factor map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

the mean R factor recorded is 387.39 MJ mm ha− 1h− 1 yr− 1. R using flow accumulation and slope in degree as inputs. LS
factor map developed using Inverse Distance Interpolation factor value ranged from 0 to 56.77 (Figure 9) and the
(IDW) with a power of 2 is shown in Figure 6. mean LS factor value was 0.05. When slope and flow
accumulation increase, LS factor increases. Higher LS
factor was observed in the Northeastern upstream area of
3.2. Soil Erodibility Factor Map (K). K factor (Figure 7) was
the basin.
evaluated based on different soil types (Figure 4) and their
properties found in the Kalu Ganga river basin. The results
showed that more than 92% of Kalu Ganga river basin is
3.4. Cover and Management Factor (C) and Support and
covered by Red Yellow Podzolic (RYP). Alluvial soil
Conservation Practices Factor (P). Based on the different
covered more than 4% of Kalu Ganga river basin. K factor
land use classes (Figure 3), the C factor map (Figure 10) was
of the basin varied from 0.05 to 0.31 t h MJ− 1 mm− 1 (Ta-
generated. The mean C factor value was 0.28 for the Kalu
ble 2) with a mean of 0.21 t h MJ− 1 mm− 1. Alluvial soil has
Ganga river basin. C factor for well-protected land is 0 and
the highest K value and Bog and Half Bog soil has the
for bare land it is 1 [4]. Summarized major land use type of
lowest K value in the basin (Figure 7). K value of RYP
the basin is shown in Table 3. High vegetative cover char-
(0.22) is less susceptible to soil erosion than Reddish
acterizes the low soil erosion potentials because of its ability
Brown Earth (RBE) (0.27) which is the main type of soil in
to resist high-intensity rains expected as a result of climate
dry zone, Sri Lanka.
change [41].
P factor value indicates the extent of erosion control
3.3. Slope Length and Steepness Factor Map (LS). The average practices in the Kalu Ganga river basin. Spatial distribution
slope of the Kalu Ganga river basin was 12.06° and it of P factor is shown in Figure 11 and mean P factor value for
ranged from 0 to 90° (Figure 8). LS factor was calculated by Kalu Ganga river basin is 0.28 (Figure 11).
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 11

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N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 5 10 20 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

P factor
0 0.20 0.50
0.001 0.25 0.60
0.10 0.35 0.68
0.15 0.40 1

Figure 11: P factor map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

A large portion of Kalu Ganga river basin is classified

Table 3: Area percentage of major land use types. as very low erosion and it is more than 93% of the total
Main land use types Area (%) area of the basin. Low to very low erosion were prominent
Agricultural lands 46.62 in Kalu Ganga river basin compared to Kelani Ganga
Bare lands 0.28 river [15] and Kiridi Oya river basins in Sri Lanka [14].
Built up lands 20.49 Comparatively recorded lower erosion rates may be due
Forest lands 30.72 to the higher % of forest lands in Kalu Ganga (31%) river
Rocky areas 0.72 basin compared to Kelani (10%) and Kirindi Oya (27%)
Water bodies 0.98 river basins. In addition, Red Yellow Podzolic soils are
Wetlands 0.19 the main soil type in the Kalu Ganga river basin with a
lower K value with a lower contribution to soil erosion.
High erosion areas in Kirindi Oya river basin were oc-
cupied by home gardens and scrub lands [14] while high
3.5. Soil Erosion Estimation. The soil erosion severity map eroded areas in Kelani river basin were bare lands and
(Figure 12) was generated by overlaying all the parameter lands under coconut with relatively high P factor and C
layers of RUSLE. Results indicated that Kalu Ganga river basin factor values [15].
has a mean average annual soil loss of about 0.63 t ha− 1 yr− 1 Moreover, the mean R factor recorded (387.39 MJ
with a range of 0 to 134 t ha− 1 yr− 1. Based on soil erosion mmha− 1h− 1 yr− 1) is lower than the R factor estimated for
classification used by [42], the estimated soil erosion was high rainfall areas elsewhere in the world [43]. It is also
classified into three classes, namely, low (<5 t ha− 1), moderate observed that R values used in other studies that used the
(5–12 t ha− 1), and high (>12 t ha− 1) per annum. Due to the same regression equation are also low [14, 15]. This
dominance of low erosion areas, the severity map was further equation which was used in [34] has been developed for
classified into two subclasses as very low (<2 t ha− 1) and low the entire country, where 1/3 of the country is in the dry
areas (2–5 t ha− 1), respectively (Table 4). zone. However, Kalu Ganga river basin is located in wet
12 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

6°50′0″N N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
0 3.5 7 14 kilometers

80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E

Soil loss categories

t ha-1 yr-1
<2 >12
2–5 KalugaBasin
5–12

Figure 12: Soil erosion severity map of Kalu Ganga river basin.

Table 4: Estimated soil loss rate and area distribution.

−1 −1
Value (t ha yr ) Soil erosion class Area (km2) Area (%)
<2 Very low 2,621.0 93.5
2–5 Low 129.0 4.6
5–12 Moderate 42.2 1.5
>12 High 11.0 0.4

zone. Therefore, there may be underestimation of the structures such as stone terraces, lock and spill drains, and
rainfall erosivity factor. Therefore, we suggest to improve drop structures to minimize the erosion.
the regression equation for the different climatic zone of
the country using new rainfall data and validate the
proposed equations with the field observations. 3.6. Sediment Yield of the Basin Estimated over the Main
The Kalu Ganga basin is characterized as having a po- Stream. Sediment yield (Figure 13) of the basin was de-
tential low susceptibility to soil erosion due to the good termined by sediment delivery ratio (Figure 14) of the main
cover, lower K values of the existing soils, etc. Based on the stream. The sediment delivery ratio results ranged from 0 to
RUSLE model estimates, about 1.9% of the area in the basin 0.16 for the main stream of Kalu Ganga river. The mean
could be categorized into moderate to high soil erosion sediment yield for the main stream of the Kalu Ganga river
hazard class. Lands located in Kuruwita, Bulathsinghala, and basin was 0.29 t ha− 1 yr− 1and sediment yield ranged from 0
some parts of Rathnapura divisional secretarial divisions fall to 4.66 t ha− 1 yr− 1. A similar study is reported in central
into these moderate to high erosion category. To control the highland of Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia [40]. According to
soil erosion, it is suggested to use agronomic soil conser- their analysis, sediment delivery ratio of the central
vation measures especially to crop lands. However, steep highland of Blue Nile basin watershed ranges between 0
slope areas may need comparatively low-cost mechanical and 0.26.
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 13

79°50′0″E 80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E 80°50′0″E

7°0′0″N

7°0′0″N
N

6°50′0″N
6°50′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N
SY (t ha-1 yr-1)
High: 4.66

Low: 0 0 5 10 20 kilometers

79°50′0″E 80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E 80°50′0″E

Figure 13: Sediment yield over the main stream of Kalu Ganga.

79°50′0″E 80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E 80°50′0″E

N
6°50′0″N

6°50′0″N
6°40′0″N

6°40′0″N
6°30′0″N

6°30′0″N

SDR
6°20′0″N

6°20′0″N

High: 0.16

Low: 0
0 4 8 16 kilometers

79°50′0″E 80°0′0″E 80°10′0″E 80°20′0″E 80°30′0″E 80°40′0″E 80°50′0″E

Figure 14: Sediment delivery ratio over the main stream of Kalu Ganga.
14 Applied and Environmental Soil Science

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