961154

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POM0010.1177/0305735620961154Psychology of MusicKaleńska-Rodzaj

Theoretical Critical Paper

Psychology of Music

Music performance anxiety

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DOI: 10.1177/0305735620961154
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emotion and emotion

regulation

Julia Kaleńska-Rodzaj

Abstract
The aim of this review article is to show the benefits of broadening the understanding of the
mechanism and treatment of music performance anxiety (MPA) using the knowledge of psychology
of emotion and emotional regulation. A review of research literature on the emotional state of
the musician during public performances and emotion regulation techniques fosters integration
of various approaches: clinical psychology, performance psychology, positive psychology, and
psychology of emotion and emotional regulation. Different ways of defining the phenomenon (MPA,
optimal arousal, positive emotions, and mixed emotions) imply different directions of psychological
intervention. The process model of emotion regulation developed by James J. Gross has been chosen
because it is a clear-cut theoretical framework, enabling the integration of a number of theories and
the development of comprehensive practical interventions. The benefit of the article is presenting the
assumptions of the model, as well as knowledge of emotions and emotional regulation, to the context
of musician’s psychological training and the performance preparation process.

Keywords
emotion, emotion regulation, music performance anxiety, musicians, pre-performance emotions

Performing in a public eye quite often leads to changes in emotional well-being, not always
predictable at the stage of preparation with no audience. According to the distraction-conflict
theory (Baron, 1986), the presence of spectators becomes an additional stimulus which needs
to be monitored while playing the music. It leads to changes in the level of arousal and

Psychology Department, Pedagogical University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland

Corresponding author:
Julia Kaleńska-Rodzaj, Psychology Department, Pedagogical University of Krakow, ul. Podchorążych 2, 30-084
Kraków, Poland.
Email: [email protected]
2 Psychology of Music 00(0)

attention focus, which may increase (social facilitation, Allport, 1924) or decrease (social inhibi-
tion, Pessin, 1933) performance quality (see also Aiello & Douthitt, 2001; Uziel, 2007).
Appraisal theories of emotions (Lazarus, 1991; Schachter & Singer, 1962; see also Moors,
Ellsworth, Scherer, & Frijda, 2013) emphasize the importance of cognitive interpretation of
symptoms of increased arousal (heart rate acceleration, tremor) and contextual cues (complex-
ity of the task, audience rank, the performer’s self-evaluation) in the process of labeling the
emotional state as anxiety, curiosity, or excitation. The accuracy of identification and descrip-
tion of emotions with discrete emotion words and the perception of their complexity indicates
a high level of emotional development (Lane & Garfield, 2005; Lane & Schwartz, 1987) and
enables effective emotional regulation (Barrett & Gross, 2001; Kuppens & Verduyn, 2015).
The ability to effectively regulate emotions is crucial for the professional musician due to the
variety of emotions arising from different sources: tasks in hand (emotions evoked by music),
the setting (the audience, social exposure), and specificity of the artist’s work (self-awareness).
The author’s personal experiences in providing psychological counseling for musicians show
their tendency to label pre-performance emotion regulation problems as music performance
anxiety (MPA) or stage fright. Research results on MPA indicate that 20% to 50% of profes-
sional musicians experience negative emotions related to public performance (Kenny, Davis, &
Oates, 2004; Kenny, Driscoll, & Ackermann, 2012; Paliaukiene, Kazlauskas, Eimontas, &
Skeryte-Kazlauskiene, 2018). This phenomenon is therefore worth analyzing from a number
of perspectives to suggest appropriate preventive and therapeutic strategies.

MPA: Explanatory viewpoints and directions of psychological

intervention
Literature review on emotions felt by musicians in a public performance situation shows the
prevalence of articles on negative emotions. From a clinical perspective, MPA is described as an
excessively intense, persistent anxiety reaction which occurs when performing in front of an
audience, and which hinders satisfactory performance on stage, accompanied by specific physi-
ological, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms (Cox & Kenardy, 1993; Craske & Craig, 1984;
Kenny, 2011). Analyzing definitions and clinical cases, Kenny (2011) even proposed three
types of MPA, determined on the basis of the comorbidity of MPA with other affective disorders:
(1) focal MPA, trigged by the situational factors; (2) MPA as social anxiety disorder; and (3) MPA
as panic disorder with or without depression. Results provided by Kenny’s team confirmed the
assumptions of the theoretical model: social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorders,
and depression were main predictors of susceptibility to stage fright (Kenny et al., 2012; Dobos,
Piko, & Kenny, 2019). Reduction of unpleasant symptoms and restoration of psychological
well-being is carried out in the course of therapeutic work in keeping with a given methodology,
taking into account the specifics of musical performance (Kenny, 2011; LeBlanc, 1994;
Papageorgi, Hallam, & Welch, 2007).
At the other extreme, there are few studies on adaptive MPA (vs. maladaptive MPA; Wolfe,
1989, 1990). Similarly to sport psychology, positive effects of increased arousal for perfor-
mance quality are highlighted: adaptive anxiety may enhance performance by stimulating
musician’s alertness and concentration on the task at hand, instead of focusing on the self
(Gates & Montalbo, 1987; Hamann, 1982; Mor, Day, Flett, & Hewitt, 1995). Research results
indicate that teaching people how to reinterpret the perceived physiological symptoms in terms
of the body’s mobilization or excitation helps to improve their well-being and facilitates accept-
ing or even reducing unpleasant physiological symptoms (Brooks, 2014; McGonigal, 2015).
Kaleńska-Rodzaj 3

Equally rare are studies on positive emotions accompanying qualitatively good performances
(peak experience, Gabrielsson & Lindström Wik, 2003)—excitement, inspiration, performance
boost (Simoens, Puttonen, & Tervaniemi, 2015), and self-confidence (Lamont, 2012; Marin &
Bhattacharya, 2013; Woody & McPherson, 2010). Perdomo-Guevara (2017) made an attempt
to go beyond anxiety paradigm. She investigated the presence of seven emotions (elation, joy,
positive arousal, confidence, feeling unmotivated, worry, and fear) in musicians’ daily life,
musical practice, and music performance. The findings suggest the prevalence of positive emo-
tions of joy, positive arousal, and confidence over feelings of worry and fear in music perfor-
mance context. Students compared to more experienced musicians (professionals and
amateurs) felt worry and fear more often than joy and confidence. In the group of professional
musicians, soloists felt elation, worry, and fear more often than orchestra or chamber musi-
cians. The described study shows a variety of performance emotions and their relations to the
level of experience (student/experienced musician) and music specialization (soloist/chamber
or orchestra musicians, related to the degree of being exposed on stage and perceived level of
social support). The author’s short intervention aimed at musicians’ well-being based on posi-
tive psychology assumptions succeeded in increasing the meaningfulness of the performers’
narratives, reducing musicians’ anxiety and rendering their experience more enjoyable.
A look at pre-performance emotions from positive psychology perspective may help complete
the clinical picture of MPA and provide guidance for developing the musician psychological
well-being. Teaching people how to find courage founded on their values and goals (Putman,
1997), and develop curiosity (Kashdan & Silvia, 2009) may help them cope with anxiety.
Due to the large number of sources of emotions in a public performance situation, it is rea-
sonable to look at MPA as a complex emotional phenomenon consisting of different emotional
states. From this theoretical perspective, mixed emotional experiences are defined as “co-occur-
rence of any two or more same-valence or opposite-valence emotions” (Larsen & McGraw,
2014, p. 263). They appear in significant, subjectively engaging, difficult situations, ambigu-
ous in terms of profit and loss (Larsen, McGraw, & Cacioppo, 2001). In such an experience,
emotions may mix in different ways: sequentially, one after another; in an inverse way; or
simultaneously with one emotion of moderate or high intensity and the other of very low
intensity (prevalence) or with both emotions of moderate or high intensity (including ambiva-
lent emotions) (Carrera & Oceja, 2007; Oceja & Carrera, 2009). Different stimuli related to
performance conditions (physical conditions, objects, audience, thoughts) may evoke automat-
ically raised, primary emotions and/or reflective, self-conscious emotions, based on conscious
cognitive appraisal (Ekman, 1984, 1999; Izard, 1992; Jarymowicz & Imbir, 2010, 2015; Lewis,
1992, 2008). Research results showed the relationship between ability of being aware of emo-
tions and understanding them as a distinct state (emotional granularity, Barrett, Gross,
Christensen, & Benvenuto, 2001) and effective emotion regulation (Barrett & Gross, 2001;
Kuppens & Verduyn, 2015).
The results of quite a few research on the structure of emotions felt by young musicians in a
public performance situation (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2018, 2019) demonstrate a continuum of pre-
concert emotions: from univalent negative emotional states of anxiety and sadness (High MPA
profiles), through mixed emotional states of anxiety and courage, or uncertainty and curiosity,
or joy and fatigue (Moderate MPA profiles, Mixed Emotions profiles), to univalent positive emo-
tional states of composure, self-confidence, or excitation (Positive Emotions profiles). Figure 1
shows the results of both studies conducted in different age groups.
The cited studies show that when describing their pre-performance emotional state, musi-
cians most often use several emotional labels with the same (extreme profiles) or different
valence (mixed emotion profiles). Therefore, individuals characterized by High MPA, Moderate
4 Psychology of Music 00(0)

Figure 1.  Continuum of Pre-Performance Emotions in a Summary of Research Involving Music School and
Music College Students (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2018, 2019).

9-12 y. o.,
N=222 Ambivalent Composure-
(Kaleńska- High MPA Moderate Emotions Confidence
Rodzaj, 2019) (21%) MPA (24%) Hesitation (29%) (5%) (21%)
negative positive
mixed valence
valence valence
16-19 y. o., High MPA – Moderate Calm Impatience, Joy with back- Excitement
N=94 exhaustion MPA (24%) (23%) mixed ground fatigue (12%)
(Kaleńska- (8%) emotions (14%)
Rodzaj, 2018) (19%)

MPA, and Mixed Emotions profiles may use the terms “stage fright” or “music performance
anxiety” for labeling different emotional experiences. Therefore, it is important to develop the
ability of recognizing one’s emotions and labeling them accurately to discover individual com-
ponents of pre-performance emotional state, and find the presence of positive feelings of hope,
joy, or relief in the shadow of the dominant anxiety. In terms of Lane and Schwartz (1987)
theory, describing the emotional experience only as the arousal change indicates a low level of
emotional awareness (awareness of bodily sensations), while describing a one-dimension emo-
tion of anxiety indicates a moderate level of emotional awareness (awareness of a single emo-
tion), and recognizing a secondary emotion, such as pride, or a mixed emotional state of anxiety
and hope indicates a high level of emotional awareness and plays a crucial role in enhancing
the coping resources (Folkman, 1997; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984;
Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).
The quoted research results add to a rather ambivalent account of pre-performance emo-
tions emerging from the literature review. Reaching beyond psychopathological explanations
toward psychology of emotion and emotion regulation opens wider horizons for explanation of
foundations of pre-performance emotional process and development of psychological interven-
tions for musicians based on wider range of psychological techniques. Then, we can teach
musicians how to regulate their pre-performance emotions instead of teaching them how to
cope with MPA.

Gross theory as a framework to explain the process of pre-

performance emotions formation and their regulation
There are multifactor explanatory models of MPA in the psychology of music (e.g., Kenny,
2011; LeBlanc, 1994; Papageorgi et al., 2007) in their majority capturing MPA as a process
which goes far beyond the stage of performing a piece on stage, including pre- and post-perfor-
mance conditions. They explain susceptibility to MPA by referring to a wide range of factors:
from the performer’s dispositional traits to situational characteristics, and show dynamic con-
nection of both groups of factors in the process of consolidating anxiety reaction (e.g., in the
form of panic, Kenny, 2011). Those models involve a strong educational accent, because they
pay considerable attention to ways of working on the piece of music and focus on attentive,
Kaleńska-Rodzaj 5

purposeful preparation for the performance. In this context, they emphasize a need to create
the positive experiences related to rehearsal and performance from the very beginning of the
learning process.
Although these kinds of models make musicians aware of holistic connections between vari-
ous aspects of their work, they introduce a large scale of activities requiring not only time, but
pedagogical and psychological support in a systematic pursuit of change. Macro-level models
will not answer the question how to keep the course of positive emotions facing the sudden situ-
ational changes. The micro-perspective of emotional information processing based on psycho-
logical theories of emotions leads to some solutions.

The formation of pre-performance emotions

Gross’s process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998; Gross & Thompson, 2007) is one of
the best known and empirically verified emotion regulation models. It describes key stages of
emotional process and, at the same time, the ways of regulating emotions with relation to each
of these stages. The model is based on the cognitive assumptions of the theory of emotions,
according to which emotional response arises as a result of appraising the quality of the per-
son–environment relationship (Arnold, 1960; Frijda, 1994; Lazarus, 1991; Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984; Moors et al., 2013). The process of emotion formation includes the processes
of attention and cognitive appraisal (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988).
The emotional process is triggered by a situation which may be real, physical, and beyond per-
sonal control, as well as imagined, mental, based on cognitive representations. Being in a spe-
cific situation, people monitor it and analyze those aspects of the situation which are somehow
relevant to their goals (e.g., to what extent the situation is familiar, safe, consistent with values,
Lazarus, 1991). An emotional response arises as a result of that appraisal, including its physi-
ological, behavioral, and cognitive components (Sander, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2005; Scherer,
1984, 2001). The emotional reaction creates a new psychological situation: this dynamic pro-
cess may repeat a number of circles, generating different emotions depending on the perform-
er’s focus of attention (Gross & Thompson, 2007). A description of the process of generating an
emotion, and an example of a case of MPA is shown in Table 1.
The chart, based on the observations from psychological counseling for musicians, shows
the emergence of a rather characteristic sequence of emotional reactions: from anxiety and
uncertainty, through fear and horror to shame and sadness. All that in a situation of an impor-
tant, demanding task to be performed in front of others, as a result of focusing attention on
specific aspects of the situation, and then a cognitive analysis of those aspects.
Excessively intense emotions hamper the regulation process by putting a person in the “refrac-
tory state” (Ekman, 2003, p. 56), and closing the path of reflection: information processing is
dominated by overpowering emotion (Jarymowicz & Imbir, 2010, 2015; LeDoux, 2000; LeDoux
& Brown, 2017). When anxiety is present, the scope of attention narrows, there is an automatic
tendency to pick up potentially threatening stimuli from the environment (attentional bias,
Mathews & MacLeod, 2005). The perception of the situation also changes—anxious musicians
tend to be more self-focused rather than music-focused (Wolverton & Salmon, 1991), a strategy
which significantly hampers their cognitive processes. The goal of anxiety (fear) is to avoid dan-
ger (Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 1996), which is why at the end of the sequence we face emotions
which “withdraw” action, that is, shame and sadness. It is worth adding that positive emotional
experiences develop in a similar way—they largely depend on the ability to focus on positive or
neutral aspects of the situation, and on interpreting the cognitive situation in terms conducive
to performing the task (Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Gross, 2015).
6 Psychology of Music 00(0)

Table 1.  Stages of the emotional process: an example of a musician’s performance during an audition in
terms of Gross’s process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998; Gross & Thompson, 2007).

Gross’s stages The 1st circle The 2nd circle The 3rd circle The 4th circle
1. Situation Entering the stage Emotional reaction Emotional Emotional
(anxiety, reaction reaction (shame,
uncertainty) (anxiety, terror) sadness)
2. Attention Members of the Bodily sensations Bodily The past
focus examination board sensations + the (ruminations)
experts’ facial or the future
expressions (worrying)
3. Cognitive They are experts What is happening What is I’m not going to
appraisal to me? happening to make it
me? Have they
noticed?
4. Emotional Physiological reaction: Intensification Intensification Decrease in
response faster heartbeat, of physiological of physiological physiological
shortness of breath and behavioural and behavioural and behavioural
Behavioural: symptoms symptoms symptoms,
muscular tension, Cognitive: Cognitive: exhaustion
limited freedom of “I’m not going to “They are going cognitive:
movement be able to play well to think I'm not “It is too much
Cognitive: when I’m feeling a professional” for me. I am not
“They are going to like that” made for it”
judge me”

Pre-performance emotion regulation strategies

In addition to the descriptive layer, there is also a functional layer in Gross’s model in which the
author lists emotion regulation techniques dedicated to every stage of emotional response, here
supplemented with research results on pre-performance emotion regulation strategies in the
area of performance psychology.

Situation selection and modification.  When selecting a situation, the performer decides in which
competition to take part, chooses to perform before the audience amiable to play for, and avoids
potentially harmful situations. This strategy has its limitations: often the performer is unable to
choose the performance situation (e.g., exam), a musician overcome by anxiety may strive to
avoid performing or withdraw from performing in public. In such cases, the behavioral system-
atic graded exposure technique may be helpful (Rachman, 1967; Wolpe, 1958), ranking perfor-
mances from the viewpoint of the level of induced negative emotions, and then rehearsing live,
beginning from the least stressful venue. In this way, the performer gradually learns to deal
with the symptoms of increased levels of arousal and, based on positive experiences of self-
efficacy, the alarm response is diminished gradually. Such training can also initially take place
in the performer’s imagination, in virtual reality, and then in situations of real performances
(Orman, 2004; Williamon, Aufegger, & Eiholzer, 2014).
Situation modification is possible in pre-performance phase (forethought phase in terms of
self-regulated learning, Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman, 2011): it may involve task analysis with
strategic planning, including the selection of the repertoire for the upcoming performance,
Kaleńska-Rodzaj 7

arranging the pieces in the proper order (e.g., technical requirements, mood), planning the
right way to enter the stage, and to start playing. There is much evidence in sport, but only
some in music, that such performance routine (Moran, 1996) enchases performance, allowing to
adapt to any environmental triggers and in that way regulate pre-performance emotions (T.
Clark, Williamon, & Lisboa, 2007; Geeves, McIlwain, & Sutton, 2014). It incorporates physical
actions and provides the opportunity for psychological preparations such as visualization,
mindful breathing, or positive self-talk.
Visualization as a form of the performer’s mental training is an effective way to modify the
situation. Imagery, like real events, arouses emotions and can influence decisions and behav-
iors (Zatorre & Halpern, 2005). Moreover, imagining movement activates the same areas of the
cerebral cortex and nerve pathways leading to the appropriate effectors (muscles) as the actual
performance (Lotze & Halsband, 2006). This information provides the basis for using visualiza-
tion technique for both performance planning and supporting real instrument rehearsal men-
tal exercises (Bernardi, De Buglio, Trimarchi, Chielli, & Bricolo, 2013; T. Clark & Williamon,
2011; Smith, Wright, & Cantwell, 2008; C. J. Wright & Smith, 2009).
The detailed conditions for successful visualization are determined by the PETTLEP model
developed by sports psychologists (Holmes & Collins, 2001). To bring the imaginary situation
closer to the real conditions, it is worth to summon into mind the following: physical sensations
related to playing a given instrument in a given venue, properties of this particular hall (envi-
ronment); to imagine performing a particular piece of music (task) over time (timing) at the level
of one’s own current capability (learning); and to remember emotions actually felt in this situa-
tion or, for example, those that the person rehearsing would like to feel in this situation (emo-
tions). Looking at the performance from the perspective of needs and expectations of the
audience helps reduce the symptoms of fear of making an error, and opens up to the listeners.
A meta-analysis of the results of 129 studies on practical visualization exercises based on this
model indicates training effectiveness at the level exceeding 90% (Schuster et  al., 2011). In
addition, repeated imagination-based training in extreme situations (imagining mistakes, self-
presentation disasters) helps to strengthen the sense of control over events by increasing toler-
ance to uncertainty, and learning how to be creative in dealing with problems in a public
performance situation (T. Clark, Williamon, & Aksentijevic, 2011; Gregg, Clark, & Hall, 2008;
D. J. Wright, Wakefield, & Smith, 2014).

Attentional deployment.  Attention is selective, so we tend to notice only few aspects to each situa-
tion, ignoring the others. It is therefore important what will engage the performer’s field of
attention, and how well he or she will be able to manage the distractors and focus on perfor-
mance instead of diverting attention to the audience or his or her own worries.
It is possible to increase the attentional skills using mindfulness techniques. A special kind of
awareness is trained here: conscious, non-judgmental, and geared toward the here and now
(Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness meditation helps develop the ability to freely and flexibly con-
trol the focus of attention. It may change the habit of constantly comparing oneself with the
standard (neurotic perfectionism) which increases fear of failure, narrows the attention field,
and may interfere with retrieving information from memory (Moran, 1996). Reducing the
focus on self intensifies the flow experience (Jackson, 1995) and positive feelings come from
self-efficacy (Silvia, 2002). Systematic mindfulness exercises, apart from boosting concentra-
tion, increase the ability to focus on the task instead of on oneself (decentration) and foster the
skill of accepting one’s own mistakes and current artistic level. Such acceptance is the result of
learning how one’s mind and body function and developing self-compassion (Neff, 2003).
8 Psychology of Music 00(0)

Those skills may reduce stage fright and increase the performer’s effectiveness (Farnsworth-
Grodd, 2012; Juncos & Markman, 2015; Shaw, Juncos, & Winter, 2020).
The ability to notice a variety of emotional states accompanying the performance and treat fear
as a background emotion is another important feature of mindfulness-based techniques.
Redirecting attention from fear to curiosity or pride, even at low intensity, can change the way of
interpreting the situation and intensify the musicians’ self-efficacy beliefs (Kashdan & Silvia,
2009; Perdomo-Guevara, 2017). The neuroimaging studies on mindfulness training effective-
ness in regulating emotions have demonstrated training-related changes in brain plasticity:
mindfulness exercises reduce the activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) areas,
responsible for self-censorship and constant criticism of one’s own actions; reduces the activity
of the amygdala and, as a result, the level of emotional reactivity decreases; activity in the areas
responsible for attention processes increases, for example, middle temporal gyrus (MTG) involved
in the analysis of complex musical structures (see meta-analysis by Boccia, Piccardi, & Guariglia,
2015, as well as Goldin & Gross, 2010). Positive impact of such training on achievement quality
has been noticed and appreciated in sports (Gardner & Moor, 2007) and also in music (Chang,
Midlarsky, & Lin, 2003; Lin, Chang, Zemon, & Midlarsky, 2008; Shaw et al., 2020).

Cognitive change.  This is the stage at which the perceived aspects of the situation are recognized
and interpreted in terms of the performer’s knowledge and experience. The meaning given to
them evokes a specific emotional response. For example, the thought “They are already here”
can cause fear or excitement, depending on the subjective interpretation given to this assertion
by the musician.
The cognitive reinterpretation technique allows modifying the appraisal of the situation and
one’s ability to deal with it. It helps to re-think the causes and consequences of experiencing
emotions, to recognize habitual ways of interpreting individual aspects of a situation in the
form of certain cognitive patterns and interpretation errors (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979).
This recognition is an opportunity to modify the way one approaches performance and oneself,
the audience, and to develop more adaptive interpretations conducive to being more effective
on stage. Meta-analysis of research on psychological interventions for MPA indicates high
effectiveness of psychological techniques derived from the cognitive-behavioral therapy (Burin
& Osorio, 2016). For example, they outweigh pharmacotherapy in treatment of depression and
anxiety disorders: under the influence of cognitive therapy, the activity of the amygdala, as well
as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the insular cortex decreases, there are changes in
the activation of particular areas of the prefrontal cortex which facilitates the regulation of
emotions (D. A. Clark & Beck, 2010; Linden, 2006).
Research conducted on the basis of musical performance indicates that the focus of the per-
former’s attention and the way of thinking are of key importance for mental well-being and
effectiveness on stage. Focusing on the emotional aspects of the piece being performed (orienta-
tion toward interpretation) or playing for the audience (orientation toward communication)
helps the most, while focusing only on the technique of playing or on the notes results in a less
expressive, “dry” performance, and is perceived by the performer as less comfortable and limit-
ing freedom on stage (Van Zijl & Luck, 2013; Van Zijl, Toiviainen, Lartillot, & Luck, 2014). A
study of the musicians’ self-talk content before the performance (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987; Tokarz
& Kaleńska, 2005) indicates that stage fright is associated with the catastrophic style of think-
ing (“I’m almost sure to make a dreadful mistake, and that will ruin everything”1), while posi-
tive thinking strategies may reduce stage fright (“I know I’m good and have prepared well for
this; I’ll go on and make them sit up and notice me”), in the same way as strategies of realistic
Kaleńska-Rodzaj 9

thinking (“I’m bound to make a few mistakes, but so does everyone”). Focusing on the playing
music, and a development-oriented, self-accepting attitude promotes well-being on stage.
For the performer, it is also important to set real, achievable performance goals—if the situa-
tion is given a specific meaning, the artist is able to better and longer concentrate on the task
(Miksza & Tan, 2015). Personal performance standards and goals, established on the basis of
analyzing the current level of skills, foster the opportunity to succeed and help derive satisfaction
from the performance (McPherson, Osborne, Evans, & Miksza, 2019; Miksza, 2015). It is a trait
of healthy perfectionism when one is aware of the need for continuous development, imple-
mented by the method of “small steps,” according to the principle “it will get better every time”
(Schuler, 2000). Developing self-confidence by recognizing one’s own strengths and weaknesses,
needs, emotions, and ways of thinking helps musicians became effective learners and approach
the performance situation as a challenge, not a threat (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2011).

Emotional response modulation.  This stage appears quite late and involves regulation of physiologi-
cal, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms of the currently experienced emotional response. The
previous stages are preventive, that is, the performer can prepare for the event to increase the
chances of the desired emotional response. However, if no preparatory techniques have been
used, then the emotional response develops automatically. Poor knowledge of emotion regula-
tion techniques and methods of psychological preparation for a public performance results in
many musicians’ attempts to begin controlling emotions at a time difficult from the regulatory
viewpoint, when the performer is overwhelmed by emotions which can no longer be ignored.
The following relaxation techniques are effective in regulating the stimulation level of the
autonomic nervous system: progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobson, 1929; Sisterhen, 2005),
autogenic training (Schultz & Luthe, 1959), and slow breathing (Wells, Outhred, Heathers,
Quintana, & Kemp, 2012), including the basic mindful breathing exercise which is part of the
mindfulness approach (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2013). A 10-year systematic review with
meta-analysis confirms the effectiveness of progressive relaxation, meditation, and autogenic
training in anxiety treatment (Manzoni, Pagnini, Castelnuovo, & Molinari, 2008). Musician’s
self-report survey indicates that 50% of professionals use breathing techniques to regulate pre-
performance emotions, and 78% of them confirm the effectiveness of these techniques (Kenny
et al., 2012). In the short time before going on stage, only some elements of the mentioned
techniques can be used, nonetheless, they require regular exercise every day.
The use of pharmaceuticals can help control physiological symptoms, but requires consulta-
tion with a physician, because some drugs can quickly lead to addiction (e.g., benzodiazepines).
In addition, drugs which reduce physiological symptoms do not reduce cognitive anxiety—they
reduce neither the fear nor negative thoughts related to self-esteem (Patston & Loughlan,
2014). As such, they may become an anxiety-causing factor because leading to external attri-
butions they lower musician’s sense of self-efficacy. The evidence presented in the previous
paragraph indicates that cognitive techniques are equally effective in regulating physiological
symptoms and produce a long-lasting effect in the form of a change in thinking and an increase
in self-efficacy and self-confidence (see Osborne, Greene, & Immel, 2014).
At behavioral levels, suppressing emotions does not work very well as a strategy: contrary to
expectations, the level of arousal does not decrease, and cardiovascular symptoms may increase
(Demaree, Robinson, Pu, & Allen, 2006). In addition, it is a very expensive strategy: it requires
much more cognitive control geared to monitoring the symptoms of emotions and, in effect, less
cognitive resources are available to monitor the performance of the task. This, in turn, creates
problems with focusing attention and memory (Goldin, McRae, Ramel, & Gross, 2008; Richards
10 Psychology of Music 00(0)

Table 2.  Stages of emotional regulation and examples of effective psychological techniques.

Gross’s stages Effective psychological techniques Type of psychological support

1. Situation Gradual exposure Prevention
Visualization
2. Attention focus Mindfulness meditation
Decentration techniques
3. Cognitive appraisal Cognitive reinterpretation
Goal setting
4. Emotional response Physiological: Intervention
Relaxation
Breathing techniques
Behavioural:
Expression of emotions
Cognitive:
Changing meta-emotional beliefs

& Gross, 2000), and affects the quality of social interactions (expressiveness, communicative
skills)—such people are perceived as less authentic and less warm (Butler et al., 2003).
Releasing the emotions is a more favorable strategy: the performer can use the level of arousal
as the basis of expressing emotions contained in the piece being performed, thus enriching the
musical narrative (Van Zijl & Luck, 2013; Van Zijl et al., 2014). In turn, arousing emotions
coherent with the mood of the piece will be a strategy directed at controlling also the cognitive
symptoms of felt emotions. Proper insight in the piece performed, feeling its mood helps divert
attention from the self and channel it to the task. It allows automatic regulation of physiologi-
cal and behavioral symptoms of emotions.
On the cognitive side, it is extremely important how musicians appraise the experienced
emotional state: is it good or bad for current performance, can I manage my emotions or not,
what truth about me does the emotion reveal? These patterns of appraisal acquired in the
course of socialization (meta-emotional beliefs, Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996) lead to the for-
mation of meta-emotions. For example, the belief that “symptoms of anxiety may ruin a per-
formance” can increase anxiety itself, “stage fright means a lack of professionalism” may cause
shame and sadness, while “there is a need for full control over emotions during a performance”
can cause self-anger because full control is a skill yet unaccomplished. Activating these beliefs
in a performance situation can increase the intensity of emotions experienced, as well as cause
further negative emotions regarding the self (Mitmannsgruber, Beck, Höfer, & Schβler, 2009).
Research conducted on young musicians (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2019) provide evidence that
meta-emotional beliefs about stage fright and the way of perceiving the audience are related to
the emotional state of the performer during a public performance. Musicians with anxiety pro-
file were characterized by a high intensity of beliefs about the negative effect of stage fright on
performance, and by inability to deal with stage fright or hostile attitude of the audience toward
the performer. On the contrary, positive beliefs about these three factors were characteristic of
musicians who felt confident or had mixed emotions in the performance situation.
It is therefore important to expand one’s own knowledge about emotions, learning to treat
the perceived increase in arousal as a natural symptom of readiness and mobilization of the
body in view of a demanding task to be performed in front of the audience (e.g., changing the
meta-emotional belief “The performance will be successful only if I am completely calm”)
Kaleńska-Rodzaj 11

which helps decrease physiological symptoms, focusing attention and building a positive atti-
tude toward the performance. Understanding how the mechanisms of body and mind work
helps regain a sense of control and focus on building a musical narrative.
The above-described stages and effective emotion regulation techniques are presented in
Table 2.
Depending on experience, beliefs, knowledge, and skills, musicians use various strategies of
regulation, striving to intensify or quench emotions. Awareness of many types of emotion reg-
ulation strategies, and flexibility in adapting them to the situation and one’s own goals are
features of effective emotion regulation (Barrett & Gross, 2001; Kuppens & Verduyn, 2015).
Attentiveness, cognitive appraisal, and action can be automatic and habitual or reflective and
purposeful. Analysis of the stages of the emergence of one’s pre-concert emotions and the tech-
niques used to regulate them provides an opportunity to understand one’s own behavior and
introduce appropriate modifications.
On the empirical grounds, among very few programs focused on comprehensive perfor-
mance psychology skills training for musicians, there is currently only one containing all the
components described above, both at the level of prevention and regulatory intervention
(Osborne et  al., 2014). The comparison of pre- and post-program rate results indicates an
increase in participants’ skills in the areas of preparation and learning how to reach optimal
performance; focusing and concentration of attention during performance; positive reappraisal
through improving self-talk and developing positive self-talk habits; energy regulation, accept-
ance of somatic symptoms, and building courage and confidence. Gross’s model, describing key
stages of emotion regulation process, can provide a clear-cut framework for future psychologi-
cal intervention programs tailored to the musician’s training, therapy, and performance prepa-
ration process.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

ORCID iD
Julia Kaleńska-Rodzaj https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7202-7606

Note
1. Items most characteristic of a given style of thinking were drawn from the Self-Statement Scale
(Steptoe & Fidler, 1987).

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