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Nvis 6019
Nvis 6019
Nvis 6019
Product Tutorial
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Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
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Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
Introduction
Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System is a versatile training system for the
study and demonstration of solar tracking. It introduces the basic concept of Sun
tracking. Solar tracker is a device which tracks the motion of the sun, thus
ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the
day. This product uses a DC motor to control the position of solar panel, using
microcontroller. Phototransistor is used as a light sensor for generating an electric
signal proportional to intensity of light falling on it. Tilt sensor is used for sensing the
angle. With this system students can understand the working of sun tracking and
also the concept of revolution of earth around sun.
This system is provided with a Solar Panel mounting assembly and solar tracking
Trainer. Solar Tracking Setup shows all the parts required for the generation of
electricity and tracking of sun.
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Features
Complete training system to study the fundamentals of Solar Tracking
Microcontroller based Tracking System
Single-axis & Dual-axis Tracking
Manual, Time and Auto Modes of operation in Single-axis Solar Tracking
Manual Mode of operation in Dual-axis Solar Tracking
LCD (20 x 4) Display
Master Reset Switch for recovery of System
Emergency Motor Stop switches to Control the System
Light Sensor are use for sensing light intensity of sun
Tilt Sensor are use for sensing angle of panel with respect to horizontal plane
Facility for charging the battery using solar energy as well as DC Adaptor
Customized mechanical fixture for mounting solar panel
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Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
Technical Specifications
Supply Voltage : 12V DC
Solar Panel
Maximum Output Power (Pm) : 18W
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) : 21V DC
Short Circuit Current (Isc) : 1.07A
Max. Output Voltage (Vmp) : 17V
Max. Current (Im) : 1.06A
DC Motor : 12 V
Rheostat : 100 ohm, 1.6A
Rechargeable Battery : 12V, 7Ah
Display : 20x4 LCD
Light Sensor : Phototransistor
Acceleration/Vibration/
Tilt Sensor – 3 Axis : +5V @1ma current
Fuse : 1Amp (3 Nos.)
DC Adaptor : 12V @ 1Amp
Dimension (mm) : W 350 x D 280 x H 55
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Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the Nvis 6019. To
avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to
the instrument.
Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only. For your safety:
Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this
instrument. Ensure that the mains cord is suitable
for your country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective
earth conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric
shock, the grounding conductor must be connected
to the earth ground. Before making connections to
the input terminals, ensure that the instrument is
properly grounded.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.
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Nvis 6019 Understanding Solar Tracking System
Theory
Energy is the amount of work that can be performed by a particular force. It can be
transferred into other areas and objects, but the energy quantity always remains the
same. Different forms of energy include thermal, kinetic, potential, sound, and light
energy. Although we are surrounded by multiple forms of energy at any given time,
learning about energy can be a very intimidating.
Energy helps in powering business, manufacturing and transportation of goods and
services. There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us
can be stored, converted, and amplified for our use. Energy comes in different forms
heat, light, thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical and nuclear energy. We all use
energy for our daily work like when we walk, jump, eat food, drive car, play etc.
Energy is stored in different ways and can be transformed from one type to another
Energy comes in different forms:
Heat (thermal)
Light (radiant)
Motion (kinetic)
Electrical
Chemical
Nuclear energy
Gravitational
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Types of Energy
Energy is in everything. We use energy for everything we do, from making a
jump shot to baking cookies to sending astronauts into space.
There are two types of energy:
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
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Energy Scenario
Total energy consumption in the form of coal, gas and oil, hydro and renewable
energy sources is known as primary energy.
Primary energy consumption was at 488X1018 or 488 exa-joul. Major
Consumer of energy are Asia Pacific, consuming about 32%. Total energy
consumption = 76.49X1019 J/year
Energy Scenario
Nonrenewable energy: Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the ground
and is not replaced in a relatively short amount of time. Fossil fuels are the main
category of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels include; coal, oil and natural gas.
These resources come from animals and plants that have died millions of years ago
and then decomposed to create a useable source of energy for humans.
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How it works
A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake. Water
is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive
generators. Notice that the dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top,
because the pressure of the water increases with depth. Hydro- electric power
stations can produce a great deal of power very cheaply.
Advantages
Hydro Energy source & Power generation
Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free. No waste or pollution
produced.
Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike
other power stations.
Electricity can be generated constantly.
Geothermal energy (Radioactivity and primordial heat in Earth’s Interior)
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal
energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The Geothermal
energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%)
and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
surface. Geothermal power plants use heat released from the interior through
Earth’s crust. The heat can be used directly or converted to electricity. Renewable
energy technologies tap into natural cycles and systems, turning the ever- present
energy around us into usable forms. The movement of wind and water, the heat and
light of the sun, heat in the ground. The carbohydrates in plants all are natural
energy sources that can supply our needs in a sustainable way because they are
homegrown, renewable can also increase our energy security.
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Tidal energy (Gravitational attraction of Sun, Earth and Moon): Tidal power plants
use the energy provided by high and low tides. Water is stored during high tide and
released during low tide, powering turbines in the process. The technologies
associated with tidal power are very similar to those of hydro power, earthmoving,
dam building, flooding land, placing turbines in dams. The set up costs are
significant. Concerns about the impacts of tidal power technologies have caused
recent Endeavour’s to focus on tidal turbines and tidal fences. Tidal turbines can
operate with tides and currents some distance from land, like under water wind
farms.
Advantages and disadvantages of tidal power
Advantages: Tidal power does not produce greenhouse emissions. Tidal power is a
renewable energy resource.
Tidal power can provide secondary benefits such as bridges and roads, which are
built over the tidal generators.
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Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area
of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic convert light into electric current using
the photoelectric effect. The answer lies in tapping the unlimited, clean, eco-
friendly energy of the sun. The sun is the key to the existence of life on the earth. It
has been there for billions of years and continuously shooting its solar energy in our
direction. The sun continues to warm our planet and we need to find some more
efficient ways to harness it's energy to full potential.
This energy has to be harnessed by technology in order to be converted into
something that is usable by mankind. There are two types of solar technology that
can be used to do this, one referred to as passive, the other active. Active solar
energy trap light from the sun and then perform some action by producing the
current for e g: Solar Panels. Passive solar energy simply trap solar energy for e.g.
Green House.
Solar Energy Advantage
The biggest advantage of using solar energy is that it is a clean and green energy.
Solar energy doesn’t pollute nor produce any green house gas; in today‟s world
where global warming is an increasing menace, these factors matter significantly. In
fact, solar energy is an important alternative to fossil fuels, which use release
harmful green house gasses into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
Another big advantage of using solar energy is that solar power is a completely
renewable energy. As long as there is sunlight, there will be solar energy. This
situation is unlike the use of fossil fuels, which will eventually be depleted with use.
The use of solar energy also decreases our dependence on oil, which is becoming a
big political and economical issue, as oil is becoming more scarce and expensive. The
energy is free. Once the appropriate solar power equipment is installed, you are free
to tap on the sun’s energy, whoever you are, wherever you are. Moreover, solar
energy and solar panels are also completely silent and don’t require much
maintenance.
It is clean energy source, no potential damage to the environment.
It is very large source energy. The power from the sun intercepted by the earth is
about 1.8 X10 power 11 MW, which is many times larger than our current power
consumption from all sources.
The module character of technology allows gradual implementation and is easier to
finance.
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Features:
Lowest efficiency: typically 60-80 Watts/m2 (60-80%, with notable exceptions).
Expected lifespan is less than crystalline panels.
Optimal efficiency in hot weather, less effective in cooler conditions.
3-6 month „breaking in‟ period where long term output is exceeded.
Requires 2-3 times more panels and surface area for same output as crystalline.
Copper Indium Selenium (CIS) solar cell: Copper Indium Selenium or CIS are the
very latest generation in PV modules. They are an advanced solar panel offering
the latest developments in thin film technology. Compared with traditional panels,
they perform better in shade, better under high temperatures, and have one of the
lowest energy payback times of any panel. CIS panels feature light- soaking
technology for higher nominal power output, and maintain optimum output levels
over their life comparable to crystalline panels. Like thin film & micro morph
modules, these panels appear aesthetically pleasing dark panels and frames.
Copper Indium Gallium Di-selenide (CIGS) solar cells: This is a new semiconductor
material comprising copper, indium, gallium and selenium in a specific order, which
is used for solar cell manufacturing. It is one of the most promising thin film
technologies due to their high-attained efficiency and low material costs. Amongst
thin film solar cells, the advantage of CIGS solar cell is its extended operational
lifetime without significant degradation. The inherent properties of CIGS also provide
an opportunity for maximizing the efficiency.
Solar Cell Structure
Solar cells are structured in layers with different functions. The working principle
is the same as in semiconductors. The main part of a silicon (Si) solar cell
generating solar power is formed by two differently doped (n- and p-) silicon layers.
A physical barrier is created between them along the p-/n- junction, with electrons
and holes diffusing into regions of lower concentration. This depleted region or
space charge region can only be overcome with the help of photons i.e. sunlight. To
be able to channel electrons and holes and generate electric power, metal contacts
need to be printed onto the front and rear side. Generally, a full aluminum or silver
layer is screen printed onto the rear. A thin grid forms the front contact keeping the
impact on light entering the silicon cells as low as possible. To reduce light
reflection, a thin film of silicon nitride or titanium dioxide is coated onto the surface.
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PV Manufacturing Process
There are three main categories of manufacturing processes, resulting in different
purity levels:
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Electronic-grade Silicon: 9N
There are three main steps to produce high-purity polycrystalline silicon.
Coke reduction: Metallurgical-grade silicon with 98.5% purity is produced
from quartz sand in an arc furnace at very high temperatures.
Distillation: In a second step, the metallurgical grade silicon powder is
dissolved in hydrogen chloride and subsequently distilled to form a silane gas.
In most instances, this is the trichlorosilane, but could be others.
Siemens Process: In the so-called Siemens Process the polycrystalline silicon
is grown at very high temperatures. It requires hydrogen and produces more
hydrogen-chloride as a by-product.
Medium-grade Silicon: 6-7N
The big drawback of the standard process as above is that a Siemens reactor is
very expensive and the
Siemens process itself requires a lot of energy. A number of new proprietary
processes reduce the energy consumption and the capital costs for silicon
production, though they are still similar to the traditional Siemens process.
Fluidized Bed Reactor: operates at much lower temperatures and does not produce
by-products.
Vapor to liquid deposition: similar to Siemens, but faster extraction.
Upgraded Metallurgical-grade Silicon: > 5N
In an altogether different process, metallurgical-grade silicon is chemically refined.
By blowing gasses through the silicon melt, the boron and phosphorous impurities
are removed, followed by directional solidification. Companies like Timminco, Arise
or RSI Silicon all have their own proprietary processes. However, they all have in
common that by avoiding high purification, manufacturing costs are reduced
significantly.
Manufacturing Wafers
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There are mainly three different silicon wafer types of different qualities:
Mono crystalline wafer: Silicon with a single, continuous crystal structure is
grown from a small seed crystal that is slowly pulled out of a poly silicon melt
into a cylindrical shaped ingot (Czochralski process). The ingot is cut into
wafers using a diamond saw. Silicon waste from the sawing process can be re-
cycled into poly silicon.
Polycrystalline wafer: Polycrystalline silicon consists of small grains of mono
crystalline silicon. Cube-shaped ingots can be made directly by casting molten
poly silicon, which are then cut into wafers similar to mono crystalline wafers.
Silicon ribbons: This is a continuous process whereby thin ribbons or sheets of
multi crystalline silicon are drawn from a poly silicon melt. The subsequent
cutting into wafers does not produce waste, as the drawn sheets are already
wafer-thin. Silicon ribbons require around 5g of silicon per Watt rather than
8g/W using crystalline wafers.
Solar cells are added together into a unit called a module. Modules are linked
together in units called arrays. Arrays put onto roofs of house may produce up
to 6000 Watts which would be enough to provide for the needs of the occupants.
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Ideally the minority carrier (in this case a hole) makes it across the junction &
becomes a majority Carrier
After passing through the load the electron meets up with a hole and completes the
circuit
Solar cell Characteristics: The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the
semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal
voltages is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the current intensity
increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a
maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².
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Without illumination, a solar cell has the same electrical characteristics as a large
diode
The greater the light intensity, the greater the amounts of shift
Since the cell is generating power the convention is to invert the current axis
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IV curve of a solar cell showing the open-circuit voltage. Fill Factor (FF)
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that
would be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together.
FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted
in Figure.
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Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in W/m2
or in suns (1000W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum
efficiency (ηmax) found from a light test is not only an indication of the performance
of the device under test, but, like all of the IV parameters, can also be affected by
ambient conditions such as temperature and the intensity and spectrum of the
incident light. The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident
power which is converted to electricity and is defined as:
Where,
Voc is the open-circuit voltage; Isc is the short-circuit current; FF is the fill factor η is
the efficiency.
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Factors that affect Panel Performance: The panel's output is directly proportional
by the intensity of the sunlight falling on it. More intense sunlight the greater the
output. A cool crisp clear day is best for solar output. In fact, being at higher
altitudes with less atmosphere can cause the solar panel to exceed its nameplate ...
and space is heaven for a solar panel. Bring in cloudy weather with half as much
sunshine and the panel will put out half of its nameplate.
Isolation is the term used to describe the amount of solar radiation. When solar
panels are rated they are "flash tested" in a chamber and the flash is set to be
1,000 watts per square meter (Watts/m2) of brightness. This is another way to
say a clear bright crisp sunshiny day. Output ratings for the panel‟s label, such
as watts, are then collected based on this flash of light. We have a light meter,
called the "The Daystar Meter" which has a solar cell built into the top of it and
a needle that point to a scale that goes from 0 to 1,200 Watts/m2. During a day
the sun will be at various intensities so we need get an average to help us
figure out how much energy a panel will put out.
While a panel might be putting out only 20% of its rated power it has so
many hours per day to do this. We call the energy received during TOTAL
daylight hours the PEAK SUN HOURS. Peak sun hour is also defined as the
number of hours per day when the solar isolation equals 1,000 Watts/m2.
Shading: Even partial shading of crystalline solar panels will result in
dramatic reduction of solar panel output. One completely shaded cell can
reduce a solar panel's output by as much as 75%. Three cells shaded can
decrease 93% of the panel's output. Call for information on amorphous
panels.
Orientation: A compass is off from true south, where your solar panels should
be aimed. This is because a compass aligns with the earth's magnetic field,
which is not aligned with the earth's rotational axis. We are basically tilted
from the sun. The deviation from magnetic south to TRUE south must be
compensated for when setting your solar panels or your house towards the
south.
Tilt Angle: If all we have is a fixed solar panel rack, for example flat and bolted
to a roof, then to optimize year round solar performance, we tilt at the latitude
of the area. Latitude is the distance north or south of the earth's equator.
The earth is round so we want to get our solar panel perpendicular or
directly into the sun. In Bend, Oregon we are 44 degrees so we tilt our panels
to 44 degrees. We can do even better if we use seasonally adjustable racks.
With tilt racks, in the summer we use 44 degrees minus 15 degrees in Bend.
We subtract or make the panels flatter to the sky because the sun is higher in
the sky. Remember our goal is to get the solar panels facing the sun. In the
winter we must get the panels at a steeper angle, again to face the sun so we
use 44 degrees plus 15 degrees in Bend.
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Where:
Q is the electronic charge
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of doping
L is the diffusion length of the minority carrier;
ND is the doping; and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon
In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature
dependence, but the most significant effect is due to the intrinsic carrier
concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier concentration depends on the band gap
energy (with lower band gaps giving a higher intrinsic carrier concentration), and
on the energy which the carriers have (with higher temperatures giving higher
intrinsic carrier concentrations).
Real World Considerations: Every manufacturer tests their modules under
something called Standard Test Conditions (STC). These are a set of rules they all
follow. While these rules allow consumers and solar designers to compare panels
apples to apples they are not what the solar panel sees in the real world.
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The earth receives energy from the sun which is necessary to sustain life on earth.
The sun transmits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic radiation has very broad wavelength range from 10-6µm for cosmic
rays to over 1000 µm for radio waves. The radiation emitted by the sun falls in the
range of 0.15 µm to 120 µm, covering portions of infrared radiation. The spectrum
(radiated energies as function wavelength or frequency) of the sun can be estimated
by modeling the sun as a black body. Due to the virtue of temperature, any body of
mass radiates energy. Even human radiate energy. The spectrum of radiated energy
by a black body can be obtained by Planck’s black body radiation model, which is
given as:
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The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light.
It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.361 kilowatts per square meter
(kW/m²) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly 1.362 kW/m²)
at solar maximum. The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere
fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January
to1.321 kW/m² in early July). The solar constant 1367 W/m² used for calculation is
only the average values of extra-terrestrial solar radiation over a year. The variation
in solar constant with time over the year S t can be given by the following equation:
St = 1+0.033 cos (360n/365)
Where n is the nth day of the year with 1 January being n=1. The extra-terrestrial
solar radiation is also known as air mass zero (AM0) radiation or as it refers to the
radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere or air mass.
What is the Solar Spectrum?
Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight has been filtered through the
Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above
the horizon. Although we experience daylight as white light, it is impact made up of
a band of colors, some visible and some invisible
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Earth rotates about its axis at approximately 15 angular degrees per hour. Rotation
dictates the length of the diurnal cycle (i.e. the day/night cycle), creates "time
zones" with differing local noon, and also causes the apparent movement of the
Moon, stars, and planets across the "celestial sphere". The rotation of Earth is
eastward (from west to east) making the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere
from east to west.
The rates of rotation and revolution are functions of a planet's mass and orbital
position. For example, the mass of Jupiter is approximately 317.5 times Earth's mass
and the rotation time (the time for Jupiter to revolve once about its axis) is
approximately nine hours.
Earth takes approximately 365.25 days to complete one revolution around the Sun in
a slightly elliptical orbit with the Sun at one focal point of the ellipse. Ranging
between the extremes of perihelion (closest approach) in January and aphelion
(most distant orbital position) in July, Earth's orbital distance from the Sun ranges
from approximately 91.5 to approximately 94 million miles (14751 million km),
respectively. Although these distances seem counterintuitive to residents of the
Northern Hemisphere who experience summer in July and winter in January
seasons are not nearly as greatly affected by distance as they are by changes in
solar illumination caused by the fact that Earth's polar axis is inclined 23.5
degrees from the perpendicular to the ecliptic (the plane of the solar system
through or near which most of the planet's orbits travel) and because the Earth
exhibits parallelism (currently toward Polaris, the North Star) as it revolves about the
Sun.
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On December 21 or 22, the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere, the South
Pole is leaning 23.5 ° toward the sun.
The red circle represents the Arctic Circle (66.5 ° N). During the summer solstice, the
area above the Arctic Circle has 24 hours of daylight because the North Pole is
tilted 23.5 ° toward the sun. At the winter solstice, it has 24 hours of night because
the North Pole is tilted 23.5 ° away from the sun. During the two equinoxes, the
circle of illumination cuts through the polar axis and all locations on the Earth
experience 12 hours of day and night.
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Here δ is the declination we seek, A is the amplitude, which is 23.450. The sine
function is something that asks for an angle. You can think of the angle as the
number of degrees that have passed in the earth’s orbit from some starting point. As
with the equinoctial colure, the starting point here is the Vernal Equinox March 21st.
One minor nuisance is the fact that there are 360o in a circle and 365.25 days in a
year, so a rendering of this sine function would be:
The graph below shows how solar declination varies throughout the year.
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The Solar altitude angle α (at the noon time only), for the location at northern
hemisphere can be estimated using the following equation:
Note that α is presented w.r.t. the south and also the value of δ can be –ve as well
as +ve. The solar altitude will be minimum for the summer season (+ve δ).This
information about solar altitude is very useful in deciding the orientation of solar
energy collector.
Apparent motion of sun for an observer in the northern hemisphere Angle of sunrays
on solar collector
In order to estimate amount of solar radiation falling on an object (a solar
collector) the angle of incidence of sunrays on collector should be known. In
practice it is required that solar collectors are aligned perpendicular to the sunrays,
from morning to evening, in order to collect the maximum solar radiation.
Angle of sunrays
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Angle of Incidence θ: Angle between the beam sun rays and a vector normal
(perpendicular) of the aperture or surface of the collector. If Ib is intensity of beam
or direct radiation making an
angle θ with a solar collector normal, the amount of radiation incident on the
collector surface I, will be given by:
I = Ib cos θ
The incident angle θ depends on several parameters mainly five angles which are
located to the location of collector, time of year and orientation of collector. These
angles are as follows:
Latitude of location φ: It is an angle between the lines joining the earth’s centre to
the location with its projection on the equatorial plane. It varies between +900 and -
900. Latitude angle in northern hemisphere is considered positive.
Local Apparent Time (LAT): In the calculations of angles, the local noon time or LAT
one can say, solar time taken as a reference. It is the time at which sun becomes
overhead at a given location. Normally the standard time for a country is based on a
noon (overhead sun position) at a particular longitude. If the location for which the
calculation is done is not falling on the same longitude at which the standard time is
fixed, the real noon time at the place of calculation will be different from the
standard noon time. The noon time for location under consideration should be
corrected by considering the difference in the longitude w.r.t. the standard longitude
of that country or region. Since 1 hour = 150,10 of longitude difference will be equal
to 4 minutes difference in time. Depending on whether the longitude of the location
under consideration is ahead or behind the standard longitude (standard meridian).
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The time should be either added or subtracted. Other than the longitudinal time
correction, one more correction called equation of time correction should also be
applied. As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes slightly with respect
to the local standard time. It is because of the fact that the earth’s orbit and its
rotational speed are not fixed, and are subjected to some fluctuations.
The equation of time correction is based on the experimental observations. The
amount of time to be corrected varies from month to month as shown in below
figure. The LAT or solar time for a location can be given as:
Where Tlocal is the local time, Longst and longlocal is the longitude of standard time
and local time resp.
The equation of time correction
The equation of time refers to the irregularity of the natural length of a day as
measured on a sundial.
This irregularity is caused by the non-circular orbit of the earth spinning around the
sun and the tilt of its axis relative to the sun. Combined it gives the composite curve
as presented below. In the form of a correction table is the graph below presented in
the form of the full calendar of order. With this table one can set a reference clock to
the sun. The graph below shows the difference the sundial makes with the mean
local time of a clock. A positive value means the clock has to be set back so many
minutes departing from mean local time in order to read the true of solar time. The
curve of this table looks as follows:
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Sundial
An instrument which uses the shadow cast by the Sun to tell the time. Because the
Earth’s axis is tilted in space and because the Earth does not travel at a constant
speed around the Sun, the time shown on a sundial can differ from true „clock‟ time.
The correction needed to convert sundial time to clock time is called the Equation of
Time.
Sundial
h2 + r2 = c2
c = (h2 + r2)1/2
h/r = tan (θ)
Calculation of Elevation Angle using Sundial
-1
θ = tan (h/r)
Where h = height of gnomon
r = length of shadow &
θ = incident angle of light source (Sun or artificial light source)
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The sun also moves through 46 degrees north-south over the period of a year. The
same set of panels set at the midpoint between the two local extremes will thus see
the sun move 23 degrees on either side, causing losses of 8.3% A tracker that
accounts for both the daily and seasonal motions is known as a dual-axis tracker.
Generally speaking, the losses due to seasonal angle changes is complicated by
changes in the length of the day, increasing collection in the summer in northern or
southern latitudes. This biases collection toward the summer, so if the panels are
tilted closer to the average summer angles, the total yearly losses are reduced
compared to a system tilted at the spring/fall solstice angle (which is the same as
the latitude).
Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackers
Photovoltaic panels accept both direct and diffuse light from the sky. The panels on
standard photovoltaic trackers always gather the available direct light. The tracking
functionality in standard photovoltaic trackers is used to minimize the angle of
incidence between incoming light and the photovoltaic panel. This increases the
amount of energy gathered from the direct component of the incoming light.
Technologies supported
The physics behind standard photovoltaic (PV) trackers works with all standard
photovoltaic module technologies. These include all types of crystalline silicon
panels (mono crystalline, multi crystalline, polycrystalline) and all types of thin film
panels (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, microcrystalline).
Types of Tracker system: There are three common methods that can be used to
implement a solar tracking system, i.e. time-based control method, sunlight intensity
comparison method and the space- time synchronization method. Time-based
control method works with a simple principle. However there are difficulties that lie
in the setup job of the system and the control accuracy is not good enough. Sunlight
intensity comparison method features high accuracy, simple circuit and easy
implementation, but doesn’t perform well in cloudy and gloomy days. Space-time
synchronization method has a high control precision and excellent adaptability, but
needs a complicated software system to support the hardware. Therefore the
control methods should be selected according to the practical requirements.
According to the mechanisms used to change the facing direction of solar panel,
solar tracking systems can be divided into single-axis and dual-axis systems. Single-
axis solar tracking system can only track the sunlight by rotating around a fixed
horizontal axis azimuthally moving from east to west over the course of a day, while
dual-axis solar tracking system can rotate about two axes, i.e. X and Y axes east to
west and zenith ally (vertically) to ensure the sunlight always hits solar panel
vertically.
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The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when
modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to
the secondary axis of rotation.
Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow
the sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky, dual axis
trackers are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun.
Tip–tilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT)
A tip–tilt dual axis tracker is so-named because the panel array is mounted on
the tip of a long pole.Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the
array around the top of the pole. On top of
the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of
the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array.
The posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a tip–tilt dual axis tracker
can be shared between trackers to lower installation costs.Field layouts with tip–tilt
dual axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping the
axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately
positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally the trackers would
have to be positioned at fairly low density in order to avoid one tracker casting a
shadow on others when the sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for
this by tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-sun shading and therefore
maximize the total power being collected.
The axes of rotation of tip–tilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either along a
true north meridian or an east west line of latitude. It is possible to align them
in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.
Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT)
An azimuth–altitude dual axis tracker has its primary axis vertical to the ground.
The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to
tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for daily
tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of the pole, AADAT systems
typically use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a series
of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of the array is
distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of
the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. Unlike
the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the
diameter of the ring, which may reduce the system density, especially
considering inter-tracker shading.
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DC Motor
H-Bridge (Motor Driver): An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage
to be applied across a load in either direction. It is an arrangement of transistors that
allows a circuit full control over a standard electric DC motor. That is, with an H-
bridge a microcontroller, logic chip, or remote control can electronically command
the motor to go forward, reverse, brake, and coast. The four transistors are
connected together in a “H-bridge” configuration with the motor connected in the
middle. To make the motor rotate in the forward direction, a high (logic “1″ or +5V)
signal is applied to the forward input, while no signal is applied to the reverse input
(applying a voltage to both inputs at the same time is not allowed). The transistors
work in diagonal pairs to provide +ve & -ve to the motor terminals or -ve & +ve to
the motor terminals for forward / reverse.
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The four power diodes D1-D4 protect the transistors from the voltage created by the
motor in the instant(s) after the motor has been stopped. As the motor still has
angular momentum, it will generate a voltage and current (Power). Diodes provide a
safe path for the motor energy to be dispersed or returned to the battery when the
motor is commanded to coast or stop.
Resistors R1-R4 prevents too much current from passing through the base (labeled
B) control pin of the transistor. The resistor value of 1 kilo ohm (1000 ohms) was
chosen to provide enough current to fully turn on (saturate) the transistor. A higher
resistance would waste less power, but might cause the motor to receive less power.
A lower resistance would waste more power, but wouldn’t likely provide better
performance for motors running on consumer batteries.
LCD: Most of the projects with the any processor/microcontroller CPU
(8085/8051/ARM) require some form of display. In market various displays are
available like 7-segment, 5*7 matrix LED and LCD, bar graph, LCD, etc. It’s important
for deciding the required display set for our project. Selection of display depends on
various factors like power consumption, ambient light conditions, surrounding
temperature, visibility from long distance, total information to be display, cost of
display, circuit/lines required for display interfacing, etc.
Microcontroller: This is the heart of the circuit which performs all commanding and
controlling operations. Microcontroller now days are becoming more popular
because of several advantages over microprocessor. As it reduces the requirement
of additional interfacing IC those are needed in microprocessor, the data which has
to be read and controlled is directly fed to microcontroller and the output is
displayed on LCD.
Light Sensor: Solar tracker monitors the position of the sun using two Photo
transistors as light sensor and made the decision to move the solar panels to
properly orient to the sun. The light sensor phototransistors are mounted on a shaft
that turns on the same axis as the solar panel. A phototransistor is in essence a
bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-
collector.
(a) Phototransistor (b) Mounting position on solar panel (c) Test circuit
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Graph showing higher solar energy collected by dual axis solar tracker as compared
to fixed system
Dual Axis Solar Tracking System Fixed Axis System
Comparison between solar energy collected by dual axis solar tracker & fixed system
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Operating Procedure
The operating procedure of Solar Tracking System is as follows:
1 First of all connect the Solar Panel and Battery terminals on mimic at
indicated position with proper polarity.
2 Now short the Ammeter terminals indicated on mimic with help of patch cord.
3 Now switch ON the toggle given on battery box for this move toggle switch
towards positive (red) terminal.
4 Now Complete system will ON and message will display on LCD which is given
below:
I. Manual Mode: In manual mode panel will move according to user from east
to west and track the sun’s East-West movement only.
II. Time Mode: In Time mode solar panel will move from east to west when we
select start button in sub menu of time mode. Panel will move approx 10 in
every 4 minutes i.e. 150 movement in every hour.
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III. Auto Mode: In auto mode first we keep panel on maximum east position
using Max. East button. On selecting Max. East button panel will move
towards maximum east (i.e. Y-axis angle will be 550 approx.) and then start
tracking using start button.
Dual Axis Tracking: If you select Dual Axis Tracking then System will track the sun’s
movement both in east-west axis as well as in north-south axis. Dual-axis tracker will
operate only in Manual mode.
By Pressing Switch „S1‟ i.e. Light Sensor you can see readings of Light Sensor 1
& 2 in terms of percentage.
On selecting Switch „S2‟ i.e. Angle Sensor, the angular position of panel in X &
Y – direction will display on LCD.
On selecting Switch „S3‟ i.e. Panel, reading of Voc & Isc will be displayed on
LCD. Initially only voltage will display, for current reading you have to move Pot
RL completely clockwise.
Note:
Emergency Stop Switch is provided to stop motor at any time or any condition.
Master Reset Switch is provided for resetting whole system.
Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Initially keep position of Master Reset Switch & Emergency Motor stop towards
downward position.
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Experiment 1
Objective: Study of V-I characteristics of fixed Solar Panel i.e. without tracking the
Sun.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
2 Halogen lamp with tripod
3 Rechargeable Battery
4 Rheostat
Note:
If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp.
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery .Before using battery make sure that battery is fully
charged. Never press Switch S1& S2 simultaneously.Similarly never press
Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Connection Diagram
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Procedure:
Now vary load resistance by moving rheostat RL towards maximum and
observe change in the reading of voltage and current of solar panel.
Now record the value of V & I in following observation table and plot the V-I
characteristics of Solar Panel. Expected V-I curve is as follows:
Observation Table:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Experiment 2
Objective:
Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel using Single-Axis Solar tracking in Manual
Mode.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
2 Halogen lamp with tripod
3 Rechargeable Battery
Note:
If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery
Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged. Never press Switch
S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Connection Diagram
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Procedure:
1 Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
2 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
3 Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
terminals of patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
4 `Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
message will display on LCD as follows:
5 Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
LCD will look as below:
7 Now Select Switch S1 for moving panel towards East & S2 for towards West.
8 Now observe change in readings of voltage & Current and plot V-I
characteristics Curve.
9 Now Compare above obtained V-I characteristics curve with V-I characteristics
curve obtained in experiment no. 1 i.e. without sun tracking.
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Experiment 3
Objective: Study of V-I characteristics of Solar Panel according to incident angle of
rays of light keeping Light source at fixed position and moving solar panel in manual
mode.
Items Required:
Patch Cords
Halogen lamp with tripod
Rechargeable Battery
Note:
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged. Never press Switch
S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Concentrate only on shadow of gnomon (of sundial) made by halogen lamp,
avoid any other shadow.
You can also perform this experiment with sunlight.
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
Connection Diagram
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Procedure:
Firstly fit the halogen lamp on given tripod and place the tripod such that
the light source (halogen lamp) directs the light straight at the solar panel
keeping solar panel horizontal on given assembly using single-axis solar
tracking in manual mode. for this follow below mentioned procedure.
Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
terminals of patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
message will display on LCD as follows:
Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
LCD will look as below:
Now for selecting Manual mode press switch S1, as you press switch S1 LCD will
look as below:
Adjust solar panel horizontal using Switch S1 for moving panel towards East &
S2 for towards West.
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Observation Table:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
12. Now move the panel towards west direction using switch S2 and calculate
incident angle and note down the corresponding readings of Voc & Isc.
13. Now calculate power using following formula:
P=V*I
14. Now record the corresponding value of power on above observation table and
you will observe that solar panel will give maximum power at 900.
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Experiment 4
Objective: Study and observation of Single-Axis Solar tracking in Time Mode.
Items Required:
1. Patch Cords
2. Rechargeable Battery
Note:
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged. Never press Switch
S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Concentrate only on shadow of gnomon (of sundial) made by halogen lamp,
avoid any other shadow.
You can also perform this experiment with sunlight.
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
Connection Diagram
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Time Mode
Procedure:
Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other terminals of
patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and message
will display on LCD as follows:
Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1 LCD
will look as below:
Now press Switch S2 for selecting Time mode and following message will display on
LCD.
Now you will observe solar panel will move towards West direction with time.
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Experiment 5
Objective: Study and observation of Single-Axis Solar tracking in Auto Mode.
Items Required:
1. Patch Cords
2. Rechargeable Battery
3. Rheostat
Note:
During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
Before using battery make sure that battery is fully charged.
Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously.
Start experiment at morning 8:20 O’clock, at this time angle of y-axis will be
550(Approx.) While starting experiment from other time set the solar panel’s
position as per given table of Sun hour Angle.
Connection Diagr
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Procedure:
1. Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
2 Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
3. Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
terminals of patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
4. Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
message will display on LCD as follows:
5. Now Press Switch S1 for selecting Single- axis tracking, as you press switch S1
LCD will look as below:
6. Now press Switch S3 for selecting Auto mode and following message will display
on LCD.
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7. Firstly orient the solar panel at max East position using switch S3. At this
position angle of y- axis will be 550 (approx.) and LCD will look like as follows:
8. Now Press Switch S1 to Start and following message will display on LCD.
Note: On Selecting switch S2 system will stop and on pressing Switch S4
system will go back to previous position.
9. Now note the readings of V & I, for this record the reading of voltage
displaying on LCD and for current reading move rheostat RL completely
towards minimum and wait 1 minute to avoid fluctuation in sunlight and note
the reading of current.
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Observation Table
2. 8:30Am
3. 9:00Am
4. 9:30Am
5. 10:00Am
6. 10:30Am
7. 11:00Am
8. 11:30Am
9. 12:00
10. 12:30Pm
11. 1:00Pm
12. 1:30Pm
13. 2:00Pm
14. 2:30Pm
15. 3:00Pm
16. 3:30Pm
17. 4:00Pm
12. Now you will observe from observation table that the readings of voltage
and current are almost equal for every hour.
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Experiment 6
Objective: Study the operation of Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System in Manual mode.
Items Required:
1 Patch Cords
2 Halogen lamp with tripod
3 Rechargeable Battery
Note:
1. If sunlight is not properly available then use halogen lamp.
2. During the experiment if crash occurs you can directly press the Master Reset
Switch for recovery.
3. Never press Switch S1 & S2 simultaneously.
4. Similarly never press Switch S3 & S4 simultaneously. Before using battery make
sure that battery is fully charged.
Connection Diagram
Manual Mode
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Procedure:
Connect Solar Panel terminals on mimic at indicated position with proper
polarity as shown in above figure.
Short the Ammeter terminals on mimic with help of patch chord.
Now connect 2 mm patch cords to battery section on mimic and other
terminals of patch chord to battery box with proper polarity.
Now switch ON the toggle switch of battery, complete setup will ON and
message will display on LCD as follows:
Now Press switch S2 for selecting Dual – axis Tracking, following message
will display on LCD.
Now presses switch S1 for Manual mode operation of Dual-axis Solar tracker.
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Glossary
Absorber: In a photovoltaic device, the material that readily absorbs
photons to generate charge carriers (free electrons or holes).
Alternating Current (AC): The direction of electrical current reverses,
usually many (50) times per second. Electricity transmission networks use AC
because voltage can be controlled with relative ease.
Amorphous: A type of PV solar panel that, unlike multi crystalline and
mono crystalline versions, are not made from expensive crystalline silicon solar
cells. They can have a plastic substrate and a very thin layer of silicon is sprayed
onto a backing material.
Ampere Hour (AH): A measure of current over time, used to measure battery
capacity.
Ampere Hour Meter: An instrument that monitors current with time. The
indication is the product of current (in amperes) and time (in hours).
Angle Of Incidence: The angle between the direct solar beam and the normal
(90 degrees) to the active surface.
Array: Any number of Photovoltaic modules connected together
electrically to provide a single electrical output. An array is a mechanically
integrated assembly of modules or panels together with support structure
(including foundation and other components, as required) to form a free-
standing field installed unit that produces DC power.
Azimuth Angle: Angle between the north direction and the projection of the
surface normal into the horizontal plane; measured clockwise from north. As
applied to the PV array, 180 degree azimuth means the array faces due south.
Battery: Two or more electrochemical cells enclosed in a container and
electrically interconnected in an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to
provide the required operating voltage and current levels. Under common
usage, the term battery also applies to a single cell if it constitutes the entire
electrochemical storage system.
Battery Energy Capacity: The total energy available, expressed in watt-
hours (kilowatt- hours), that can be withdrawn from a fully-charged cell or
battery. The energy capacity of a given cell varies with temperature, rate, age,
and cutoff voltage. This term is more common to system designers than it is to
the battery industry where capacity usually refers to ampere- hours.
Battery Life: The period during which a cell or battery is capable of
operating above a specified capacity or efficiency performance level. For
example, with lead-acid batteries, end- of-life is generally taken as the point in
time when a fully charged cell can deliver only 80% of its rated capacity.
Beyond this state of aging, deterioration and loss of capacity begins to
accelerate rapidly. Life may be measured in cycles and/or years, depending on
the type of service for which the cell or battery is intended.
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Cadmium (Cd): A chemical element used in making certain types of solar cells
and batteries.
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): A polycrystalline thin-film photovoltaic material.
Cat hodic Protection: Systems that protect underground metal from
corrosion by running small electrical currents along the metal. Most often
used to protect well heads, oil, gas, and water pipelines.
Charge Rate: The current applied to a cell or battery to restore its available
capacity. This rate is commonly normalized by a charge control device with
respect to the rated capacity of the cell or battery.
Charge Controller: A component of photovoltaic system that controls the
flow of current to and from the battery to protect the batteries from over-
charge and over-discharge. The charge controller may also indicate the system
operational status.
Concentrator: A photovoltaic module which includes optical components,
such as lenses, to direct and concentrate sunlight onto a solar cell of smaller
area. Most concentrator arrays must directly face or track the sun.
Current at Maximum Power (Imp): The current at which maximum power is
available from a module.
Diffuse Insulation: The radiant energy from the sky incident upon unit surface
area during a specified time period (Same units as for direct insulation).
Direct Insulation: The radiant energy from the sun (and a small area of sky
surrounding it, defined by the acceptance angle of the pyrheliometer) incident
upon unit surface area during a specified time period.
Efficiency: The ratio of power output of a Photovoltaic cell to the incident
power from the sun or simulated sun sources under specified standard
insulation conditions.
Electrolyte: The fluid used in batteries as the transport medium for positively
and negatively charged ions.
Electric Current: The rate at which electricity flows through an electrical
conductor, usually measured in amperes (amps).
Electricity: Energy resulting from the flow of charge particles, such as electrons
or ions.
Electrons: A negatively charged particle. The movement of electrons in an
electrical conductor constitutes an electric current.
Electron Volt (eV): The amount of kinetic energy gained by an electron
when accelerated through an electric potential difference of 1 Volt;
equivalent to 1.603 x 10^-19; a unit of energy or work.
Energy: The capability of doing work; different forms of energy can be
converted to other forms, but the total amount of energy remains the same.
Energy Density: The ratio of available energy per pound; usually used to
compare storage batteries.
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Epitaxial Growth: The growth of one crystal on the surface of another crystal.
The worth of the deposited crystal is oriented by the lattice structure of the
original crystal.
Equalization: The process of restoring all cells in a battery to an equal state-
of-charge. Some battery types may require a complete discharge as a part of
the equalization process.
Equalization Charge: The process of mixing the electrolyte in batteries by
periodically overcharging the batteries for a short time.
Equinox: The two times of the year when the sun crosses the equator and
night and day are of equal length; usually occurs on March 21st (spring
equinox) and September 23 (fall equinox).
Fill Factor: The ratio of a photovoltaic cell's actual power to its power if
both current and voltage were at their maxima. A key characteristic in
evaluating cell performance.
Fixed Tilt Array: A photovoltaic array set in at a fixed angle with respect to
horizontal.
Flat-Plate Array: A photovoltaic (PV) array that consists of non-concentrating
PV modules.
Flat-Plate Module: An arrangement of photovoltaic cells or material mounted
on a rigid flat surface with the cells exposed freely to incoming sunlight.
Flat-Plate Photo voltaic (PV): A PV array or module that consists of non
concentrating elements. Flat-plate arrays and modules use direct and diffuse
sunlight, but if the array is fixed in position, some portion of the direct sunlight
is lost because of oblique sun-angles in relation to the array.
Full Sun: The full sun condition is the amount of power density received at the
surface of the earth at noon on a clear day – about 100 mW/cm2. Lower levels
of sunlight are often expressed as 0.5 sun or 0.1 sun. A figure of 0.5 sun
means that the power density of the sunlight is one-half of that of a full sun.
Grid: Transmission line network used to distribute electric power.
Halogen Lamps: Lamps with very low wattage, that generate high intensity
light through a combination of specially coated, highly efficient reflectors.
Very low voltage with high efficiency deliver of light for low power
Incident Light: The incident light is the amount of light reaching an object.
Irradiance: The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a
surface. Usually expressed in kilowatts per square meter. Irradiance multiplied
by time equals insulation.
I-V Curve: A graphical presentation of the current versus the voltage from
a photovoltaic device as the load is increased from the short circuit (no load)
condition to the open circuit (maximum voltage) condition. The shape of the
curve characterizes cell performance.
Junction Diode: A semiconductor device with a junction and a built-in
potential that passes current better in one direction than the other. All solar
cells are junction diodes.
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Kilowatt-Hour: Unit of energy used to perform work (energy and work are
equivalent in units, energy being the potential value and work the achieved
value).
Load: Refers to equipment that is powered by electricity. Usually expressed
in terms of amperes or watts. In an electrical circuit, any devise or appliance
that uses power (such as a light bulb or water pump).
Maximum Power: The power at the point on the current-voltage
characteristic where the product of current and voltage is a maximum
(measured in watts).
Maximum Power Point (MPP): The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve
of a module under illumination, where the product of current and voltage is
maximum. For a typical silicon cell, this is at about 0.45 volts.
Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT): Means of a power conditioning unit
that automatically operates the photovoltaic generator at its maximum power
point under all conditions.
Maximum Power Tracking: Operating a photovoltaic array at the peak power
point of the array's I-V curve where maximum power is obtained. Also called
peak power tracking.
Nominal Voltage: A reference voltage used to describe batteries, modules, or
systems (i.e., a12-volt or 24-volt battery, module, or system).
pen Circuit Voltage (Voc): Voltage produced by a Photovoltaic cell with no
load applied when the cell is exposed to standard insulation conditions,
measured with a voltmeter.
Peak Power Point: Operating point of the I-V (current-voltage) curve for a
Photovoltaic cell or module where the product of the current value times the
voltage value is a maximum.
RMS: Amps, excluding the effects of all harmonic exponents; it could be called
fundamental power factor.
Renewable Energy: Flows of energy that are regenerative or virtually
inexhaustible. Most commonly includes solar (electric and thermal), biomass,
geothermal, wind, tidal, wave, and hydro power sources.
Semiconductor: A material such as silicon, which has a crystalline structure
that will allow current to flow under certain conditions. Semiconductors are
usually less conductive than metals but not an insulator like rubber.
Series Connection: A wiring configuration used to increase voltage. Series
wiring is positive to negative (+ to -) or negative to positive (- to +).
Silicon: A non-metallic element, that when specially treated, is sensitive to
light and capable of transforming light into electricity. Silicon is the basic
material of most beach sand, and is the raw material used to manufacture
most photovoltaic cells.
Single-Crystal Structure: A material having a crystalline structure such that a
repeatable or periodic molecular pattern exists in all three dimensions.
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Q8. What is the difference between a solar cell and a photovoltaic panel or
array?
Ans: A solar cell is a single device. A photovoltaic or solar panel consists of
multiple solar cells connected together into a single unit to protect the
solar cells and increase the voltage and power above that of a single solar
cell. Typically, you cannot buy solar cells, only photovoltaic panels.
“Photovoltaic panel” and “photovoltaic array” are sometimes used interchangeably,
but a photovoltaic array refers to all of the photovoltaic panels in particular
systems that are connected together.
Q9. What type of electricity is produced by a PV panel?
Ans: PV panels produce DC power, which stands for direct current. This is the
same type of power as in a battery, but is different to that produced by the
utility company, which is AC power. “AC” stands for “alternating current”. DC
power is converted into AC power via an inverter, which may be incorporated
into some types of PV modules, such that these modules produce AC power.
Q10. Why should we use photo voltaics (PV)?
Ans: For a growing number of users, PV is the clear choice. The number of
installed PV systems increases each year because their many advantages
make them the best option overall. Consider the following issues:
1 Site Access - A well-designed PV system will operate unattended
and requires minimum periodic maintenance. The savings in labor
costs and travel expenses can be significant.
2 Modularity - A PV system can be designed for easy expansion. If your
power demand could increase in future years, the ease and cost of
increasing the PV power supply should be considered.
3 Fuel Supply - Supplying conventional fuel to the site and storing it
can be much more expensive than the fuel itself. Solar energy is
delivered free of charge!
4 Environment - PV systems create no pollution and generate no waste
products when operating.
5 Maintenance - Any energy system requires maintenance, but
experience shows that PV systems require less maintenance than other
alternatives.
6 Durability - Most of today's PV modules are based on a proven
technology that has experienced little degradation in more than 25
years of operation.
7 Cost - Most solar panels are warranted for 25 years and have a
payback period that is far less than the warranty. Moreover, as oil and
gas costs rise the payback periods will be even shorter going forward.
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Q15. What are the basic pros and cons of single axis vs. dual axis solar
tracking systems?
Ans: There are mostly "pros" for both but you need to use the right system for the
right reasons. Generally Dual-axis trackers are more accurate in pointing
directly at the sun which is usually the brightest spot in the sky, however,
Dual axis comes at the price of higher complexity and lower reliability (more
down time and more maintenance) than single axis. On the other hand single
axis offers lower cost and higher reliability since there are fewer things that
can go wrong over the life of the system, which may be expected to exceed
20years or more. Watch a group of dual axis trackers in an overcast day and
you'll see them pointing all over the sky. Meanwhile, a group of single
axis trackers will be all facing the same direction and producing about the
same amount of energy per hour with a lot less wear and tear.
Q16. What is solar hour angle?
Ans: The Solar Hour Angle is a measure of the position of the sun relative to
solar noon at a given time at any given location on the earth. The hour angle
is zero when the sun is directly overhead (local solar noon). It is negative
before local solar noon and is positive in the afternoon. The hour angle
changes by 15o each hour or one degree in 4 minutes.
Q17. Why a Charge Controller is necessary?
Ans: Since the brighter the sunlight, the more voltage the solar cells produce, the
excessive voltage could damage the batteries. A charge controller is used to
maintain the proper charging voltage on the batteries. As the input voltage
from the solar array rises, the charge controller regulates the charge to the
batteries preventing any overcharging
Q18. What is a PWM charge controller?
Ans: PWM stands for Pulse Width Modulation and is basically a 3 stage
charging cycle type controller. Most decent charge controllers use this
technique.
Q19. What is a MPPT charge controller?
Ans: MPPT stands for Maximum Power Point Tracking. This is a newer type
controller that not only provides multi-stage charging, but it also delivers
more power to the batteries by matching the battery voltage to the solar
panel voltage. This makes them more efficient especially in varying levels of
sunshine. They also cost a little more.
Q20. What is solar cell efficiency and why do numbers of efficiency appear to
vary so widely?
Ans: Solar cells are often characterized by the percentage of the incident power
that they convert into power, called the power conversion efficiency or just
efficiency. The efficiency is given by a percentage. The efficiency of a solar
cell is determined by the material from which it is made and by the
production technology used to make the solar cell. Efficiencies for
commercially available solar cells range from about 5% to about 17%.
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Warranty
We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 12 months
from the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell
etc. are not covered under warranty. The guarantee will become void, if
The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the learning
material.
The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
The customer resells the instrument to another party.
Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately
giving full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning
the type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched
securely packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the
customer.
Note: Following items are not covered in the warranty: Battery
List of Accessories
Tripod 1 No.
Halogen Lamp with Assembly 1No.
Fuse 1A 10Nos.
24” Patch Cord (2 mm) Red/black . 1 Each
DB 25 pin connector cable 1 No.
12” Patch Cord (2 mm) Red/black 1 Each
Rechargeable Battery 1 No.
Rheostat with cable 1 No.
Sun Dial 1 No.
Allen key(2mm) 1 No
12V Battery charger 1No.
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