Unit 3

Teaching Objectives

After this unit, students will be able to:

· mark a book effectively
· take effective notes
· develop skill in using context clues in reading
· use word parts to expand vocabulary
· adopt skimming & scanning in reading menus
· know how and when to give tips
· understand long and complex sentences better
· recognize topic and topic sentence 
· recognize the logical pattern: illustration

Part I Reading Skills

Reading Skill IV: Marking a Book Guided Questions

Those questions call for personal opinion; answers will vary.
Reading Skill V: Taking Notes
Answers will vary.
Reading Skill: Using Context Clues (Student’s Book) Exercise 1
Directions: Guess the meanings of the underlined words according to the context in the
following sentences and tell what kinds of the context clues they are.
1. Stephen received a written reprimand from his supervisor when he showed up late
the third time. If his lateness continues, he will be asked to meet with a human
resources representative. reprimand: criticism (inference/ general context clues)
2. His sweater had many hues, such as green, navy blue, and magenta.
hues: colors (example clues)
3. Haberdasher, which is a store that sells men’s clothing, is becoming more common
today. haberdasher: a clothing store (definition/ explanation clues)
4. The heavy rain made it difficult to see. Jill meant to turn right on King Street, but
she inadvertently turned onto Cedar Street instead.
inadvertently: unintentionally (contrast/ antonym clues)
5. Employees from all five divisions convened in the auditorium to hear the company
president speak. auditorium: the area of a theater or concert hall where the
audience sits (word-part context clues)
6. Sue’s boss was a callous man. He did not react to her tears and apologies. callous:
insensitive to emotion; hard-hearted (restatement/ synonym clues)
7. People have gotten lost 10 meters from their homes in blizzards — snowfalls that
come down very thickly.
blizzard: a storm with widespread snowfall accompanied by strong winds
(punctuation) (Student’s Book) Exercise 2
Directions: William Shakespeare’s English is often difficult in the beginning for modern
readers to understand. Below is a passage from Shakespeare’s play “As You Like It.”
Read the passage and pay special attention to the underlined words.
As You Like It Act II Scene VII

All the world’s a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exists and their entrances;
And one man in his tie plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant,
Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms.
And then the whining school-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snail
Unwillingly to school. And then the lover,
Sighing like a furnace, with a woeful
ballad Made to his mistress’ eyebrow.
Then a soldier,
Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard,
Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble reputation
Even in the cannon’s mouth. And then the justice,
In fair round belly with good capon lined,
With eyes severe and beard of formal cut,
Full of wise saws and modern instances;
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slipper’d pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side,
His youthful hose, well saved, a world too wide,
For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice,
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.
Circle the letter of the word that most closely matches the word from the passage.
1. mewling A. sleeping B. reading C. talking ○D. crying

2. satchel A. table ○B. bag for books C. lemon D. wide road

3. woeful ○A. sad B. dancing C. intelligent D. awesome

4. pard A. barber B. teacup ○C. leopard D. spoon

5. capon A. fur ○B. fat chicken C. ribbons D.

bench

6. saws ○A. sayings B. tools C. monkeys D. cities

7. instances A. technology ○B. judgements C. dress D.

ships

8. pantaloon ○A. pants B. bed C. hot air balloon D.

thick book

9. shank A. head B. family C. income ○D.

legs

10. treble A. terrors B.games

○C. high pitched sound D. musical instrument

11. oblivion A. immortality B. joy

C. wisdom ○D. forgetfulness

12. sans A. false B. yellow ○C. without D. full of

Part II Nonprose Reading: Menus/ Giving Tips

Reading Purpose:
1. to apply reading skills such as skimming and scanning to nonprose reading such as
menu.
2. to adapt reading style according to range of purposes and apply different strategies
to different tasks as appropriate.
3. to learn how to order from the menu, how to tip and how to dine with good manners
in a Western restaurant.
Getting Started
(Omitted)
(Student’s Book) Web Quest
1. The Most American Foods
Usually when the world thinks of American food, it thinks of fast food and junk
snacks. In spite of this, the culinary history of the U.S.A is rich with some pretty
impressive inventions and iconic foods. America is a country of innovators, and that
includes the foods that they’ve redeveloped into delicious recipes.
The United States is a melting pot of people and cultures, so saying that a food is
“American” can be tricky. To some extent, “American” is defined in two ways. The
food must have originated in America, or it has to have become so symbolic of the
United States that its origin is no longer a part of it.
It is known that the hot dog and the hamburger are very symbolic of America. After
all, who goes to watch America’s favorite pastime, baseball, without getting a hot dog?
And a classic American cookout isn’t the same without a nice juicy burger, but
something else goes beyond them.

It’s not because they aren’t delicious, or that they aren’t “American” enough. But rather
that the United States has so many iconic foods, which are worth digging a little deeper.
You might be surprised to find out the origin of some of these American classics.
Chemists and vaudeville actors created some of the favorite foods. Most of them come
from humble beginnings, and now they are a staple part of the American cuisine identity.
From simple sweet snacks to traditional Sunday dinner dishes, these foods are as
American as well... apple pie! For your reference, the following are some of the typical
American sides:
1) Apple Pie
Apples aren’t technically native to America. In fact it was the first settlers from England
who brought the seeds. In fact, apple pie was popular in England before it was even
made in America. However, apple pie is one of the most American foods anyone could
think of. In fact, many polls and pie charts have proven that apple pie is Americans’
favorite variety of pie.
2) Chocolate Chip Cookies
Chocolate chip cookies are a childhood favorite for most American people, and it turns
out that they were invented in America. In Whitman, MA, to be precise, during the
1930s, Ruth Wakefield, owner of the Toll House Inn, came up with the cookies herself.
There are many myths as to how the idea to put chocolate in her cookies really came to
be, but the cookies are now a beloved dessert for adults and children.
3) Meatloaf
No other nation has the attachment to meatloaf the United States does. Even though a
version of it was recorded in ancient Roman cookbooks, the meatloaf we all know and
love (or hate) is an
American invention. In 1918, Fannie Farmer published the recipe for “Cannelon of Beef”
in The Boston Cooking School Cookbook. From then on, it became a classic family
meal, with every household coming up with its own recipe.
4) Twinkies
This is an obvious choice. After all, no other food in recent history caused such an
uproar when people thought they’d never be able to have it again. James Dewar, Hostess’
vice president at the time, invented the Twinkie in Illinois in 1930. A fun fact about
the Twinkie is that it was originally made with banana cream filling instead of vanilla.
5) Key Lime Pie
Key lime pie is the state food of Florida and it comes straight from the Florida Keys,
hence its name. Aunt Sally, personal chef for self-made millionaire William Curry, is
credited for making the first ever key lime pie during the late 1800s.
6) Corn Dogs
Brothers Carl and Neil Fletcher are credited for creating this American classic. They
were former vaudeville actors who, in 1942, sold the first corndogs at a Texas state fair.
Now the food is a favorite of state fairs everywhere. And it’s hard to find a grocery
freezer aisle that doesn’t have some form of corn dogs.
7) Peanut Butter Sandwiches
Peanut paste has existed in many forms since the time of the Aztecs, but it was very
different than what we know as peanut butter now. Many people credit George
Washington Carver with the invention of peanut butter, but really it was chemist Joseph
Rosefield, creator of Skippy, who really made peanut butter what it is today. He added
hydrogenated vegetable oil to the standard paste in 1922, and now almost 100 years
later, peanut butter sandwiches in their many forms are a popular meal for all Americans.
2. Courses served in a Western Dinner
In formal dining, a full course dinner can consist of 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 16 courses,
and, in its extreme form, has been known to have twenty-one courses. In these more
formalized dining events, the courses are carefully planned to complement each other
gastronomically. The courses are smaller and spread out over a long evening, up to three,
four or five hours, and follow conventions of menu planning that have been established
over many years. Most courses (excluding some light courses such as sorbets) in the
most formal full course dinners are usually paired with a different wine, beer, liqueur,
or other spirit.
In service à la russe, courses are brought to the table in sequence and only empty
plates are set in front of each guest. Courses are served on platters, and the guests make
selections from a variety of dishes and fill their own plate. Food presentation is skillfully
focused on the platters. A filled plate is never placed in front of a guest because that
would imply limited portions. Guests are expected to choose whatever they like and eat
as much as they want. Presentation is focused on individual portions.
In service à la française, food is served "family-style" with all courses on the table
at the same time. The guests serve themselves so that all dishes are not served at their
optimum temperatures. Alternatively, buffet style is a variation of the French service
where all food is available at the correct temperature in a serving space other than the
dining table. Guests commute to the buffet to be served or sometimes serve themselves
and then carry their plates back to the table.
In American formal dining, each course is served sequentially. Guests are served
plates already filled with food in individual portions. Sometimes, guests have an
opportunity to choose between vegetarian or meat entrées, but not always. There is no
opportunity to request something different, or to ask for more than a single serving.
However, portions are usually large. Since there are no platters, food presentation is
focused on individual portions, skillfully decorated to look like art, where each plate is
a masterpiece.
For you reference, the following are several simple examples:
1) 1 course meal
1 Main course
2) 2 course meal
1 Starter
2 Main course
3) 3 course meal
1 Appetizer (Soup)/Salad
2 Main Course and Accompaniment
3 Dessert/Pudding
4) 4 course meal
1 Appetizer (Soup)
2 Salad
3 Main Course and Accompaniment
4 Dessert/ Pudding
5) 5 course meal
1 Appetizer (Soup)
2 Side Order
3 Main Course
4 Salad
5 Dessert/Pudding
6) 6 course meal
1 Appetizer
2 Soup
3 Side Order
4 Main Course
5 Salad
6 Dessert/pudding
(Notes: Drinks, coffee and tea are not included.)
3. A Gratuity/ A Tip
A gratuity (also called a tip) is a sum of money customarily tendered, in addition
to the basic price, to certain service sector workers for a service performed or
anticipated. Depending on the country or location, it may be customary to tip servers in
bars and restaurants, taxi drivers, hair stylists, and so on.
Tips and their amount are a matter of social custom and etiquette, and the custom
varies between countries and settings. In some locations tipping is discouraged and
considered insulting; while in some other locations tipping is expected from customers.
The customary amount of a tip can be a specific range of monetary amounts or a certain
percentage of the bill based on the perceived quality of the service given.
In some circumstances, such as with U.S. government workers and more widely
with police officers, receiving gratuities (or even offering them) is illegal: they may be
regarded as bribery. A fixed percentage service charge is sometimes added to bills in
restaurants and similar establishments. Tipping may not be expected when a fee is
explicitly charged for the service.
From a theoretical economic point of view, gratuities solve the principal-agent problem,
and many managers believe they provide incentive for greater worker effort. However,
studies of the real world practice show that tipping is often discriminatory: workers
receive different levels of gratuity based on factors such as age, sex, race, hair color
and even breast size, and the size of the gratuity is found to be only very weakly related
to the quality of service.
While tipping is not mandatory in most of the United States, it is customary
in many circumstances for service, especially at almost all sit-down restaurants
which offer table service and many food servers depend on tips as an essential part
of their wage.
Some states allow a "tip credit" to count as part of the Federal Minimum Wage of
$7.25/hour so tipped employees may be paid as low as $2.00 an hour plus tips.
Generally, the average tip is 15% to 20% of the total meal cost.
Tipping practices can vary depending upon the location in the U.S., and even
published guidance can vary greatly depending upon the source. For example, some
Americans don't tip at a buffet restaurant, but it's generally good form to tip $1-2/person
for wait staff just clearing several rounds of plates, to as much as 10 percent if the wait
staff is refilling drinks and providing other services. The general rule is to tip in
proportion to the service, and the quality of service being delivered.
Tip jars at carry-out restaurants are a recent innovation, and one resisted by many

Americans. While one guide below advises to tip 10 percent at carry-out restaurants,
many Americans do not tip for carry-out, even when a tip jar is present, and tipping at
most chain restaurants, such as McDonald's, is not common. Some who do contribute
to tip jars, put in change or only $1, depending upon the size of the order.
Keep in mind that those who provide service are often dependent on tip income
and generally are grateful for any tips received, especially when prompt and exceptional
service has been provided. Tipping is the means by which to acknowledge good
service.
Many visitors to the U.S. feel pressured to tip even when they do not feel it is fair
or reasonable to do so.
Customers are REQUIRED to pay 'mandatory gratuities (tips)' if these are
disclosed (on the menu or elsewhere) prior to being served.
Mandatory gratuities are charged by many restaurants when large groups (6 or
more; sometimes, 8 or more) are being served. Mandatory gratuities also are used by
some restaurants with large numbers of foreign customers who may not be familiar with
American tipping customs, often in tourist centers such as New York City.
 When 'mandatory tipping' is practiced. you may add more to the 'mandatory tip' if
there is a desire to additionally reward some exceptional service. Always examine
your bill carefully to see if there is a mandatory gratuity included in the bill so that you
don't accidentally add an additional gratuity to your payment. If you feel your service
was deficient, you can request a manager in order to have the mandatory gratuity
adjusted downward.
Fast food restaurants do not have tipping as there is no 'table service' (when a server
brings your food to your table).
Some coffee shops, bakeries and other establishments have tip jars on their check-
out counters. These have become more prevalent in recent decades and there is some
confusion, even controversy about them. Generally, those who feel a desire to reward
good service will make a contribution to a tip jar. Others do not. Both are fine.
(Student’s Book) Overview: Skimming & Scanning
Directions: Skim the following “Menu” and “How to Tip Your Server at a Restaurant”
to get a general picture about dinning at a Western restaurant. Then scan for the
answers to the following questions.
1. What ’s the name of this restaurant?
The name of the restaurant is Portillo). (Note: Portillo’s Chocolate Cake in the down
right corner on the menu.
2. Does this restaurant serve formal Western dinners? No, it doesn’t. It serves fast
Western food
3. What main foods are available at this restaurant?
A variety of hot dogs, sandwiches and burgers are available at this restaurant.
4. Can you pay your bills with checks?
No, you can’t. They do not accept personal checks.
5. How do they make their Italian Beef? Can customers choose other ways?
They make their Italian Beef with extra gravy. The customers can choose other ways
and they are supposed to let their order taker know.
6. Are all the foods on this Menu served in its chain stores all over the U.S.A?
No, it is not the case. Foods with the mark “'” are not available in all locations.
7. Why are they bold enough to claim that their burgers are the best ones in town?
They char-broil burgers to lock in the juices and they serve their burgers straight from
the broiler to customers.
8. How do you know how much you should tip your server in the U.S.A when eating
in a restaurant?
Follow the baseline of tipping your server at least 15% of the total amount of your bill.
Use math to figure out the tip. Make sure whether the tip is included into your bill.
9. Could you name some tipping rules in the U.S.A?
Tip other restaurant staff. Use a tip generating app. Realize why tipping matters. Leave
a smaller tip for very poor service. Tell your server if the service was great.
10. What is the general map of tipping like in the world? Please describe it.
In the U.S.A tips are widely accepted and even encouraged to some extent. Tip sparingly
in Europe. Tip wisely in other areas of the world. Avoid tipping in most parts of Asia.
For detailed description, please study the map in this part.
(Student’s Book) Comprehension Check Scanning
Directions: Scan the following “Menu”. Order for the 6 Customers listed in the
following table. Then discuss your ordering with your partners.

Customer What “I” want… What “I” should order…

Lily, 43, a Vegetarian Salad either CARBAGE SALAD or

Classic Caesar Salad
Mike, 21, a Sportsman Main Food maybe order sth. big, such as
DOUBLE BURGER, BIG BEEF
and etc.
Rajeev, 35, an Indian American Main Food + Salad no beef

Alice, 6, a Pupil Snacks SIDE ORDERS& DESSERTS

Amina, 55, a Visiting Scholar A Lunch Set no hotdogs; no sausages

from Iran
Victor Li, 23, an Overseas With $10 on me, I have already
Student ordered the BURGER. I’d like the Burger costs $4.10
to have something else.
Directions: Scan “How to Tip Your Server at a Restaurant”. Then scan for the answers
to the following questions. True/ False/ Not Given items are indicated by T/ F/ NG
preceding the statement.
1. T/ F/ NG In the U.S.A, you don’t need to pay the tip if the food is served buffet
style. (F) 2. T/ F/ NG Tipping the server less than 20 percent in the U.S. A is usually
considered offensive. (F )
3. T/ F/ NG Tipping is more likely to be accepted in South Korea than Japan.
(NG)
4. T/ F/ NG In the U.S.A you must tip your server without any discounts.
(T )
5. T/ F/ NG Suppose you are holding a party of 20 in a restaurant in the U.S.A,
you don’t need to pay the tip. (F )
6. T/ F/ NG You don’t need to pay tips in the Starbucks. (T)
7. T/ F/ NG In some states of the U.S.A, you could tip the server by simply
multiplying the sales tax on your bill by 3. (T )
8. T/ F/ NG The servers in the U.S.A earn more on average than the servers in the
Europe thanks to their extra income from being tipped. (NG)
9. T/ F/ NG Israel and Chile have the same tipping rules and customs. (F) 10. T/ F/
NG In Europe it’s impolite if you just leave the tip on table after you
dine in a restaurant. (T )
11. T/ F/ NG In the U.S.A some servers need to share the tips with other partners in
order to strike an income balance. (T)
12. T/ F/ NG It’s widely acknowledged in the U.S.A to tip the server 25% percent if the
service is extremely satisfactory. (F ) Application Tasks: Role Play
For Teachers:
Teachers can ask the students to play the role of the 6 “Customers” in the above
Scanning Exercise.
Further Web Researching: Table Etiquette
Table manners rules are not complicated, but will help you make a great
impression at your next meal.
1. Seating Etiquette
Your host may have seating arrangements in mind, so you should allow him to
direct you to your seat. As the host, you should suggest the seating arrangements.
In a restaurant, the guest of honor should sit in the best seat at the table. Usually that is
one with the back of the chair to the wall. Once the guest of honor's seat is determined,
the host should sit to her left. Other people are then offered seats around the table.
2. Napkin Etiquette
At informal meals, place the napkin in your lap immediately upon seating. During
formal occasions, before unfolding the napkin, wait for the hostess to remove her
napkin from the table and unfold it in her lap.
1) Unfolding the Napkin.
Unfold your napkin in one smooth motion without "snapping" or
"shaking" it open.
The size determines how you unfold a napkin in your lap.
Large napkins are unfolded halfway.
Smaller napkins are unfolded completely and cover the lap fully.
2) Don't Tuck the Napkin.
 Don't tuck a napkin into your collar, between the buttons of your shirt, or in your
belt.
3) Using the Napkin.
Use your napkin frequently during the meal to blot or pat, not wipe, your lips. Blot
your lips before taking a drink of your beverage.
4) Napkin Rings.
If a napkin ring is present, after removing your napkin, place the ring to the top-
left of the setting. At the end of the meal, grasp the napkin in the center, pull it
through the ring, and lay it on the table with the point facing the center of the
table.
5) Temporarily Leaving the Table.
When leaving the table temporarily, put your napkin on your chair. If the chair is
upholstered, place the napkin soiled side up.
6) Placing the Napkin at the End of the Meal.
At the meal's end:
The napkin is loosely folded at the end of the meal.
If a plate is in the center of your place setting, when leaving the table lay the napkin
to the left of the plate.
If the center of your place setting is empty, the napkin is laid in the middle
of the place setting.
Leave your napkin in loose folds that keep soiled parts hidden.
If after-dinner coffee is served at the table, the napkin remains in your lap
immediately upon seating. During formal occasions, before unfolding the
napkin, wait for the hostess to remove her napkin from the table and
unfold it in her lap.
3. Food Service Etiquette
During service of a formal dinner, the food is brought to each diner at the table;
the server presents the platter or bowl on the diner's left. At a more casual meal, either
the host dishes the food onto guests' plates for them to pass around the table or the
diners help themselves to the food and pass it to others as necessary.
4. The Table Setting
Deciding which knife, fork, or spoon to use is made easier by the outside-in table
manners rule – using utensils on the outside first and working your way inward. Our
table setting section discusses in greater detail what you'll see at the table.
5. When To Start Eating
At a small table of only two to four people, wait until everyone else has been
served before starting to eat. At a formal or business meal, you should either wait until
everyone is served to start or begin when the host asks you to.
6. Handling Utensils
The continental table manners style prevails at all meals, formal and informal,
because it is a natural, non-disruptive way to eat.
Hold your fork in your left hand, tines downward.
Hold your knife in your right hand, an inch or two above the plate.
Extend your index finger along the top of the blade.
Use your fork to spear and lift food to
your mouth. If your knife is not needed,
it remains on the table.
7. Passing The Food
Pass to the right. One diner either holds the dish as the next diner takes some food,
or he hands it to the person, who then serves herself. Any heavy or awkward dishes are
put on the table with each pass. Special rules apply to passing salt and pepper and
passing bread and butter.
8. Resting Utensils
When you pause to take a sip of your beverage or to speak with someone, rest your
utensils by placing your knife and fork on your plate near the center, slightly angled in
an inverted V and with the tips of the knife and fork pointing toward each other.
9. Meals End
At a formal affair, plates are removed by a professional staff. But as most
informal meals are served without help, the hostess clears the plates, often with the
help of a guest or two. At a family meal, members clear their own plates.
Leaving the dining room. To signal dinner is concluded, the hostess catches the
eye of the host, lays her napkin on the table, and suggests that everyone go into
another room for coffee and after-dinner drinks. The hostess rises from her chair.
When it's time to leave, rather than detain one's host with a lengthy good-bye, make the
departure brief but cordial.
Top Ten Table Manners Tips in the
U.S.A Before the Meal

1. Place your napkin on your lap.

2. Keep personal items (including smart phones) off the table.

During the Meal

3. Wait until all guests are served and the host begins eating before you begin eating.

4. Understand the table setting – use the “outside-in” rule.

5. Hold your utensils in the Continental style.

Continental Style: Place your knife and fork on your plate near the center, slightly
angled in an inverted V and with the tips of the knife and fork pointing toward each
other.

6. Chew with your mouth closed.

7. Always pass the salt and pepper together.

8. If an item is not being passed to a specific person, pass food from left to right.
After the Meal 9. When finished eating, position your
silverware to tell the server you are done.

10. Fold your used napkin and place it to the left of your place setting.
Part II Word Building

Supplementary Tips
1. “Base”, “Stem” and “Root”
In English grammar and morphology, a stem is the form of a word before any
inflectional affixes are added. In English, most stems also qualify as words.
The term base is commonly used by linguists to refer to any stem (or root) to
which an affix is attached.
2. The Difference Between a Base
and a Stem
"Base is the core of a word, that part of the word which is essential for looking up
its meaning in the dictionary; stem is either the base by itself or the base plus another
morpheme to which other morphemes can be added. [For example,] vary is both a base
and a stem; when an affix is attached the base/stem is called a stem only. Other affixes
can now be attached."1
3. The Difference Between a Root
and a Stem
"The terms root and stem are sometimes used interchangeably. However, there is
a subtle difference between them: a root is a morpheme that expresses the basic
meaning of a word and cannot be further divided into smaller morphemes. Yet a root
does not necessarily constitute a fully understandable word in and of itself. Another
morpheme may be required. For example, the form struct in English is a root because
it cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts, yet neither can it be used in
discourse without a prefix or a suffix being added to it (construct, structural,
destruction, etc.)
"A stem may consist of just a root. However, it may also be analyzed into a root
plus derivational morphemes . ... Like a root, a stem may or may not be a fully
understandable word. For example, in English, the forms reduce and deduce are stems
because they act like any other regular verb--they can take the past-tense suffix.
However, they are not roots, because they can be analyzed into two parts, -duce, plus a
derivational prefix re- or de-. . . .
"So some roots are stems and some stems are roots . . ., but roots and stems are
not the same thing. There are roots that are not stems (-duce) and there are stems that

1 Bernard O'Dwyer, Modern English Structures: Form, Function, and Position. Broadview, 2000
are not roots (reduce). In fact, this rather subtle distinction is not extremely important
conceptually, and some theories do away with it entirely."2
4. The Three Main Morphological
Processes 1) Compounding
Compounding involves adding two stems together.
2) Affixation
For the most part, affixes attach to free stems, i.e., stems that can stand alone
as a word.
Examples are to be found, however, where an affix is added to a bound stem.
3) Conversion
Conversion is where a stem is derived without any change in form from one
belonging to a different class.
5. A list of Prefixes Indicating Numbers
Prefix Indicated Example
Number
semi-, demi-,hemi- half semicircle, semifinal, demigod, demimonde,
hemisphere, hemiplegia
mono-, uni-, sol- one monopoly, monotheism, unison, unilateral, soliloquy,
solitude
bi-, di-, du-, twi- two bipartisan, bicentennial, diarchy, dilemma, dual,
duet, twin, twilight
tri- three trinity, triangle
quadru-, tetra- four quadruped, quadruple, tetragon, tetralogy
penta-, quin- five pentagon, pentameter, quint, quintessence
hexa-, sexa- six hexagon, hexapod, sexagenary, sextuplet
hepta-, septa- seven heptagon, heptahedron, septangle, September (In
ancient Rome, September was the 7th month of the
year.)
octa- eight octagon, octopus, October (In ancient Rome,
October was the 8th month of the year.)
nona- nine nonagon, November (In ancient Rome, November
was the 9th month of the year.)
deca-, deci- ten decade, decagon, decimate, decimal
cent-, hector- hundred centurion, centipede, hectare, hectometer

2 Thomas Payne, Exploring Language Structure: A Student's Guide, Cambridge University Press, 2006
 mili-, kilo- thousand millennium, millipede, kilometer, kilogram
poly-, multi- many polytheism, polyclinic, multiply, multilateral
pan-, omni- all panorama, pandemonium, omniscient, omnivorous

6. All the prefixes, suffixes and roots appeared in the following supplementary
exercises are chosen from the selections of Unit 4. Besides learning the words through
analysis of word structure, you can also encourage students to learn these words with
context clues.
( Student’s Book) Exercise 1
Directions: For each item, select the best definition of the italicized word.
1. The disabled, the mentally disordered, people with hydrophobia, heart disease, the
pregnant women and the drunken people are definitely not adapted to driftage.
A. abnormal fear of water and drinking, esp. as a symptom of rabies in humans √
B. abnormal fear of great heights
C. abnormally high blood pressure
D. abnormally wild emotion or excitement
2. An International Criminal Court has been created to deal with genocide, war crimes
and crimes against humanity. A. deliberate possession of guns
B. unintentional act of betrayal
C. systematic killing of a racial or cultural group √
D. illegal research on genes
3. Co-educational schools probably tend to hasten heterosexual experimentation.
A. falling in love at the first sight
B. falling in puppy love
C. feeling excessive love for oneself
D. feeling sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex √
4. Finally the conclusions are drawn that desegregation is only one way to gain
equality for minorities.
A. the action of respecting religions of different races
B. the action of incorporating a racial or religious group into a community √
C. the action of building up special reservations for minorities
D. the action of improving living conditions of minorities
5. There are also exotic pets, reptiles and a variety of other wild animals in this zoo.
A. not native √
B. not common
C. endangered
 D. tamed
6. We should further promote dialogue and reconciliation and step up the solution of
regional hot issues.
A. cooperation in business
B. mutual visits
C. renewal of friendly relations √
D. cultural exchanges
( Student’s Book) Exercise 2
Directions: Word analysis can help you to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Using context clues and what you know about word structure, write a synonym,
description, or definition of the italicized word or phrase.
1. _______________These events provided the inspiration for his first novel.
inspiration=in-(into)+spir(breathe)+-ation(n.)
the act of inhaling; arousing to a particular emotion or action; a
product of your creative thinking and work
2. _________ A monarch or any other leader must be a person with foresight, a kind
heart, and courage.
monarch=mon-(one)+arch(rule)
a nation's ruler or head of state usually by hereditary right
3. _______________Geneva is one of Europe's most cosmopolitan cities, bordered
by the Alps and stunning Lake Geneva.
cosmopolitan=cosm(universe)+polit(city)+-an(adj./n.)
composed of people from or at home in many parts of the world; of worldwide scope
or applicability
4. _______________The story, set in England, can be interpreted as an
autobiographical novel of Lawrence.
autobiographical=auto-(self)+bio(life)+graph(description)+-ical(adj.)
of or concerning story of a person’s life written by that person
5. _______________ He gave a detailed chronology of the main events of the last
three days. chronology=chron (time) +-ology (the study of)
science of fixing the dates of historical events; arrangement or list of events in the order
in which they occurred
6._______________Too much caffeine can cause anxiety, depression,
and insomnia. insomnia=in (no) +somn (sleep) +ia (disease) inability to
sleep
7._______________ The Chinese word for cake is Gao, a homonym of the Chinese
word for high.
homonym=homo (same) +nym (name)
word spelt and pronounced like another word but with a different meaning
8._______________Blessed Teresa of Calcutta was so kind that she was known to melt
the heart of even the hardest misanthrope.
misanthrope=mis-(hate) +anthrope
(human) a person who hates mankind and
avoids human society
9._______________There will be a talk on the international situation in the auditorium
at 3 on Saturday afternoon. auditorium=audit (listening) +-orium (place)
part of a theatre, concert hall, etc. in which an audience sits
10. _______________Doctors usually prescribe exercise and relaxation techniques,
painkillers or sometimes a low-dose antidepressant to treat the symptoms.
antidepressant=anti-(against) +depress+-ant
(thing) drug that reduces depression
( Student’s Book) Exercise 3
Directions: Change the suffixes to form words sharing the same roots. Make changes
in the spelling where necessary.
1. narrate (v.)→ (narration) (n.)→ (narrative) (adj.) → (narrator) (person)
2. eminence (n.)→(eminent)(adj.)→(eminently)(adv.)
3. arrogate (v.)→ (arrogance) (n.)→(arrogant)(adj.)→(arrogantly)(adv.)
4. spontaneous (adj.) → (spontaneously) (adv.) → (spontaneousness/ spontaneity) (n.)
5. respond (v.)→ (response) (n.)→(responsive)(adj.)→(responsively)(adv.)
  → (responsiveness) (n.)
6. pervade (v.)→ (pervasion) (n.)→(pervasive)(adj.)
7. perceive (v.)→ (perception ) (n.)→(perceptive)(adj.)→(perceptively)(adv.)
  → (perceptiveness/perceptivity) (n.)

8. evolve (v.)→ (evolution) (n.)→(evolutionary)(adj.)

9. arbitrary (adj.) → ( arbitrate ) (v.)→ (arbitration) (n.)→(arbitrator/ arbiter )(person)
10. symbol (n.)→(symbolic/symbolical)(adj.)→(symbolically)(adv.)
  → (symbolize/ symbolise) (v.)

Part IV Sentence Comprehension: Long and Complex Sentence

( Student’s Book) Exercise 1

Directions: Read each sentence, analyze its syntax efficiently and find out its main core.
1. It has been pointed out many times that every American war since the War of 1812
has had its revisionists——historians who concluded after the fighting ended that
 the official explanation for the war was wanting and that the national interest did
not require that war be waged.
2. I look back at the same childhood incident, recall my third gift, the book in red
issue paper, and I, too, take inventory of the experiences that have make me who
and what I am.
3. Not only would I try to persuade Dad to start farming differently using natural,
holistic methods, I hoped to integrate a new philosophy into all of my family’s life,
including meals.
4. Once the discipline is established, the problem chosen, and the scientist immersed
in the work, he or she becomes as persuaded as need be of the centrality and
urgency of the particular work being done.
5. Numerous accounts of tourist’s “loving nature to death” have been reported, and
concern is growing that ecotourism is becoming nothing more than a “green” label
that dresses up exploitative and destructive human behavior.
6. I suddenly recognized why I, a non-scientist, or anyone should care about what
happens to them: not, ultimately, because they use tools and solve problems and
are intellectual beings, but because they are emotional beings, as we are, and
because their emotions are so obviously similar to ours.
7. The literary and historical entries often turned out to be Western cultural
imperialism at its worst, whereas the science and technology entries were a cabinet
of wonders, a window into the ingenuity of the human mind when its information
was insufficient and it must therefore chew more than it can bite off.
8. Other studies along these lines have shown that extroverts have greater pain
tolerance than introverts and that, with training, one can diminish one’s sensitivity
to pain.
9. Although we were at the age when one always had the need, instinct, and
immodesty of inflicting on one another everything that swarms in one’s head and
elsewhere, nothing had gotten through Sandro’s shell of reserve, nothing of his
inner world, which nevertheless one felt was dense and fertile——nothing save a
few occasional, dramatically truncated hints. 10. Remarkably, the lack of any
progress in achieving a predictive version of string theory that could be
tested by experiment has not led to theorists’ giving it up.
( Student’s Book) Exercise 2
Directions: Read each sentence carefully and then choose a sentence from A, B, C or
D which best expresses its essential information.
1. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as
is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes.
 A. Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be
seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes.
B. As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increases, leading to a serious
decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes.
C. The deformed shapes of tress at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which
increases with altitudes, can cause serious hardship for trees. √
D. Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this
may cause serious stress for trees.
2. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their
well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained rites as parts of their
oral tradition the myths
that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities
rather than for their religious usefulness.
A. A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths
were admired for artistic qualities.
B. The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society
to abandon it from the oral tradition.
C. Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites
ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being. √
D. Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic
qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial.
3. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but
unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the
region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a
centimeter a year.
A. Despite the current impressive size of the aquifer, the region’s climate keeps
the rates of water addition very small. √
B. Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter
a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of filling Lake Huron.
C. Because of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each
year to the aquifer.
D. Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of
addition of water continue to increase.
4. Continued sedimentation——the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—
—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures,
which convert the organic matter to oil and gas.
A. Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation, which is
responsible for petroleum formation.
 B. Deposits of sediments on top of organic matter increase the temperature of and
pressure on the matter.
C. Increase pressure and heat from the weight of the sediment turn the organic
remains into petroleum. √
D. The remains of microscopic organisms transform into petroleum once they are
buried under mud.
5. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the Pacific was settled by
Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable
that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out
fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals.
A. Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became
lost while transporting domestic plants and animals.
B. The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned
rather than accidents as some people have proposed. √
C. The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but
they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions.
D. Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would
set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence.
Supplementary Exercise
6. There appear to be many unexplored matters about motivation to reflect——for
example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers
who might reflect by habit.
A. The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers
but something that is externally motivated.
B. Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when
no external motivation exists.
C. Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the
comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among
teachers.
  √
D. There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflections as
a habit with or without external motivation.
7. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation
was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast.
A. Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense
and restless movements.
B. Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in
the direction of their normal migratory route.
 C. Experiments revealed that the restless movements of caged starlings had to
clear direction.
D. Experiments revealed that caged starlings’ orientation was accurate unless the
weather was overcast. √
8. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger
society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society’s cultural pattern and
provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.
A. Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they
help maintain a society’s cultural patterns. √
B. Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the
individual and the larger society.
C. Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap
between society and primary groups.
D. Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity
arise as bridges from primary groups.
9. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most
advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or
association.
A. Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children’s emotional
immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations.
B. Rational appeals play a much smaller role in advertisements for children than
emotional appeals and psychological associations do. √
C. Indirect appeals to children’s psychological states or associations can limit the
effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising.
D. Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited
until the children are emotionally and psychological ready.
10. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to
have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most
communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of
men, including, often, their military skills.
A. Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies,
gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and
social status.
B. Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities
began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the
military.
C. Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies
of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.
 D. In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth
is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same
skills that men do. √

Part V Sentence and Paragraph Comprehension: Topic & Topic

Sentence

( Student’s Book) Exercise 1

Directions: Read the following paragraphs and choose the most appropriate topic for
each paragraph.
1. I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and lonely means
of travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability of the street, and exercises
upon the individual a discipline which takes away far more freedom than it gives him.
It causes an enormous amount of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and
from plant life and to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities,
grievously impairs the whole institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes and destroys
communities. It has already spelled the end of our cities as real cultural and social
communities, and has made impossible the construction of any others in their place.
Together with the airplane, it has crowded out other, more civilized and more
convenient means of transport, leaving older people, infirm people, poor people and
children in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago. A. Problems of
automobiles √
B. Effects of automobiles
C. Automobiles
D. Private automobiles
2. Capital punishment of criminals has always been a problem for society. Citizens
have had to decide whether offenders such as first-degree murderers should be killed
in a gas chamber, imprisoned for life, or rehabilitated and given a second chance in
society. Many citizens argue that serious criminals should be executed. They believe
that killing criminals will set an example for others and also rid society of a
cumbersome burden. Other citizens say that no one has the right to take a life and that
capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. They believe that society as well as the
criminal is responsible for the crimes and that killing the criminal does not solve the
problems of either society or the criminal.
A. Different views on capital punishment √
B. Capital punishment
C. Problems of society
D. Capital punishment, not direct solution
3. Those students you see “studying” in the cafeteria or game room aren’t learning
much. You just can’t learn when you are distracted by people or noise. Even the library
can be a bad place to study if you constantly find yourself watching the clouds outside
or the students walking through the stacks. It takes guts to sit, alone, in a quiet place in
order to study. But you have to do it. Find a room at home or a spot in the library that’s
relatively quiet—and boring. When you sit there, you won’t have much to do except
study.
A. A good place to study √
B. Problems with library
C. Studying in Cafeteria
D. How to study effectively
4. Why do these propaganda techniques work? Why do many of us buy the products,
viewpoints and candidates urged on us by propaganda messages? They work because
they appeal to our emotions, not our minds. Often, in fact, they capitalize on our
prejudices and biases. For example, if we are convinced that environmentalists are
radicals who want to destroy America’s record of industrial growth and progress, then
we will applaud the candidate who refers them as “tree-huggers.” Clear thinking
requires hard work: analyzing a claim, researching the facts, examining both sides of
an issue, using logic to see the flaws in an argument. Many of us would rather let the
propaganda do our thinking for us.
A. Reasons of propaganda’s influence on people √
B. Propaganda’s work on emotions
C. Prejudices and biases in propaganda
D. Influence of propaganda
5. Language is like the air we breathe. It’s invisible, inescapable, indispensable, and
we take it for granted. But when we take the time, step back, and listen to the sounds
that escape from the holes in people’s faces and explore the paradoxes and vagaries of
English, we find that hot dogs can be cold, darkrooms can be lit, homework can be done
in school, nightmares can take place in broad daylight, while morning sickness and
daydreaming can take place at night, tomboys are girls, midwives can be men,
hours―especially happy hours and rush hours—can last longer than sixty minutes,
quicksand work very slowly, boxing rings are square, silverware can be made of plastic
and tablecloths of paper, most telephones are dialed being punched (or pushed?), and
most bathrooms don’t have any baths in them. In fact, a dog can go to the bathroom
under a tree―no bath, no room; it’s still going to the bathroom. And doesn’t it seem at
least a little bizarre that we go to the bathroom in order to go to the bathroom?
A. Similarity between language and air
B. Importance of English
C. Craziness of English √
D. Paradoxes and vagaries of English
( Student’s Book) Exercise 2
Directions: Read the following paragraphs, identify the topic and underline the topic
sentence for each paragraph.
1. A friend’s rudeness is much more damaging than a stranger’s. When a friend says
sharply, “I don’t have time to talk to you just now,” you feel hurt instead of anger. When
a friend shows up late for lunch or a shopping trip, with no good reason, you feel that
you’ve taken for granted.
Worst, though, is when a friend pretends to be listening to you but his or her wandering
eyes show a lack of attention. Then you feel betrayed. Friends, after all, are supposed
to make up for the thoughtless cruelties of strangers.
Topic: friend’s rudeness
2. One of the strongest arguments in favour of limiting the amount of time that
youngsters spend in front of screens is that children need to be more active in order to
have a healthy lifestyle. Research shows that there is an increasing number of
overweight children in the developed world and that there is a link between the amount
of time spent in front of screens and being overweight. If children were not allowed to
be on screens, they would find other ways to entertain themselves, and this would
include playing games and sports. Research also shows that active children grow into
active adults. So restricting screen time for children would have a lifelong impact on
the people concerned.
Topic: argument for limiting youngsters’ screen time
3. For my family, Sunday is undoubtedly the best day of the week. We get home from
church around 12:30. After a late lunch the day seems to stretch before us unendingly.
Usually, my brothers and I leaf through the extra-thick Sunday paper (with full-color
comics!) for a while, and then postpone our homework, choosing to nap or go for a ride
instead. Occasionally, there’s an old movie worth watching on television, or at least a
golf tournament, which my dad snores through on the recliner in our warm living room.
And, of course, it’s always nice just to sit in the shade with a Coke or lemonade while
the afternoon floats by.
Topic: Sunday, the best day
4. Online learning has its problems. Although student surveys always show students
like to have access to materials online, the take-up of purely online courses is low.
When questioned, students find that studying online can be a lonely and unsatisfying
experience. Not only do students miss the human interaction with other students, they
also don’t like having to wait for answers to work that they have done.
Topic: online learning
5. There are many reasons why some people are against wearing a school uniform.
For one thing, they do not like the style of the uniform. The navy blazers and tight
trousers or plaid skirts are too conservative for them. Secondly, the uniform is not
comfortable. They prefer to wear baggy pants and sweaters instead. Finally, they want
the freedom to express their freedom through their personalized ways of dressing.
Topic: reasons against wearing school uniform

Part VI Logical Pattern: Illustration

★ For Teachers:

To arouse students’ interest in understanding the concept of illustration and catch

their attention to the function of illustrations, teachers may cite some simple and
impressive examples in our life. The following example is for your reference.

8th

November, 2016

A Statement by the Communications Secretary to Prince Harry

Since he was young, Prince Harry has been very aware of the warmth that has
been extended to him by members of the public. He feels lucky to have so many
people supporting him and knows what a fortunate and privileged life he leads.

He is also aware that there is significant curiosity about his private life. He has
never been comfortable with this, but he has tried to develop a thick skin about
the level of media interest that comes with it. He has rarely taken formal action
on the very regular publication of fictional stories that are written about him and
he has worked hard to develop a professional relationship with the media,
focused on his work and the issues he cares about.
 But the past week has seen a line crossed. His girlfriend, Meghan Markle, has
been subject to a wave of abuse and harassment. Some of this has been very
public- the smear on the front page of a national newspaper, the racial undertones
of comment pieces; and the outright sexism and racism of social media trolls and
web article comments. Some of it has been hidden from the public- the nightly
legal battle to keep defamatory stories out of papers; her mother having to
struggle past photographers in order to get to her front door; the attempts of
reporters and photographers to gain illegal entry to her home and the calls to
police that followed; the substantial bribes offered by papers to her ex-boyfriend;
the bombardment of nearly every friend, co-worker, and loved one in her life.

Prince Harry is worried about Ms. Markle’s safety and is deeply disappointed that
he has not been able to protect her. It is not right that a few months into a
relationship with him that Ms. Markle should be subjected to such a storm. He
knows commentators will say this is ‘the price she has to pay’ and that ‘this is all
part of the game’. He strongly disagrees. This is not a game- it is her life and his.

He has asked for this statement to be issued in the hopes that those in the press
who have been driving this story can pause and reflect before any further damage
is done. He knows that it is unusual to issue a statement like this, but hopes that
fair-minded people will understand why he has felt it necessary to speak publicly.
Questions for Discussion
1. Why does the Communications Secretary issue this statement to Prince Harry? In
other words, what’s the thesis of this statement?
2. What are the illustrations in this statement?
3. Do these illustrations arouse your sympathy for Prince Harry and his girlfriend, Ms.
Markle?
Working with Illustration
Discussion / Composition
Excerpts from “Propaganda Techniques in Today’s Advertising” by Ann McClintock:
(4) Testimonial. The testimonial is one of advertisers’ most-loved and most-used
propaganda techniques. Similar to the transfer device, the testimonial capitalizes on the
admiration people have for a celebrity to make the product shine more brightly – even
though the celebrity is not an expert on the product being sold.
 Print and television ads offer a nonstop parade of testimonials: here’s William
Shatner for Priceline.com; here’s basketball star Michael Jordan eating Wheaties; a
slew of well-known people (including pop star Madonna) advertise clothing from the
Gap; and Jerry Seinfeld assures us he never goes anywhere without his American
Express card. Testimonials can sell movies, too; newspaper ads for films often feature
favorable comments by well-known reviewers. And, in recent years, testimonials have
played an important role in pitching books; the backs of paperbacks frequently list
complimentary blurbs by celebrities.
Political candidates, as well as their ad agencies, know the value of testimonials.
Barbra
Streisand lent her star appeal to the presidential campaign of Bill Clinton, while Arnold
Schwarzenegger endorsed George Bush. Even controversial social issues are debated
by celebrities. The nuclear freeze, for instance, starred Paul Newman for the pro side
and Charlton Heston for the con.
As illogical as testimonials sometimes are (Pepsi’s Michael Jackson, for instance,
is a health-food adherent who does not drink soft drinks), they are effective propaganda.
We like the person so much that we like the product too.
(5) Plain Folks. The plain folks approach says, in effect, “Buy me or vote for me. I’m
just like you.” Regular folks will surely like Bob Evan’s Down on the Farm Country
Sausage or good old-fashioned Countrytime Lemonade. Some ads emphasize the idea
that “we’re all in the same boat.” We see people making long-distance calls for just the
reasons we do – to put the baby on the phone to Grandma or to tell Mom we love her.
And how do these folksy, warmhearted (usually saccharine) scenes affect us? They are
supposed to make us feel that AT&T – the multinational corporate giant – has the same
values we do. Similarly, we are introduced to the little people at Ford, the ordinary folks
who work on the assemble line, not to bigwigs in their executive offices. What’s the
purpose of such an approach? To encourage us to buy a car built by these honest,
hardworking “everyday Joes” who care about quality as much as we do.
Political advertisements make almost as much use of the “plain folks” appeal as
they do of transfer devices. Candidates wear hard hats, farmer’s caps, and assembly-
line coveralls. They jog around the block and carry their own luggage through the
airport. The idea is to convince voters that the candidates are average people, not the
elite – not wealthy lawyers or executives but common citizens.
(6) Card Stacking. When people say that “the cards were stacked again me,” they mean
that they were never given a fair chance. Applied to propaganda, card stacking means
that one side may suppress or distort evidence, tell half-truths, oversimplify the facts,
or set up a “straw man” – a false target – to divert attention from the issue at hand. Card
stacking is a difficult form of propaganda both to detect and to combat. When a
candidate claims that an opponent has ‘changed his mind five times on this important
issue,” we tend to accept the claim without investigating whether the candidate had
good reasons for changing his mind. Many people are simply swayed by the distorted
claim that the candidate is “waffling” on the issue.
Advertisers often stack the cards in favor of the products they are pushing. They
may, for instance, use what are called “weasel words.” These are small words that
usually slip right past us, but that make the difference between reality and illusion. The
weasel words are underlined in the following claims.

 “Helps control dandruff symptoms.” (The audience usually interprets this as

stops dandruff.”)
 “Most dentists surveyed recommend sugarless gum for their patients who
chew gum.” (We hear the “most dentists” and “for their patients.” But we
don’t think about how many were surveyed or whether or not the dentists first
recommended that the patients not chew gum at all.)

 “Sticker price $1,000 lower than most comparable cars.” (How many is
“most”? What car does the advertiser consider “comparable”?)

Advertisers also use a card stacking trick when they make an unfinished claim.
For example, they will say that their product has “twice as much pain reliever.” We are
left with a favorable impression. We don’ usually ask, “Twice as much pain reliever as
what?” or advertisers may make extremely vague claims that sound alluring but have
no substance: Toyota’s “Oh, what a feeling!”; Vantage cigaretters’ “the taste of success”;
“The spirit of Marlboro”; Coke’s “the real thing.” Another way to stack the cards in
favor of a certain product is to use scientific-sounding claim that are not supported by
sound research. When Ford claimed that its LTD model was “400% quieter,” many
people assumed that its LTD must be quieter than all other cars. When taken to court,
however, Ford admitted that the phrase referred to the difference between the noise
level inside and outside the LTD. Other scientific-sounding claim use mysterious
ingredients that are never explained as selling points: Restyn, “special whitening
agents,” ”the ingredient doctors recommend.”
(7) Bandwagon. In the bandwagon technique, advertise pressure, ‘Everyone’s doing it.
Why don’t you?” This kind of propaganda often succeeds because many people have a
deep desire not to be different. Political ads tell us to vote for the “winning candidate.”
The advertisers know we tend to feel comfortable doing what others do; we want to be
on the winning team. Or ads show a series of people proclaiming, “I’m voting for the
Senator. I don’t know why anyone wouldn’t.” Again, the audience feels under pressure
to conform.
In the marketplace, the bandwagon approach lures buyers. Ads tell us that “nobody
doesn’t like Sara Lee” (the massage is that you must be weird if you don’t). They tell
us that “most people prefer Band X two to one over other leading brands” (to be like
the majority, we should buy Brand
X). If we don’t drink Pepsi, we’re left out of “the Pepsi generation.” To take part in
“America’s favorite health kick,” the National Dairy Council asks us, “Got Milk?” And
Honda motorcycle ads, praising the virtues of being a follower, tell us, “Follow the
leader. He’s on a Honda.”
Supplementary Exercise
1. Draw on your own experience and observations, use examples to show that you
agree or disagree with any one of the following proverbs and maxims.
1) “You don’t know what you’ve got till it’s gone.” (Joni Mitchell) 2) A friend
walks in when everyone else walks out.
3) When life throws you lemons, make lemonade.
4) “Genius is one percent inspiration, ninety-nine percent perspiration.” (Thomas
Alva Edison)
5) A leopard cannot change its spots. (From the Bible)
6) The love of money is the root of all evil. (From the Bible)
7) Eat, drink and be merry. (From the Bible) 8) A woman needs a man like a fish
needs a bicycle.
9) There is no such thing as a free lunch.
10) Take care of the pennies and the pounds will take care of themselves.
2. Use specific examples to demonstrate your attitude toward any one of the following
subjects.
1) Online College Courses
2) The Value of Pets
3) Tattoos
4) Stress
5) Depression Disorder
6) My Favorite (or Least Favorite) TV Program/ Commercial/ Actor/ Singer/
Musician/ Fictional Character
Notes: Teachers can also choose some subjects related to the topics in the corresponding
even-numbered unit.