Dyslexia and Additional Academic Language Learning

Module 8

Learning Styles and

Learning Preferences
Daniela Boneva
Elena Mihova
Dyslexia Association - Bulgaria

with contributions from Jill Fernando

Adapted for local contexts by Bulgarian, Czech, English and Welsh partners.

Please note that the original authors do not necessarily

endorse all the adaptations made for the local context.

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication
[communication] reflects the views of the author only, and the Commission cannot be held
responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Dyslang Module 8 – Learning Styles and Learning Preferences

Edited by Jill Fernando and Dee McCarney
Cover illustration copyright Euroface Consulting 2012

Fair usage
This work is available under Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported
(See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0)

This means that the authors allow the work to be shared, copied and
distributed as well as remixed and adapted provided that the following
are respected:

Specific attribution: The authors permit adaptation to local contexts

provided the original authors and material are acknowledged, and it is
clear where the original unmodified version may be found. It should also
be clear that the original authors may not endorse the derived version.

Non commercial use: This work is restricted to non-commercial

use. However, it may be incorporated into commercial contexts, e.g.
workshops or online course, provided it is clear that this material may be
obtained freely and where it may be obtained.

For other uses, please contact the author

Daniela Boneva – [email protected]

This publication was produced by Daniela Boneva and Elena Mihova on

behalf of the Dyslexia Association – Bulgaria as part of an EU funded
project, Dyslang (www.dyslang.eu), Grant Agreement Number 2011-
5070/001-001

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Contents
Aims and objectives 4

Learning outcomes 4

Introduction 5
8.1 Learning style 6
8.1.1. Definition 6
8.1.2. Main characteristics of learning style 7
8.1.2.1. Environmental 8
8.1.2.2. Emotional 8
8.1.2.3. Sociological 8
8.1.2.4. Physical 9
8.1.2.5. Psychological 10
8.1.3. Learning styles and preferable channels of perception 10
8.1.3.1. Visual learners 10
8.1.3.2. Auditory learners 11
8.1.3.3. Kinaesthetic learners 11
8.1.3.4. Learning style and vocabulary learning 13
8.1.4. Learning style depending on brain activity 14
8.1.4.1. Global or analytical learner? 14
8.1.5. Learning style models 16
8.1.5.1. Kolb’s experiential learning style model 16
8.1.5.2. Gardner’s multiple intelligences and learning
style model 17

8.2. Learning style and teaching approach 22

8.2.1. Teachers’ awareness 22
8.2.2. The multisensory approach 22

Conclusion 25

Appendices 26

References 30

Links and further reading 31

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Aims and objectives

By the end of this section you will gain knowledge about different learning
styles, and will understand how students’ learning styles and learning
preferences affect the effectiveness of their learning.

Learning outcomes
• Acquire basic understanding of learning styles
• Acquire knowledge about how learning preferences may influence
the effectiveness of learning;
• Acquire knowledge about appropriate learning methods for
dyslexic learners.

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Introduction
The term ‘learning style’ has been widely used in psychology
and pedagogy since the 1930s. Various researchers have worked
independently on different aspects of learning styles and this has led to a
sometimes overwhelming range of learning style theories.

Some theorists have concentrated on the ways in which students prefer

to perceive information. This has led to labels of auditory learner for
someone who learns best when they hear instructional materials, visual
learner for someone who prefers material to be presented in a visual
format and tactile-kinaesthetic learner for a person who learns most
effectively through hands-on experience.

Although a teacher cannot be expected to simultaneously adapt their

teaching to 30+ different learning styles, it is important for the teacher
to find out whether learning is more effective when it is presented
through one modality rather than another. This is particularly important
when working with students with specific learning difficulties who often
have difficulties accessing learning when it is only presented through
their weaker modality. In the case of multilingual dyslexic children, a
lack of verbal ability in a language may force them to rely on the visual
or kinaesthetic modality even when this would not be their preferred
modality when learning in their home language.

Learning style also refers to the way in which we process information.

Some theorists have focussed on distinguishing between individuals
who prefer abstract concepts and generalisations and those who
prefer concrete and practical examples. This includes whether there
is a preference for information presented logically and sequentially or
whether an individual responds better to an overview.

When discussing learning style, we must also consider an individual’s

preferences when organising and presenting information. Do they present
an overview or do they provide a detailed and logical analysis? Do they
prefer to use images to present their findings?

What we should remember is that people are different, and each of

us learns differently. The very same learning conditions, guidance and
instructions that can be so effective for one person can cause problems
for another.

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8.1 Learning style

8.1.1 Definition

Learning styles relate to the way in which different individuals learn.

As researchers have focused on different aspects of this, a wide range
of interpretations and definitions have been produced. Della-Dora and
Blanchard, for example, (1979, p22) refer to “a personally preferred way
of dealing with information and experiences for learning that crosses
content areas”, thereby putting emphasis on information processing.

In contrast, Claxton and Rolston’s definition of learning style as

“the student’s consistent way of responding and using stimuli in the
context of learning” (1978, p1) focuses more on sensory perception.

David Kolb defines ‘Learning Style’ as:

“a result of hereditary equipment, past experience, and the
demands of the present environment combining to produce
individual orientations that give differential emphasis to the
four basic learning modes postulated in experiential learning
theory” (Kolb, 1984).

This definition has relevance for multilingual learners whose learning

style is likely to be influenced by their past experience of education and
learning, whether informal learning in their home and community or
more formal learning either in a religious setting or in a school in their
country of origin.

The type of teaching they have experienced is likely to influence the way
they approach language learning. Was their experience of the classroom
more teacher-centred or more learner-centred? Were they encouraged
to raise their hands when they knew the answer to a question? Were
they encouraged to engage in independent, small group work? Learners
who are used to a more traditional whole class-based approach might
initially show reluctance to participate in games and pair work activities
but will gradually become engaged if an unthreatening and supportive
environment is established.

Some researchers (e.g. Dunn, 1997; Cox & Ramirez, 1981; Irvine & York,
1995) have associated predominant learning styles with learners from
different cultural groups and it seems reasonable to accept that culture
has some influence on learning styles. However, it is important to avoid
stereotyping and to recognise that many studies support the view that
there is no single or specific learning style typical for the members of a
cultural, national, racial or religious group. All groups comprise individuals
with their own preferences and their own profile of intelligences.

David Kolb (1984) and others (e.g. Kiersey, 2000; Fleming, 2001; Honey,
2002) have considered other possible influences on a person’s learning
style and have suggested that these include personality, cognitive styles,
temperaments, sensory processes and age.
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Learners’ different learning styles will affect the way they learn all
subjects, including languages. Some learners like listening and talking,
others prefer to analyse text, or study with the help of visual support.
Most learners, however, have a mixed learning style.

It is generally accepted that dyslexic learners benefit most from a

multisensory approach where information is simultaneously presented
through several channels. This approach enables weaker modalities to
be supported by stronger ones and means that learning is more likely to
be effective. The multisensory approach is considered in more detail in
Module 4.

Extension Material 8.1 – Some more definitions

There are a lot of definitions of Learning Style. Some examples are:

Learning Style consists of distinctive, observable behaviours that provide clues

to the functioning of people’s minds and how they relate to the world. Anthony
F. Gregorc (1979, p.234)

Learning Style describes students in terms of those educational conditions under

which they are most likely to learn and essentially describes the amount of
structure individuals require. David E. Hunt (1981)

Learning Style is the product of the organization of a group of information

processing activities that individuals prefer to engage in when confronted with a
learning task. Ronald R. Schmeck (1988)

8.1.2. Main characteristics of learning style

Learning style is not a single concept, but consists of related elements,

that we call characteristics of the learning style. Teachers can build up
a picture of their students’ learning styles by asking them to complete
a learning styles questionnaire and/or by observing them engaging in
a range of activities in different settings. Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1993,
p2) define learning styles as “the way in which each learner begins to
concentrate, process and retain new and difficult information. That
interaction occurs differently for everyone.” According to their model,
strengths and preferences of each individual could be defined across five
categories:

• Environmental
• Emotional
• Sociological
• Physical
• Psychological

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On Reflection Task 8.1

• Could you describe the characteristics of your own learning style?
• Could you describe the characteristics of the learning style of
one your students (they could be dyslexic and/or with bilingual
background)?
• What would you do in order to provide conditions that best
match their learning style characteristics?

8.1.2.1 Environmental

These include light, sound, temperature and design. While some people
like to study in silence, others prefer quiet background music; some might
prefer to sit on a straight back chair, while others might prefer to sit on
the floor or lie on a sofa. Some people like to work in bright light whereas
others prefer low or natural lighting.

It may be quite difficult to envisage a classroom environment that suits

everyone but Dunn and Dunn (1978) suggest that a classroom can be
partitioned into separate areas, each with a different environmental
climate. In terms of dyslexic learners, consideration must be given to
lighting, as inappropriate lighting (for example fluorescent lighting) can
make it very difficult for a learner to read, listen or focus. Similarly,
dyslexic learners may find it difficult to filter out background noise and
will therefore need the environment to be very quiet when trying to
concentrate on challenging tasks.

8.1.2.2 Emotional

These include motivation, persistence, responsibility and organisational

skills.

Dyslexics often find it difficult to be persistent in their learning. They have

difficulty organising their time and completing tasks on time. They often
know what they need to do but have trouble defining the steps they need
to take in order to complete a task.

Lack of motivation can be a problem for dyslexic learners. It is the

teacher’s responsibility to find a way to present educational materials in
an interesting and accessible way.

8.1.2.3 Sociological

Some students prefer to study by themselves while others achieve better

results when they learn with a friend or colleague. Some students require
a lot more guidance than others.

Most dyslexics find it easier to learn when they can do it together with
someone else. This gives them confidence and they start to believe that
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they will manage the new information. Having a fellow student, a teacher
or a family member to discuss the topic with, will help them to better
understand, perceive and remember the information.

Language learning lends itself naturally to pairwork and group work. As

well as practising the target language, learners may also talk to each other
about what they have learned or take turns at discussing the meaning of
certain items of vocabulary.

Many of the activities mentioned in Module 4 are small group activities

likely to appeal to dyslexic learners. For example, webquests offer learners
the chance to work in groups and engage in scaffolded learning which
leads to the production of an end product. Teachers are able to allocate
roles based on learners’ strengths and weaknesses. Similarly, cooperative
learning is likely to appeal to dyslexic learners with its focus on physical
movement and listening and speaking in small groups. Please refer to
Module 4 for more examples.

Bilingual dyslexic learners should be provided with an opportunity to work

together with somebody who has good language skills in the language
of education so that they are not excluded from explanations in that
language. It might also be a good idea for the language teacher to use
visual and kinaesthetic approaches to accompany verbal explanations so
that there is less reliance on the auditory channel.

8.1.2.4 Physical

These include the time of the day when one’s learning is likely to be more
effective; some individuals prefer to move around while learning and
to have frequent “breaks”, while others can sit and work for a long time
without breaks.

Dyslexic individuals learn more effectively if learning occurs in small

manageable chunks interspersed with regular breaks. This may also apply
to newly arrived multilingual learners who are having to put a lot of effort
into learning the language of the classroom as well as having to start
learning an additional language.

According to Dunn and Dunn (1992), only 28% of primary school students
are active early in the morning. For the majority of primary school
students, the best time for learning and working is between 10.30 am and
2 pm. As students get older, the percentage of so called “larks” rises to
about 40%, but the majority of students still work/learn more effectively
in the afternoon/evening. Only 13% can be classed as “owls”. Dunn and
Dunn also found that student energy is highest after lunch.

What can language teachers do with this information? To activate their

students in the morning, they can start with warm-up activities involving
physical movement. They could read out a series of statements in French
(for example, describing what different students are wearing) and ask the
students to sit down if the statement is true and stand up if it is false.

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They could organise board races in which teams are told a word in English
and have to rush to the board and circle the word in French.

Games/activities involving movement can be very useful for re-energising

students throughout the day and ensuring that they remain focused.
These can be brief activities in which children have to follow instructions
in the target language (for example, ‘Simon Says’) or where they have
to move in a certain way (for example, like a particular animal or
demonstrating a particular emotion). In its online training demonstration,
CILT suggests the game ‘Get up when you hear’ in which students are
allocated a particular number or word. This could be a colour, item of
clothing or whatever particular language area the teacher was working
on at that time. The teacher calls out a number or word at random and
the student(s) allocated that number or word stand up. This process
continues until all the students are standing up. The process is repeated
but this time the students sit down when they hear their number/word.

8.1.2.5 Psychological

These include personal characteristics such as abilities, motivation,

temperament, and thinking.

Some people, including many dyslexic individuals, think globally. They

start from the whole and then look at the details. Other people think
analytically and need to know the details in order to be able to assemble
the big picture. (There is further information about global and analytical
learners on page 11.)

In order for learning to be effective, it is essential that there is a

positive, respectful relationship between learners and that the learning
atmosphere is tolerant and supportive.

8.1.3. Learning styles and preferable channels of perception

Much work on learning styles focuses on students’ preferred channel of

perception. Although it is clear that learners may use different channels at
different times depending on the nature of the task to be performed, it is
possible to allocate learners to one of the following groups based on their
(generally) preferred channel of perception.

8.1.3.1 Visual learners

Visual learners tend to think in pictures. So while reading they usually

create a mental picture of what is described in the text. They don’t pay
much attention to the dialogue, and may miss the meaning of some
phrases if they contain words that are difficult to visualise. That is why
it is very important for a visual learner to have the educational material
presented using maps, diagrams, charts, pictures, etc.

Visual learners comprise about 65% of all students. (http://www.

studyingstyle.com/visual-learners.html)
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8.1.3.2 Auditory learners

Auditory learners learn best by hearing information. They may have

difficulties understanding a text if they read it, but if they listen to it
they will be able to capture more of the detail. That is why their results
on listening comprehension tests are usually higher than the results
they show on reading comprehension tests. Auditory learners are very
sensitive to the speech quality, tone and timbre of the voice, intonation,
etc. They are often talkative, needing to think aloud; they usually enjoy
music, and remember song lyrics and conversations.

About 30% of all students are auditory learners. (http://www.

studyingstyle.com/auditory-learners.html)

8.1.3.3 Kinaesthetic (tactile) learners

Kinaesthetic learners learn best through touch, movement, imitation,

and other physical activities. They remember best by writing or physically
manipulating the information. Kinaesthetic learners don’t usually like
to read instructions, and it is difficult for them to sit still for a long time.
Many dyslexic learners favour a kinaesthetic approach.

For further information on characteristics of different types of learners

see Extension Material 8.2, and the Appendix (p. 29).

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Extension Material 8.2 – Characteristics of different learners

Visual Learner Auditory Learner Kinesthetic Learner
• Mind sometimes strays • Talks to self aloud • Likes physical rewards
during verbal activities • Enjoys talking • In motion most of the
• Observes rather than • Easily distracted time
talks or acts • Has more difficulty with • Likes to touch people
• Organised in approach to written directions when talking to them
tasks • Likes to be read to • Taps pencil or foot while
• Likes to read • Memorises by steps in a studying
• Usually a good speller sequence • Enjoys doing activities
• Memorises by seeing • Enjoys music • Reading is not a priority
graphics and pictures • Whispers to self while • Poor speller
• Not too distractable reading • Likes to solve problems
• Finds verbal instructions • Remembers faces by physically working
difficult • Easily distracted by through them
• Has good handwriting noises • Will try new things
• Remembers faces • Hums or sings • Outgoing by nature
• Uses advanced planning • Outgoing by nature • Expresses emotions
• Doodles • Enjoys listening activities through physical means
• Quiet by nature • Uses hands while talking
• Meticulous, neat in • Dresses for comfort
appearance • Enjoys handling objects
• Notices details

Cohen (1987) conducted research which showed that the majority of very
young children are tactile and kinaesthetic. In primary school only 12% of
students are predominantly auditory learners and about 40% are visual.
The older the students, the larger the number of predominantly visual
and auditory learners.

Susan Thompson (2003) discusses the idea of dividing the classroom

into different learning stations for different senses. She suggests that
a tactile/kinaesthetic station could include a barrel of sand, a fur or
suede board and squeeze balls for relaxation. There could also be an
area where highly active learners could move around or pace. Auditory
learners could benefit from a station with recordings of authors reading
their works or music recordings for learners to listen to while reading or
writing. Learners who find it beneficial to sub-vocalise could have access
to cups (to muffle their voices) which they could speak into so that they
could read passages to themselves without disturbing other learners. A
visual station would ideally enable learners to be videoed while reading
or acting. Seeing themselves successfully completing a task would act
as a big confidence-boost. Thompson also recommends the inclusion of
candles, scent strips and potpourri pots in learning stations as scents can
trigger memories, help link learning to real life experiences and assist
with the recall of new concepts.

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8.1.3.4 Learning style and vocabulary learning

In their analysis of vocabulary learning techniques, Oxford and Crookall

(1990) stress the importance of taking learning styles into account.
They suggest that visual learners might prefer to learn vocabulary by
using visual imagery. Visual imagery involves the forming of associations
between a picture and a word and is generally more effective than using
words in isolation. They also argue that because the pictorial-verbal
combination involves different parts of the brain, it is likely to provide
greater cognitive power. Another suggestion is that learners could
visualise a set of locations (such as the rooms in their house) and could
then associate each place with a particular word or expression and then
‘take a mental walk from place to place’. This is likely to be effective for
dyslexic learners for whom visualisation is often an area of strength.
Oxford and Crookall refer to Talbott’s (1999) description of how a learner
visualised “long, blonde hair draped over feminine nouns” such as ‘la
table’ (‘the table’) and “muscles bulging from masculine nouns” such as
‘le livre’ (‘the book’) in order to distinguish between French masculine
and feminine nouns.

It should be mentioned that the simultaneous use of more than one

channel of perception is likely to facilitate learning. This is the basis of the
‘Multisensory Approach’ which will be discussed later in this module and
is also covered in Module 4.

Extension Material 8.3 - Traditional teaching

“Traditional pedagogy has long favored the left-sided student,
emphasizing accurate, rational and sequential thought. Right-sided
learners, with a proclivity towards a spontaneous, random, and visual
style, possess a mode that is undervalued and often stifled”. (Kimmel,
1998)

On Reflection Task 8.2

• Think of a learner in your class who has either an auditory or
kinaesthetic learning preference.
• What strategies might they find useful for learning vocabulary?

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8.1.4. Learning style depending on brain activity

This aspect of learning style distinguishes between people who focus on

detail and those who prefer to concentrate on the bigger picture. Some
people are at ease with both but typically a person gravitates towards one
or the other.

An important factor in understanding learning styles is understanding

brain functioning. Our brain is divided into two parts – hemispheres,
by a fold that starts from the front and runs to the back. These parts
are connected to each other by a set of nerves whose role is to transfer
information from one part to the other and to synchronise their
functioning. Both sides of the brain can reason, but they use different
strategies and, often, one side is dominant.

Most scientists and researchers agree that there are some significant
differences in the way each hemisphere of the brain works. The right
brain is considered to be holistic, convergent, able to perceive the big
picture. It deals with emotions, feelings, creativity, intuition. The left
brain is linear, divergent, and focuses on one thing at a time. It deals
with more logical subject areas, such as mathematics and speech. Much
of this knowledge is based on the research of Roger W. Sperry, who was
jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981 “for
his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral
hemispheres” (Refer to Links and further reading).

A person with left-brain dominance prefers to learn in a step-by-step

sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual
understanding of a skill. A person with right-brain dominance prefers to
start with the general concept and then proceed to the specifics.

Author Thomas West (1997) posits that we are seeing higher incidences
of learning disabilities, (dyslexia, ADD, etc.) because the brain is being
taught from birth to respond to and learn from visual stimuli rather
than from text. Nowadays, at a very early age children are exposed to
technological devices, like television, computers, etc. The result of this is
that children’s neural pathways are developing in a very different fashion
from those of their grandparents and parents. Very often they perceive
and process images better than text.

8.1.4.1. Global or analytical learner?

A global learner sees the big picture or overall view, while the analytical
learner focuses on the parts that make up the big picture. Global
learners hear new information by listening to the “gist” of what is being
communicated, quickly getting the main idea or topic. Remembering
the details may be somewhat difficult. In following directions the global
learner listens for “what is supposed to be done”, not necessarily “how to
do it”.

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In contrast to the global learner, the analytical learner hears new

information and tends to listen for specific details. Getting the overall
concept that the details describe may sometimes be difficult for the
analytical learner.

Extension Material 8.4 - Global or Analytical Learner

Characteristics of the Global Learner Characteristics of the Analytical Learner
• Learns by discussion and cooperates in • Likes going step-by-step in a sequential
group efforts order
• Does several things at once and may • Typically self-motivated, logical, and
skip steps/details focused
• Sees the big picture and relationships • Must be prepared and needs to know
between ideas what to expect
• Reads between the lines and sees • Pays close attention to details and
many options specifics
• Works hard to please and tries to avoid • Can find the facts but may miss the
conflict main idea
• Goes with the flow and is generally • Often values facts over intuition and
flexible feelings
• Tends to avoid individual competition • Remembers specifics and prefers
• Paraphrases in explaining a perspective organisation
• Prefers to finish one thing at a time
• Has a sense of fairness
• May prefer direct answers
Frustrations of the Global Learner Frustrations of the Analytical Learner
• Having to show the steps used to arrive • Listening to a long explanation when
at a particular answer all that is needed is a simple “yes” or
• Accepting criticism of others without “no” response
taking it personally • Listening to an overview without
• Not knowing the purpose for doing a knowing the steps involved
particular task • Not understanding how an employer/
• Not receiving enough credit for the instructor evaluates
efforts made • Not finishing one task before going on
• Having to explain something to the next
analytically and in detail • Having opinions expressed as fact
• Having to go step-by-step without without evidence
knowing the outcome • Not having an understanding of the
• People who are insensitive to the purpose of the task
feelings of others • Dealing with broad generalities and not
• Not getting a fair chance to explain having the specifics
oneself

On Reflection Task 8.3

• How would you describe yourself – as a global or analytical learner?

• Using the table above find out how many of your students are global
learners, and how many are analytical.

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8.1.5 Learning style models

There are a large number of Learning Style Models based on a wide range
of factors and personal characteristics which may influence an individual’s
capacity to learn.

Some of the most popular learning style models are those of Kolb and
Gardner.

8.1.5.1. Kolb’s Experiential learning style model

According to David Kolb (1994), the learning cycle (Fig. 1) involves

four stages (concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualisation and active experimentation) that must be present for
learning to take place. Kolb identified 4 learning styles which correspond
to these stages and categorised learners into assimilators, convergers,
accommodators and divergers.

Kolb says that ideally (but not always) this process represents a learning
cycle or spiral where the learner “touches all the bases”. Immediate
or concrete experiences lead to observations and reflections. These
reflections are then assimilated into abstract concepts with implications
for action, which the person can actively test and experiment with, in turn
enabling the creation of new experiences.

Fig 1. Kolb’s Experiential Model

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The Kolb categories also match the visual, auditory and kinaesthetic
learning preferences mentioned in section 8.1.3. with the kinaesthetic
learning style corresponding to the learning by doing (the accommodators
and convergers) and the visual and auditory learning styles corresponding
to the learning by looking and listening (the divergers and assimilators).

8.1.5.2 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences learning style model

Howard Gardner is best known for his ‘Multiple Intelligences Theory’

which he developed in 1983. He initially identified seven distinct
intelligences but subsequently added two more.

According to Gardner (1991, p12), “we are all able to know the world
through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation,
musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make
things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of
ourselves”.

Each type of intelligence comprises numerous skills, and is a system with

its own functions that are different for each individual. These types of
intelligence are independent from each other so assessing a person’s
musical intelligence will not provide us with information about their
linguistic intelligence. Nevertheless, there is interaction between different
intelligences when it comes to solving certain problems. For example,
carrying out a mathematical operation will require our linguistic and
logical intelligences to cooperate.

Gardner continues (1991, p12): “Where individuals differ is in the strength

of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences - and in the
ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out
different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains.”

Based on this theory, Gardner’s original intelligences comprised:

• visual-spatial
• bodily-kinaesthetic
• musical
• interpersonal
• intrapersonal
• linguistic
• logical-mathematical

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Fig.2. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Model with respective learning

styles

It is important that language teachers incorporate the concept of multiple

intelligences into their teaching. A dyslexic student might have difficulties
with language processing but might have a more well-developed bodily/
kinaesthetic intelligence. Activities involving drama or role play would
access this learning strength and would result in effective learning. They
would also give the student the opportunity to display their natural
abilities to their classmates.

The use of drama can be very effective in language teaching as it appeals

to various learning styles. It will also engage children who are more
comfortable with speaking and listening than with reading and writing.
Even children who have a low level of language knowledge can
participate by using gesture, facial expression and other means of
nonverbal communication.

Drama can be very motivating as it is used for real communication in the

classroom and it appeals to children’s emotions. Children who are usually
shy often gain in confidence because they adopt a new persona and can
distance themselves from their ‘normal’ self.

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Extension Material 8.5 - Learning styles (Gardner)

Learning Style Characteristics Tips
Visual-Spatial Very aware of the Better results if taught
environment, thinks in through drawings, verbal
terms of physical space; and physical imagery,
likes to draw, do jigsaw models, graphics, charts,
puzzles, read maps, photographs, drawings,
daydream. 3-D modeling, video,
multimedia.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic Keen sense of body Better results if taught
awareness; likes movement, through physical activity,
making things, touching; hands-on learning, acting
communicates well through out, role playing.
body language.
Musical Shows sensitivity to rhythm May study better with music
and sound; loves music; in the background; using
sensitive to sounds in the rhythmical speech and
environment. rhymes could help; tools
include musical instruments,
music, radio, stereo, CD-
ROM, multimedia.
Inter-personal Good communication Better results if taught
with other participants through group activities,
in the learning process; seminars, dialogues.
understands and interacts
well with others; has many
friends.
Intra-personal Understands own interests Better results if taught
and goals; aware of own through independent study
feelings; has wisdom, and introspection; tools
intuition and motivation; include books, creative
has an opinion in any materials, diaries, privacy
situation; can plan own and time.
activities.
Linguistic Has highly developed Better results if the learning
auditory skills and often material is presented in text
thinks aloud; uses words format; encourage them to
effectively; likes reading, say and see words, to take
playing word games, making notes, and to use key words.
up poetry or stories.
Logical- Thinks conceptually, Better results if the learning
Mathematical abstractly and is able to see material is presented in
and explore patterns and sequential order and is
relationships; needs to learn well-structured; can be
and form concepts before taught through logic games,
they can deal with details; investigations, mysteries.
likes to experiment; good at
reasoning and calculating.
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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

On Reflection Task 8.4

You are teaching Spanish to a group of secondary students. This is their

third year of studying the language as an MFL. In your class you have 26
students; 10 with bilingual backgrounds, and 3 diagnosed with dyslexia. All
the dyslexic students and some of the bilingual ones are having significant
difficulties learning Spanish.

According to Gardner’s Theory one of your problematic students is primarily

Body Smart, two are Picture Smart, and the others are People Smart.

The topic of the lesson is “Food”.

• What approach would you adopt to ensure that the learning material
and additional exercises were presented in a way that would match the
different learning styles of your students?
You may wish to refer to Extension Material 8.4 above for some tips.

A dyslexic student with a highly developed interpersonal intelligence

enjoys learning with other people and is likely to flourish when engaged in
cooperative learning activities such as the Jigsaw Technique described in
Module 4.

On the other hand, a dyslexic student with a strong visual-spatial

intelligence will probably respond well to mnemo-techniques (involving
the memorisation of well-defined visual images) for learning new
vocabulary. Please refer to Module 4 for more information on this.

Tom Blodget (2000) points out that the use of music can be very effective
in incorporating the various intelligences into classroom teaching.
While listening and singing clearly address the musical intelligence, the
kinaesthetic intelligence is addressed by dancing, miming, clapping and
percussion. The visual intelligence could be incorporated by selecting
songs which contain substantial visual imagery and learners could be
asked to design booklets illustrating the lyrics of a particular song. Dance,
choreography and group singing appeal to the interpersonal intelligence.

Songs provide teachers with the opportunity for the aural-musical

presentation of target language and can be used to re-visit and reinforce
material that has already been taught. For example, a song such as Tom’s
Diner by Suzanne Vega can be very effective for giving learners of English
practice in the use of the present continous tense.

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Case study 8.1

‘These shoes are made for talking’ is an interesting example of the

use of process drama carried out over a period of 10 weeks in a
foreign language classroom. The children ‘became’ French children
and used their imagination to create ‘real life’ scenarios. They were
able to develop their language skills and their cultural awareness.

The children were shown photos and video clips of French children
at school and were asked about the children’s behaviour. They
then discussed which lesson they would like to use for their first
role play and they agreed to do maths followed by singing practice.
They revised the numbers in French and the teacher presented
some key vocabulary. In part of the next session, one of the children
played the part of the teacher. The ‘real’ teacher then presented
some new vocabulary (clothing) and taught them a French song.
There was a short drama session with the children acting as French
pupils, doing the register and counting. In the next session, another
child played the part of the teacher for part of the session and the
children also practised asking each other questions about what
they were wearing. At the end of one session, the children found a
wand and realized that a wizard was going to visit their class. They
discussed the questions that they could ask the wizard and practised
the questions in pairs. They were also encouraged to ask questions
spontaneously.

When asked to comment on the experience, the children said that

they had enjoyed the fact that everyone in the class was able to
participate and they felt that the French that they had learned had
been meaningful. They particularly valued having some decision-
making power which gave them ownership of their learning.

For more information about this project, please refer to

Links into Languages: ‘These shoes are made for talking’
http://www.linksintolanguages.ac.uk/resources/2518

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

8.2 Learning style and Teaching approach

8.2.1 Teacher’s awareness

There are many ways of approaching learning materials and the one we
choose is a reflection of the way we think and learn. The effectiveness
of the learning depends on closely matching the teaching and learning
resources to the learner’s preferences. By using different methods such
as auditory/visual as well as tactile/kinaesthetic, students will learn better
than if just one technique was used.

According to Rief’s research (1993, p.53) students retain

10% of what they read

20% of what they hear
30% of what they see
50% of what they see and hear
70% of what they say
90% of what they say and do.

There may be many reasons why some individuals struggle to learn.

These could include motivation or a cognitive deficit such as an auditory
short term memory problem. It may also be the case that the student’s
preferred learning style is just too different from the teaching method
leaving them unable to engage within the classroom instruction. It is the
teacher’s role to help the learner explore different learning strategies and
to find ways to succeed.

Many dyslexic individuals are disadvantaged by traditional educational

methods which do not cater to their learning styles. It is essential that
teachers adopt teaching styles that make their teaching accessible to all,
even when this requires them to move away from their comfort zone.

8.2.2. The Multisensory Approach

A multisensory approach refers to any learning activity that provides

simultaneous input or output via two or more sensory channels. Learning
that is experienced through two or more senses is much more likely to be
retained by students. This approach is particularly important for students
with learning difficulties and for students with a multilingual background
who may not be able to rely on verbal explanations in the language of
instruction.

This has also been discussed in detail in section 4.8.1 of Module 4.

Although there is increased awareness of the multisensory approach,

much teaching still relies on the learner’s ability to process information
through one channel, namely the one selected by the teacher. For a
dyslexic child, difficulties with visual tracking and visual processing may
mean that they cannot process information presented only through the
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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

visual modality. Similarly, a child with poor auditory memory or auditory

processing difficulties may not be able to process information presented
only through the auditory modality.

It may initially seem very difficult to adopt a multisensory approach but

just consider the process of teaching a child to read the ‘ai’ pattern in
English. The teacher can start by saying a group of words (rain, pain, train,
etc.) and asking the learners to listen, repeat the words and tell her the
common sound. She can then ask the learners to look at the words and
identify the common pattern in all the words. Next she can encourage the
learners to make an auditory/visual link by saying with her, “The sound (a)
is made by the letters ‘ai’ in the middle of these words”. In order to bring
in the kinaesthetic element, she asks the learners to watch her write the
letters and then to trace the letters, saying the pattern at the same time.
The learners copy the letters (again saying the pattern) and then write
them without looking. Finally, they say and write each new word, spelling
it at the same time. (Based on teaching reading handout - Dyslexia Action/
BDA.)

The teaching of pronunciation has traditionally relied heavily on the

auditory modality and the ‘listen and repeat’ approach. This can be
ineffective because it jumps straight to the production stage before the
students have had the chance to properly perceive and recognise the
sounds. A multisensory, multicognitive approach as described by Edward
Odisho (2007) is far more effective because it makes use of visual and
tactile-kinaesthetic techniques as well as auditory ones. It emphasises
the importance of seeing and visualising sound production and the
accompanying body and facial gestures. Odisho stresses the importance
of encouraging students to monitor their teacher’s lip configurations
and getting them to recognise the difference in the place and manner
in which the sounds are articulated. For example, when working on the
pronunciation of /b/ and /v/, he suggests that this can be emphasised by
exaggerating the differences in the lip posture and by referring to the /v/
posture as a ‘dogface’ (as it could resemble an angry dog about to bark
or bite) and the /b/ posture as a ‘tight-lip face (as the lips come together
tightly for the sound). This use of humour can help learners to remember
the differences in articulation. Learners can be asked to work in pairs and
practise performing these articulatory postures. Colours and pictures can
also be used to underline the difference between the sounds of a number
of minimal pairs. In this way, input from the different modalities will be
received by the brain and should ensure that the appropriate ‘acoustic
image’ is created.

The students are encouraged to listen actively, to retain the sounds and
to then compare and contrast them with sounds that they are already
familiar with. When students move on to the production stage, they
compare their own attempts and consider which factors (such as the
position and shape of their tongue) may have made one attempt better
than another.

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Developments in technology have enabled teachers to create a much

more multisensory learning environment. For example, text-to-speech
programs enable learners to see and hear the written text on screen or as
it is entered and the simultaneous highlighting of text being spoken is very
beneficial. They provide a spoken version for computer generated written
tasks and this multisensory approach significantly facilitates the revision
process. Speech support makes it easier for dyslexic learners to access
literacy activities; pupils can listen to instructions, help menus, spell
checkers and words in games. The reading process can be made easier by
the auditory repetition of text. Interactive games often include positive
spoken comments which can boost a learner’s self-esteem. Mind-mapping
software can help the learner plan their written work, and word banks,
writing frames and story plan templates can assist the writing process
itself (Refer to Links and further reading).

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Conclusion
If teachers have insight into their students’ learning styles, they will
have a better understanding of each student’s individual needs and
increased understanding of the areas in which that student is likely to
require additional support and, importantly, those areas in which they are
likely to shine. Teachers with this knowledge are likely to put a greater
emphasis on the need to vary classroom activities and to incorporate
multisensory approaches wherever possible. Students will value the fact
that their teacher is interested in their learning style and will gain insight
into the ways in which they can learn most effectively. This will help
them in the organisation of their learning and will guide them towards
becoming more independent learners.

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Appendix 1: Visual Learner

The Seeing-is-Believing Student

Is Natural at
• Dressing well
• Remembering details and colors
• Reading, spelling, proofreading
• Remembering faces of people (but forgets names)
• Remembers names seen in print
• Creating mental (visual) images

Solves Problems by
• Reading information, listing problems
• Preparing graphic organisers to organise thoughts
• Using flow charts
• Seeing that it works graphically -- on paper -- and in the mind’s eye

Testing and Assessment Needs

• Visual/written tests
• Research papers
• Written reports
• Graphic illustrations

Learns Best by
• Taking notes, making lists
• Reading information to be learned
• Learning from books, videotapes, filmstrips, printouts
• Seeing a demonstration

Studying/Reading Characteristics
• Reads for pleasure/relaxation
• Can spend long periods of time studying
• Requires quiet during study
• Reads rapidly
• Learns to spell words in configurations rather than phonetically

Difficulties in School
• Need to take action before seeing what needs to be done
• Working in an environment with noise or movement
• Tuning out sounds
• Listening to lectures without visual pictures or illustrations
• Working in classrooms with no decorations or drab colors
• Working under fluorescent lights -- makes it hard to concentrate

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Appendix 2: Auditory Learner

The Talking, Listening Student

Is Natural at
• Speaking “off the cuff” -- can think on his/her feet
• Noticing sounds in environment
• Remembering names of people he or she meets -- forgets faces
• Working with words and languages
• Tuning into small shifts in voice intonation

Solves Problems by
• Talking about pros and cons
• Talking about options
• Asking others what they would do in a situation
• Verbalising the goal until it sounds right
• Auditory repetition

Testing and Assessment Needs

• Verbal rather than written
• Describes projects orally
• Sings or recites poetry as projects
• Needs to be interviewed for what has been learned

Learns Best by
• Talking aloud
• Listening to a lecture
• Discussing in small or large groups
• Hearing music without words as a background in the learning
environment

Studying/Reading Characteristics
• Reads dialogues and plays
• Subvocalises internally or externally for comprehension
• Stops while reading to talk to self or others about what is read
• Good at phonetically sounding out new words

Difficulties in School
• Reading quickly; reads more slowly than visual learner
• Reading silently for prolonged periods of times
• Reading directions; unaware of illustrations
• Taking timed tests that must be read and written
• Living with enforced silence -- can’t wait to talk
• Seeing significant detail

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Appendix 3: Kinaesthetic Learner

The Action Student

Is Natural at
• Sports, dance
• Adventure, competition, challenge
• Running, jumping, leaping, rolling
• Actions using gross motor muscles

Solves Problems by
• Taking action, then planning based on results
• Attacking problems physically
• Seeking solutions that involve great physical activity
• Preferring to solve problems individually or in small groups
• Trial and error/exploration

Testing and Assessment Needs

• Performance based
• Project orientated
• Show or demonstrate what student has learned
• Application level -- prefers to show how to do something

Learns Best by
• Doing, hands-on approach -- manipulation, simulations, live events
• Physical involvement in learning
• Field trips to gain knowledge
• Small group discussion

Studying/Reading Characteristics
• Reads primarily for meaning and function, rather than enjoyment
• Reads “how-to” books
• Reads action-oriented books/plays
• Reads books that are brief
• Studies for short periods interspersed with moving around
• Lies on floor or bed to study

Difficulties in School
• Having good interpersonal skills
• Having legible cursive handwriting
• Sitting still
• Listening to verbal teaching for more than a few minutes
• Spelling
• Recalling what was seen or heard -- remembers everything that was
done
• Expressing emotions without physical movement
• Sticking with any activity for long periods of time

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

Appendix 4: Tactile Learner

The Sensitive, Feeling/Tactile, Touching Student

Is Natural at
• Interpersonal skills, anticipating people’s feelings
• Reading nonverbal communication
• Fine motor activities, graphics, crafts, cursive writing and calligraphy
• Sensing environmental issues such as heat, cold, smells

Solves Problems by
• Thinking “what would it feel like if…”
• Talking to people in order to share feelings about the problem and the
solution
• Following a solution when he or she knows it feels right
• Going at own pace

Testing and Assessment Needs

• Performs or takes test when he or she is ready or comfortable
• Tests best when he or she can be subjective -- essay questions
• Open book, low pressure
• Could be “test phobic” if environment is not secure

Learns Best by
• Liking and respecting the teacher
• Having a welcoming, comfortable, secure classroom climate and
environment
• Working with things they can handle
• Progressing at own pace
• Rewriting notes taken in class

Studying/Reading Characteristics
• Reads for pleasure and feelings it evokes
• Reads at his or her own pace and likes to select what is read
• Prefers historical and/or romantic novels or biographies
• Studies best in pleasant surroundings

Difficulties in School
• Learning if feelings are hurt
• Succeeding without teacher approval and respect
• Working in a classroom not decorated in a warm way
• Working with people that don’t like him or her
• Being in the class of a teacher whose interpersonal skills are weak
• Needs to touch, feel, manipulate things

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Module 8 - Learning Styles and Learning Preferences DYSLANG

References
Blodget, T. (2000) Teaching the target language through the lyrics of
melodic music. http://www.songsforteaching.com/musicapaedia/
teachingtargetlanguagethroughlyrics.htm [Last accessed 3/11/2013]

Byrne, D. (2002) A Study Of Individual Learning Styles And Educational

Multimedia Preferences: An Experiment using Self-Directed Online
Learning Resources. School of Computer Applications, Dublin City
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Claxton, C. S. & Ralston, Y. (1978) Learning styles: their impact on teaching

and administration. AAHE-ERIC/Higher Education Research Report No. 10.

Cohen, A. D. (1987) Studying language learning strategies: How do we get

the information? In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (eds.), Learner strategies in
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Cox, B. & Ramirez, M., III. (1981) Cognitive styles: Implications for
multiethnic education. In J. A. Banks (ed.) Education in the ‘80s:
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Della-Dora, D. & Blanchard, L. J. (eds.) (1979) Moving Toward Self Directed

Learning. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
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Dunn, R. (1997) The goals and track record of multicultural education.

Educational leadership, 54(7), 74-77.

Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1978) Teaching Students Through Their Individual

Learning Styles: A Practical Approach. Reston, Virginia: Reston Publishing
Company.

Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1992) Teaching Elementary Students Through Their

Individual Learning Styles: Practical Approaches for Grades 3-6. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.

Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1993) Teaching Secondary Students Through Their

Individual Learning Styles. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Fleming, N. D. (2001) Teaching and learning styles: VARK strategies.

Christchurch, New Zealand: N.D. Fleming.

Gardner, H. (1991) The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How
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Gregorc, A. F. (1979) Learning/teaching styles: Potent forces behind them.

Educational Leadership, 36(4), 234-236.
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students: A literature review. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Handbook of research on
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Kimmel, B. S. (1998) How did you know that?! Learning styles and the
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Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of

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Odisho, E. Y. (2007) A multisensory, multicognitive approach to

teaching pronunciation. Linguística – Revista de Estudios Linguísticos
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Rief, S. F. (1993) How to reach and teach ADD/ADHD children. West Nyack,
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Plenum Press.

Thompson, S. M. (2003) Multisensory learning in inclusive classrooms.

Academic Exchange Quarterly, Sept 2003. http://www.thefreelibrary.
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West, T. G. (1997) In the Mind’s Eye: Visual Thinkers, Gifted People with
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Links and further reading

BDA New Technologies Committee (2011) Using I.C.T. to support Dyslexic
Pupils http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/files/2011 ICT supplement.pdf
[Last accessed 9/11/2013]

CILT, Learning Through Games, Part 1, http://www.ciltplus.org.uk/sites/

default/files/GamesPart1Demo/viewer.swf [Last accessed 3/11/2013]
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Curry, L. (1990) One critique of the research on learning styles.

Educational Leadership, 48, 50–56.

Claxton, G., video presentation on “What’s The Point of School?”, Talks

on General Advice / Other http://www.dystalk.com/talks/49-whats-the-
point-of-school [Last accessed 9/11/2013]

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligences.

New York: Basic Books

Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (2006) The Learning Styles Questionnaire, 80-

item version. Maidenhead, UK: Peter Honey Publications.

Kolb’s Learning Styles: David Kolb’s learning styles model and experiential
learning theory (ELT). http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.
htm [Last accessed 9/11/2013]

Sperry, R. W., Life and Works. Available at: http://rogersperry.org/?page_

id=29 [Last accessed 9/11/2013]

Some links to free on-line tests:

• http://www.acceleratedlearning.com/method/test_flash.html
• http://www.learning-styles-online.com/inventory/
• http://www.howtolearn.com/learning-styles-quiz
• http://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-learning-styles-quiz
• http://www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=questionnaire

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