FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 12-14

December 1982
Revised September 1999
Page 1 of 20

WASTE HEAT BOILERS

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 3
2.1.1 Operation ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Inspection .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.2.1 Cold End Corrosion ................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2.2 Erosion of Boiler Heating Surface ............................................................................. 4
2.1.2.3 Firetube Boilers ......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2.4 General ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2.5 Repairs ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Control and Instrumentation .................................................................................................. 5
2.2.2 Design and Installation .......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Gas Turbines ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Occupancy ....................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Steel Mills .............................................................................................................................. 6
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 6
3.1 Loss History ..................................................................................................................................... 6
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 7
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ........................................................................................................ 7
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ........................................................................................ 7
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 7
C.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 7
C.2 Watertube Waste Heat Boilers ........................................................................................................ 8
C.2.1 Bent Tube. ............................................................................................................................ 9
C.2.2 Positive Circulation. .............................................................................................................. 9
C.2.3 Horizontal Straight-Tubular Header. ..................................................................................... 9
C.2.4 Vertical Boiler. ..................................................................................................................... 10
C.3 Firetube Waste Heat Boilers ......................................................................................................... 10
C.4 Typical Waste Heat Boiler Applications ........................................................................................ 12
C.4.1 Steel Mills ............................................................................................................................ 12
C.4.1.1 Basic Oxygen Process. ........................................................................................... 13
C.4.2 Lead and Zinc Smelters ...................................................................................................... 13
C.4.3 Gas Turbines ...................................................................................................................... 13
C.4.4 Diesel Engine Exhaust ....................................................................................................... 16
C.4.5 Cement Kilns ....................................................................................................................... 16
C.4.6 Copper Ores ....................................................................................................................... 17
C.4.7 Chemical Process Industries .............................................................................................. 18

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Effects of thermal expansion. ............................................................................................................. 4
Fig. 2. Waste heat boiler unit, suitable for high temperature gases carrying sticky or semimoltenparticles. . 9
Fig. 3. Positive circulation LaMont waste heat boiler. ................................................................................. 10
Fig. 4. Vertical water tube waste heat boiler with external downcomers. .................................................. 11
Fig. 5. Finned tubes used on watertube boilers. ......................................................................................... 12
Fig. 6. Open hearth horizontal gas tube waste heat boiler. ........................................................................ 12
Fig. 7. Controlled circulation boiler for recovery of heat from open hearth furnace. .................................. 14
Fig. 8. Fume hood for waste heat recovery in the oxygen process for steel making. ................................ 15
Fig. 9. Smelting and refining waste heat boiler. .......................................................................................... 15
Fig. 10. Heat recovery equipment at a gas turbine installation. .................................................................. 16
Fig. 11. Diesel engine waste-heat steam generator. ................................................................................... 17
Fig. 12. Copper reverberatory furnace waste heat boiler. ........................................................................... 18
Fig. 13. Copper reverberatory furnace waste heat boiler. ........................................................................... 19
Fig. 14. Watertube boiler for sulfur recovery plant witt cast iron extended surface tube elements. ........... 20
Fig. 15. Combination watertube/firetube waste heat boiler. ........................................................................ 20
List of Tables
Table 1. Temperature of Waste Heat Gases ................................................................................................. 8

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3

1.0 SCOPE
This data sheet covers waste heat boilers. Waste heat boilers are units that recover sensible heat from
industrial processes and combustion products.
Firetube boilers are covered in Data Sheet 12-16. Watertube boilers are covered in Data Sheet 12-17.

1.1 Changes
June 1999. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Operation and Maintenance

2.1.1 Operation
1. Provide full time operator attendance (see Data Sheet 12-37).
2. Operators should be properly trained in the operation of the boiler and well versed in shutdown proce-
dures. They should also have an understanding of the overall process so as to recognize the effect of boiler
operation on the process.
3. Emergency shutdown procedures should be posted in the boiler control room.
4. Plant management should establish a training program designed to review boiler operational and emer-
gency procedures. This training program should be conducted periodically at the discretion of plant man-
agement.
5. Proper feedwater treatment should be provided at all times. Water treatment specialists and/or the boiler
manufacturer should be consulted to establish a proper feedwater treatment program. Boiler manufactur-
ers should also be consulted to aid in the establishment of proper blowdown and chemical cleaning proce-
dures.
6. Control dust loading by maintaining low velocities, and provide proper maintenance to minimize buildup
of dust and minimize erosion. Large quantities of dust in waste gases can be controlled by recommending
installation of dust collectors, pockets and hoppers, or conveyors.
7. To minimize corrosion from low temperatures, operate boilers above a dew point of 300°F (149°C) or
450°F (232°C) if gases contain sulfur.
8. Maximum rate of firing should be established in any furnace to prevent excessive heat from entering the
waste heat unit.
9. To prevent fatigue problems, firetube waste heat boiler should not be cycle loaded.

2.1.2 Inspection
Tube erosion should be monitored at installations that operate with high dust loadings. Tube metal thick-
ness readings should be taken at least once a year. Where applicable, readings should be taken more fre-
quently to provide a clearer picture of potential problem areas.
The information provided below is intended to supply the user with some additional inspection material. This
information should be used in conjunction with information supplied in the data sheets on firetube and water-
tube boilers.

2.1.2.1 Cold End Corrosion

1. Examine any fireside metal surfaces that have been or are coated with ash or slag for wasting. Wasting
may be in the form of pits, groove or uniform thinning of the material.
2. Remove surface deposits and examine metal surface for light shiny appearance. This may be an indica-
tion of acid etching.

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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3. Remove deposits on welded seams and staybolt ends. Deposits can take on the shape of welds thereby
hiding severely wasted weld metal.

2.1.2.2 Erosion of Boiler Heating Surface

1. Check all furnace and convection pass tubing for erosion as a result of fly-ash impingement. Tubing in
the area of a change in direction of gas flow is especially susceptible.
2. Examine exposed U-bolts at any other projections into the gas stream for wear caused by eddy cur-
rents. Welded on studs may be used in place of U-bolts for baffle tile support.
3. The boiler casing should be checked for cracks that would allow gases to penetrate. Baffles and refrac-
tory should be checked for cracks, voids or widened joints that would allow high velocity dust laden gases
to bypass, cutting the tubing or shell surfaces.
4. If excessive polishing and tube erosion is discovered it may be necessary to change the original baf-
fling arrangement or install deflector plates. Sleeves may also be placed over tubing to protect the tubes from
fly-ash erosion.
Note: When attaching any type of shielding to tubes, care should be taken that the method of attachment per-
mits expansion of the shielding independently of the tubes.
5. Tube metal thickness readings should be taken at least annually in areas where erosion has taken place.
When a tube bank becomes partially plugged the cross-sectional area of the bank is decreased. This will
increase gas velocities and could cause ‘‘polishing’’ of the unplugged section of the tube bank.
6. Areas around sootblowers should be examined for tube wastage resulting from impingement of high veloc-
ity steam from improperly adjusted sootblowers. Steam from sootblowers, if not properly directed can cut
completely through tubes and drums.

2.1.2.3 Firetube Boilers

1. Check tubes, tubesheets and tube to tube sheet attachments for signs of cracking as a result of ther-
mal expansion differences. Rolled or rolled and seal welded tubes are more susceptible to thermal expan-
sion problems than full penetration welded tubes. Figure 1 is an example of tube distortion that is a result of
thermal expansion.

Fig. 1. Effects of thermal expansion.

If allowance is not made for expansion or if the thermal differences between tube sheet and tube exceed the
tolerances, then the compressive forces will exceed the yield strength of the tube and cause a gap as shown
in Figure 1. When the unit cools, water as well as any solids will be trapped in the gap. When the unit is
reheated, the trapped water will vaporize creating a pressure that could lead to cracking.
Insulated ferrules may be used to protect tube ends from overheating. Ferrules could also be used to guard
against the condition shown in Figure 1 although the best way to protect the tube ends in this case would
be to use a full penetration weld or butt weld the tube to the back of the tube sheet.
2. Check refractory for breakdown which could lead to overheating.

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2.1.2.4 General
1. Check for sagging tubes in a firetube boiler and bulged or distorted tubes in a watertube boiler indicat-
ing overheating.
2. Pitting of tube surfaces is an indication of corrosion and can occur on both water and gas sides of the
boiler. Waterside corrosion is an indication of an inadequate water treatment program. Gas-side corrosion may
occur from operating at too low a dew point for the composition of the waste heat gas. Dew point is espe-
cially critical in installations that are recovering heat from processes of high sulfur content.

2.1.2.5 Repairs
1. The method of repairing tubes or any pressure part of the boiler affected by erosion depends upon the
extent of the damage and, to a certain extent, on the location. Tube sections with 50% of the wall thick-
ness eroded should be replaced. Small eroded tube areas may be overlayed and reinforced by either gas
or arc welding. Welding should not be done on sections of tube where enough of the wall thickness has been
eroded to allow burn-through when applying weld overlay. With larger tube defects, it may be necessary
to remove a section of tube or, in some cases, the entire tube.

2.2 Equipment and Processes

2.2.1 Control and Instrumentation

1. Pressure transmitters should be installed in furnace areas of watertube type boilers. They should also
be installed throughout the convection zone of watertube and on the inlet and outlet side of the firetube to
monitor pressure increases due to fly-ash or dust pluggage. Proper spacing of tubes is also necessary to pre-
vent fly-ash and dust pluggage.
2. Audible and visible alarms are recommended to indicate low water. Where applicable, installations should
be protected against overheating by arranging to divert the waste heat gases around the boiler through actua-
tion of the low water tripping devices or high temperature sensors. A standby feed pump is recommended
for those installations that are not equipped with a means to bypass the waste heat gases.

2.2.2 Design and Installation

1. Waste heat boilers should be designed and constructed according to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code.
2. New boilers should be designed and constructed with automatic waste heat bypass systems arranged
to bypass the waste heat gas around the boiler in the event of high temperature or low water condition.
3. Where dust collects, soot blowers should be properly located to dislodge any accumulations. Proper soot
blowers and hand lancing procedures should be established. Soot blowers should be aligned properly to
avoid impingement. Soot blowers should be drained prior to operation to prevent condensate erosion.
4. In watertube boilers with finned tubes the gas temperature should not be excessive, to avoid burning
the fins. Where fin tubes are used, the gas should be clean.

2.2.3 Gas Turbines

1. Provide draft gages to assure that there is a minimum draft loss in order to assure correct gas veloci-
ties and heat transfer rate. A minimum draft loss is necessary to avoid a buildup of back pressure which would
affect turbine power output.
2. Provide soot blowers where solids are carried over in the flue gas stream.
3. Baffles are not recommended in these units. Baffles could cause back pressures to be developed on the
gas turbine.
4. Gas velocity should be less than 2000 feet/minute (609 m/min).

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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2.3 Occupancy

2.3.1 Steel Mills

1. Because of the dust loading, careful inspection of tubes for signs of impingement and erosion is neces-
sary. Procedures for soot blower operation should be adequate.
2. Controlled circulation is also necessary for this application since positive and complete circulation is
required in areas of high heat absorption.
3. Cleaning of blast furnace gas is needed to extend and improve availability of equipment. BFG should
be cleaned prior to entry into boiler furnace.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Loss History

There are several general causes of boiler losses. They are abnormal temperature, physical weakness,
fatigue (stress concentration), abnormal pressure, inadequate supports including insufficient clearance and
misalignment. Abnormal temperature is by far the most common cause of boiler failures.
Abnormal temperature can result from any number of different causes. It can be caused by failure of con-
trols, such as low water cutoffs. It can also be caused by scale buildups that insulate heat transfer sur-
faces, or the result of a faulty design that causes circulation problems.
Physical weakness is usually caused by corrosion, both internal and external, or erosion.
Oxygen corrosion usually occurs as small pits in the tubes or drums. Its occurrence is spotty and it is often dif-
ficult to explain why the attack takes place where it does. Where there is waterside corrosion in tubes that
are not partially dry, oxygen should be suspected and every precaution taken to ensure oxygen-free feed
water.
Low water velocity may cause sludge or scale particles in suspension to settle out on the lower half of the
tube wall. This may form a porous coating which permits some water to reach the tube surface but not enough
to keep the inside tube-wall temperatures at or near saturation temperature. An atmosphere of super-
heated steam then exists at the metal surface. Metal temperatures of perhaps 100° to 200°F (37° to 93°C)
above saturation temperature occur and a direct attack of steam on the metal follows. Corrosion products
formed further thicken the deposit which again raises the metal temperature and accelerates attack. Sodium
hydroxide in the boiler water is concentrated at the metal surface. This also greatly accelerates the corro-
sion rate.
External corrosion is prevalent in areas that are subject to constant or occasional dampness combined with
the presence of soot and other corrosion-producing chemicals. Minor leaks or even sweating of cooler boiler
parts during idle periods in humid weather will enhance the rate of this corrosion.
External erosion of boiler tubes has been one of the outstanding causes of forced shutdowns. Erosion is of
particular concern in boilers that are recovering heat from ‘‘dirty gases.’’
Fatigue is the most common cause of cracking without accompanying overheating and is defined as the
action which takes place in material, especially metals, causing deterioration and failure after a repetition
of stress. A repetition of stress can be caused by restriction of proper expansion in the boiler setting, for-
eign material lodging under drums and headers closing the expansion gap, and by steam and other line con-
nections that have inadequate expansion facilities.
The change of pressure and temperature in boilers produces a ‘‘breathing action’’ which may result in fatigue
of the boiler plate after several years of service. Cracking may result in areas of high stress where local-
ized from general expansion and contraction. A crack from fatigue may grow faster in the presence of corro-
sive water. The combined deteriorating effect of fatigue and corrosion is greater than the sum of their
individual damages.
Safety valves can be the cause of a loss due to overpressure if they are of improper size. Improper setting
and broken and jammed parts of safety valves can also lead to losses from overpressure.

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Waste Heat Boilers 12-14
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 7

Inadequate supports include broken or collapsed supports and columns, loosened nuts on suspension bolts,
loose or broken pipe hangers, inadequate room for expansion of pipes, misalignment, and excessive exter-
nal loading on piping.

4.0 REFERENCES
Data Sheet 6-17/13-20, Rotary Kilns and Dryers
Data Sheet, 7-72/12-10, Catalytic Steam-Hydrocarbon Reformers
Data Sheet 12-16, Firetube Boilers
Data Sheet 12-17, Watertube Boilers
Data Sheet 12-37, Low-Water Protection

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

This document does not have any defined terms.

APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

This document does not have any revision history.

APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION

C.1 Introduction
Rising fuel costs have made the recovery of heat from a given process economically feasible. Heat recov-
ery can also be important from a pollution standpoint. Most waste gases are characterized by a high inert gas
content and by a solid carryover content. The degree to which the inerts are present and the quality, size
and character of the solids strongly influence the boiler design for a given application. With proper design,
all or part of the plant’s steam requirements may be supplied by a waste heat boiler.
Heat recovery is economically practical wherever a process waste product or gas is continuously dis-
charged at a temperature of 1,000°F (538°C) or higher (Table 1). In addition to producing useful steam, the
lowering of the flue gas temperature may reduce maintenance of flues, fans and stacks. Process material
may often be more completely recovered from the cooled gases.

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
Page 8 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Table 1. Temperature of Waste Heat Gases

Temperature, Temperature,
Source of Gas °F °C
Ammonia oxidation process 1,350-1,475 732-801
Annealing furnace 1,100-2,000 593-1093
Black liquor recovery furnace 1,800-2,000 982-1093
Cement kiln (dry process) 1,150-1,350 621-732
Cement kiln (wet process) 800-1,100 427-593
beehive 1,950-2,300 1066-1260
Coke oven
by-product up to 750 up to 379
Copper refining furnace 2,700-2,800 1482-1538
Copper reverberatory furnace 2,000-2,500 1093-1371
Diesel engine exhaust 550-1,200 288-649
Forge and billet heating furnace 1,700-2,200 927-1204
Garbage incinerator 1,550-2,000 843-1093
Gas benches 1,050-1,150 562-621
Glass tanks 800-1,000 427-538
Heating furnace 1,700-1,900 927-1038
Malleable iron air furnace 2,600 1427
Nickel refining furnace 2,500-3,000 1371-1649
Petroleum refinery still 1,000-1,100 538-593
oil, tar or natural gas 800-1,100 427-593
Steel furnace, open hearth
producer gas-fired 1,200-1,300 649-704
Sulfur ore processing 1,600-1,900 871-1038
Zinc fuming furnace 1,800-2,000 982-1093

The heat transfer from the process waste gases is accomplished primarily through convection. There is very
little radiative heat in process waste gases. As a result, gas velocities in waste heat boilers tend to be high.
In gases that carry a substantial amount of particulate matter, the velocities cannot be too high or erosion
of heating surfaces will become a problem.
There are basically two types of waste heat boilers: firetube and watertube. When heat must be removed
or recovered from a process gas, firetube units are usually the choice. Watertube waste heat boilers are use-
ful when heat must be removed from flue gases at near atmospheric pressure.

C.2 Watertube Waste Heat Boilers

The watertube waste heat boiler (Fig. 2) is the most frequently used waste heat boiler for the following
reasons:
1. Larger sizes at higher pressures are readily available.
2. Dust may be recovered and collected into hoppers.
3. Tube size and spacing may be varied to minimize slagging and erosion.
4. Damage from wide fluctuations in gas temperature is not so likely.
5. The water side of the tube is more readily cleaned and is not so susceptible to damage from poor
feedwater.
6. The water-cooled furnace wall is easily applied.
7. ‘‘Sticky’’ flue gases can be handled easier in a watertube boiler.
8. A more economical arrangement is possible.
Specific process requirements have resulted in the design of various types of watertube waste heat boil-
ers, described below.

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Fig. 2. Waste heat boiler unit, suitable for high temperature gases carrying sticky or semimolten particles.

C.2.1 Bent Tube.

The bent-tube boiler is used for waste heat application for the following reasons:
1. Greater flexibility in diameter, spacing, and arrangement of tubes.
2. Vertical tubes collect less dust.
3. Less space is needed for tube removal.
4. More positive circulation minimizes tube damage.
5. Pendent superheater installation is possible.
Bent tube boilers have a relatively low steam generating rate per square foot of heating surface. As a result,
more tubes are needed for a given steaming rate and the number of drums is determined according to the
area necessary for tube attachment.

C.2.2 Positive Circulation.

The positive circulation boiler (Fig. 3) is suitable for use with clean, low temperature gases. Its extremely
small tubes can be arranged without regard for natural circulation requirements, because circulation is pro-
vided by pumps, a design flexibility that results in a lighter, more compact boiler.

C.2.3 Horizontal Straight-Tubular Header.

The horizontal straight-tubular box header and sectional header waste heat boilers were occasionally used
for relatively clean waste gases, although their comparatively low gas temperature required deep tube banks
with multiple passes. Generally, they have been superseded by other types that are more economical to build
and operate.

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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Fig. 3. Positive circulation LaMont waste heat boiler.

C.2.4 Vertical Boiler.

The vertical boiler is used to save floor space (Fig. 4). It is limited to a shell diameter of about 96 in.
(2.4 m) because of shipping limitations and drum attachments. The top inlet arrangement is used in sulfur-
burning furnaces.
Watertube boilers are equipped with plain or finned tubes (Fig. 5). Plain tubes are useful only for small vol-
umes of gases, or for gases with high temperature (above 1400°F, 760°C). Plain tubes are also used on
units where gases have large amounts of solids.
Nearly all other watertube boilers are equipped with finned tubes. Finned tubes provide greater heating sur-
face, as much as eight to ten times more than bare tubes of the same volume.

C.3 Firetube Waste Heat Boilers

A direct-fired firetube boiler that has part of its shell exposed to the furnace absorbs heat both by radiation
and convection and therefore makes more efficient use of its surfaces. In waste heat applications, the fire-
tube boilers usually have a single-pass arrangement that absorbs only convection heat from the gases. The
exterior shell is not used as a heating surface. The boiler is suitable for pressures as high as 400 to 500 psi
(2758 to 3447 kPa) and an entering-gas temperature as high as 1,800°F (982°C).

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Waste Heat Boilers 12-14
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Fig. 4. Vertical water tube waste heat boiler with external downcomers. Steam generated at 50 psi (345 kPa) recovering
heat from sulphur-bearing gases. The top channel serves as steam disengaging drum.

The boiler is inherently tight under pressure and may be used with pulsating gases such as diesel engine
exhaust where no refractory lining or setting is used, but where the exterior is insulated.
The tubes are of smaller diameter and more closely spaced than in direct-fired applications. They are kept
clear of deposits by a rotating-arm soot blower, with the nozzles directed toward the tube ends. For heavier
incrustations, hand lances are inserted through lance doors in the wall of the connecting flue (there is less ten-
dency for flue dust to clog the vertical tubes). The firetube boiler should be used only with waste heat streams
having light dust loadings.
The firetube boiler is usually of the horizontal type (Fig. 6). Practically the entire space within the shell of
the horizontal boiler is filled with tubes; steam space is minimized and a steam drum used instead. All tubes
are submerged to minimize the stresses that occur when dry tubes are used. The manhole provided near

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
Page 12 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Fig. 5. Finned tubes used on watertube boilers.

the bottom for inspection and cleaning purposes limits the number of tubes installed in the lower part of the
drum. The access may be in the shell or in the head at the gas outlet end.

Fig. 6. Open hearth horizontal gas tube waste heat boiler.

The boiler is usually set at a 15° angle to (1) improve circulation, (2) collect steam at the high point, and
(3) permit suspended matter to gravitate to the lowest point.

C.4 Typical Waste Heat Boiler Applications

C.4.1 Steel Mills

Open hearth, forge and continuous heating furnaces are usually equipped with waste heat boilers. As a
general rule, it is impractical to attempt recovery of heat from single-batch furnaces or from those in which
a large portion of the combustion gases are lost through the doors. A common arrangement is for two or more
furnaces to discharge through a common waste heat boiler. Boilers used in steel mills include horizontal
and vertical firetube as well as the horizontal straight-tubular and bent-watertube types.
Steam demands in a steel mill make the use of waste heat boilers a practical means of reducing the tem-
perature of waste gases to around 600°F (316°C). This permits the use of electrostatic precipitators capable
of removing dust particles as required by increasingly stringent air pollution laws. Because these gases are
dirty and offer only sensible heat, they present special requirements. Heating surfaces must be arranged
so as to minimize deposits and plugging of gas passages. At the same time, positive circulation is essen-
tial to provide stability of boiler operation and to insure good steam quality.

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Figure 7 shows a controlled circulation boiler for the recovery of heat from open hearth furnace gas. Tube
spacing at the inlet section near the bottom of the unit is comparatively wide to prevent slag adherence and
to minimize abrasion. As the gas is cooled in passing through the boiler, the tube spacing is decreased. The
boiler circulating pumps not only permit flexibility in the choice of tube size and spacing but also assure posi-
tive and stable circulation under steady and variable load conditions.

C.4.1.1 Basic Oxygen Process.

In the basic oxygen process for steel making, oxygen is top-blown into a vessel similar to a Bessemer con-
verter, and the products of this reaction, mainly CO gas, are collected in a fume hood (Fig. 8). The pri-
mary function of the fume hood is to reduce the temperature of the dust-laden gases and direct them to the
cleaning equipment prior to discharge to the atmosphere. The unit designed for this service uses con-
trolled circulation principles and can be combined with a convection surface to constitute a waste heat boiler.
The unit is fabricated of smaller diameter tubing with fillet welds between adjacent tubes on the outside perim-
eter to form a continuous wall that is gas-tight. The vessel cover is placed directly above the converter ves-
sel and located in such a manner as to control entering ambient air through the induced draft fan. The amount
of air allowed to enter is related to the quantity required to oxidize the carbon monoxide gas that is gener-
ated in the basic oxygen process.
Feedwater is discharged into the steam drum where it mixes with circulated water from the unit. This water
mixture enters the downcomers, connected to circulating pumps which deliver water to a discharge mani-
fold. The water then flows through supply tubes to the inlet headers of the fume hood and through the water
walls to the outlet header. Risers from the outlet header to the steam drum complete the circuit. The unit
has complete water cooling with convection surface located in the upper furnace area.

C.4.2 Lead and Zinc Smelters

One way to process lead and zinc is smelting in fuming furnaces where pulverized coal and air are injected
into the molten slag. The lead and zinc are boiled out from the slag as metal vapors and then reoxidized
above the slag bed in an atmosphere free of impurities. The gaseous products leave the fuming furnace at
about 2,200°F (1204°C), carrying solids in a semimolten or sticky form. As the gases pass through a com-
bustion chamber, the zinc vapor is completely oxidized. The waterwalls of the combustion chamber cool the
products to about 1,400°F (760°C) prior to their entry into the superheater and convection passes so that
the solids may be removed from the surfaces in the form of dust.
The suspended dust is precipitated into a watercooled, hopper-shaped furnace bottom and removed by screw
conveyors. Rotating wall soot blowers (using air or steam) periodically remove accumulations of dust from
the waterwalls. Long, retractable automatic soot blowers are used in the convection zone. Occasional hand
lancing is necessary. Figure 9 shows a typical waste heat boiler for use with a fuming smelter.

C.4.3 Gas Turbines

The combustion gas turbine has become an important element in the production of electrical and mechani-
cal power throughout the world. By burning liquid or gaseous fuels at relatively high temperatures and sev-
eral atmospheres pressure, these machines generate energy without the condenser loss associated with
steam power plants.
Gas turbines find wide application where power must be provided on a standby or peaking basis and for unat-
tended service in remote locations. In many cases the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine plant has been
improved by adding heat recovery equipment, comprising boilers, economizers and regenerators, singly or
in combination (Fig. 10).

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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Fig. 7. Controlled circulation boiler for recovery of heat from open hearth furnace.

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Fig. 8. Fume hood for waste heat recovery in the oxygen process for steel making.

Fig. 9. Smelting and refining waste heat boiler.

The addition of either a fired or unfired steam generator to an existing gas turbine installation frequently has
economic justification. Many combined gas turbine-steam turbine power plants have been conceived and
designed as such on the basis of higher thermal efficiency than a conventional steam power plant with the
same steam conditions. The heat rate improvement can be as high as five percent, depending on the steam
temperature and pressure and the regenerator cycle chosen.
Gas turbines employ air-cooled stainless-steel combustion chambers operating at about 1500°F (815°C)
on a continuous basis. To obtain this relatively low combustion temperature, excess air in quantities higher
than 300 percent must be employed. With some gas turbines in which lower combustion chamber tempera-
tures are used because of the nature of the fuel, the excess air may be as high as 500 percent. The exhaust
gas temperature is about 600°F (315°C) below the combustion chamber temperature.

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Fig. 10. Heat recovery equipment at a gas turbine installation.

There are three effects of the large quantities of excess air and the 700° to 900°F (371° to 482°C) turbine
exhaust gas temperatures on the design of steam generating equipment: (1) straight waste-heat recovery
of sensible heat in the turbine exhaust must be accomplished at lower thermal heads than is the case with
waste gas from reverberatory furnaces and the like; (2) as gas turbine combustion chamber temperatures
are lowered, the exhaust stream becomes larger in quantity for a given gas turbine output at such a low tem-
perature level that the recovery of waste heat may become uneconomical; (3) the use of gas turbine exhaust
as highly preheated combustion air for a steam generating unit fired with any fuel, and without restriction
as to steam conditions, becomes attractive. Many of the combined gas-steam turbine applications in opera-
tion involve both straight waste heat recovery by boilers or economizers and the use of turbine exhaust as
the source of oxygen for fuel burning.
Waste heat boilers for the recovery of sensible heat from gas turbine exhaust can be either of the natural
or controlled circulation design. Such boilers can be built inside of what amounts to a continuation of the tur-
bine exhaust duct. Gas velocities through these units are limited to about 100 feet/second (30 m/s) by rea-
son of excessive backpressure on the gas turbine.

C.4.4 Diesel Engine Exhaust

Either the gas-tube or the positive circulation watertube boiler may be used for recovery of 30 to 40 per-
cent of the heat from diesel engine exhaust gases. These boilers are constructed to withstand the pulsa-
tions of the gas as it is discharged from the engine. When the four-cycle engine with solid injection operates
at maximum load, it has a discharge temperature of about 800°F (426°C) (400°F [204°C] at half load). The
two-cycle engine, which uses more scavenging air, has a lower exhaust temperature (sometimes not over
550°F , 289°C). From 12 to 18 pounds of gas/hour per boiler horsepower is available from a four-cycle die-
sel, and twice this quantity from a two-cycle engine. Exhaust gases from two 3,000 bhp (2235 kw) diesel
engines, at a temperature of 550°F (289°C) are capable of generating 3,000 pounds (1361 kg) steam an hour
at 100 psi (689 kPa) pressure in a waste heat boiler. See Fig. 11.

C.4.5 Cement Kilns

Waste heat boilers for cement kiln applications are generally of the two and three drum type, and are designed
with superheaters, economizers and soot blowers.
The boilers operate with the dust-laden gases of high solid content that are discharged from the kiln. Sol-
ids are continuously collected in hoppers under the boiler and economizer and removed without interrupt-
ing the operation. From 20 to 40 tons (18140 to 36280 kg) of cement dust may be recovered daily from each
kiln. Data Sheet 6-17/13-20, Rotary Kilns and Dryers, discusses problems and recommendations associ-
ated with firing controls for cement kilns.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 17

Fig. 11. Diesel engine waste-heat steam generator. (U.S. Maritime Commission Liberty ship ‘‘Thomas Nelson’’)

C.4.6 Copper Ores

The reverberatory furnaces used for smelting copper ore concentrates are fired by pulverized coal, oil or
gas. Impurities float to the top and are skimmed off as slag. The products of combustion, leaving at about
2,300°F (1260°C), are heavily contaminated with slag particles and solids, some of which may be in a pasty
or semifused state.
To cool these slag particles to about 1,700°F (926°C), a large water-cooled furnace area is used. Platens
spaced on about 18 in. (46 cm) centers prevent bridging and provide additional heat-absorbing surface for

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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cooling the gases prior to their entry into the superheater and convection zones. Figures 12 and 13 show
a typical waste heat boiler designed for use with a copper reverberatory furnace.

Fig. 12. Copper reverberatory furnace waste heat boiler.

C.4.7 Chemical Process Industries

In many chemical installations the use of waste heat boilers, very often known as waste heat recovery sys-
tems, are used as a means of efficiently and economically obtaining steam for process. In the chemical pro-
cess industry the waste heat boilers are designed primarily to extract heat from waste process gases. In many
cases the steam is of secondary interest. The primary purpose of the waste heat boiler is the cooling of the
gases for the purpose of combining with a catalyst. This is done, for example, in sulfuric acid plants and
ammonia process plants to obtain other byproducts.

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Waste Heat Boilers 12-14
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 19

Fig. 13. Copper reverberatory furnace waste heat boiler.

Where elemental sulphur is burned with air inside a combustion chamber, the heat resulting from the chemi-
cal reaction is used for steam generation. The exhaust gases containing SO2 are cooled to a controlled tem-
perature and combined with oxygen in a catalyst bed to produce SO3 for further process in the manufacture
of acid (Fig. 14).
In the ammonia process the waste recovery system normally may be used to accomplish two or more objec-
tives. Steam is produced for processing, but the main use of the waste heat recovery system is to cool the
gas in process so that it can then be passed over a catalyst bed in the conversion process to obtain ammo-
nia. A special type of boiler, the bayonet type, is used in the ammonia process. For information about this spe-
cial application, refer to Data Sheet 7-72/12-10, Catalytic Steam-Hydrocarbon Reformers.
In chemical plants today the conversion of waste heat in process systems is a custom job and needs care-
ful study and evaluation for the process involved. When sulfur is burned under a boiler, as in the commer-
cial production of sulfuric acid, the temperature of all metal surfaces should exceed the dew point temperature
of 450°F (232°C) if they are to have a reasonably long life. The quantity of acid present is small, about 0.005
percent by volume in dry gas. Figure 15 is a sketch of a combination watertube/firetube waste heat boiler
for use in a chemical plant.
Gases in contact with tubes and plates reach the dew point sooner than gases in the main stream. The gases
leaving the boiler proper are not all the same temperature. Corrosion usually is most noticeable at the cold
end of the economizer or air heater.
A minor amount of sulfuric acid corrosion takes place at elevated temperatures to 620°F (326°C). The major
difficulties occur, however, at temperatures below the acid dew point which may vary from 280° to 320°F
(139° to 160°C) under normal operating conditions. The dew point temperature of 450°F (232°C) should be
maintained where sulphur is being processed.

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12-14 Waste Heat Boilers
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Fig. 14. Watertube boiler for sulfur recovery plant witt cast iron extended surface tube elements.

Fig. 15. Combination watertube/firetube waste heat boiler.

FMELPC July 1982

©1982 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.