Thoughts on the Relations Between

Emotion and Cognition

RICHARD S. LAZARUS University of California, Berkeley

ABSTRACT: This paper argues that thought is a nec- the person and the environment. The appraisal
essary condition of emotion. It therefore opposes the process gives rise to a particular emotion with
•stance taken by Zajonc, which reflects two widespread greater or lesser intensity depending on how the
misunderstandings about what is meant by cognitive relationship is evaluated with respect to the per-
processes in emotion: (a) that a cognitive appraisal of
son's well-being. Cognitive appraisal means that
the significance of an encounter for one's well-being
the way one interprets one's plight at any given
must occur in fixed stages through the information
moment is crucial to the emotional response.
processing of initially meaningless inputs from the en-
vironment; and (b) that such an appraisal is necessarily Cognition and emotion are usually fused in na-
deliberate, rational, and conscious. Some of the phy- ture (Folkman, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1979), al-
logenetic and ontogenetic implications of a cognitive though they can be dissociated in certain unusual
theory of emotion are also discussed briefly. or abnormal states. For example, cognitive coping
processes (cf. Lazarus, 1981) such as isolation and
Recent years have seen a major change in the way intellectualization (or detachment), which are
psychologists view emotion—the rediscovery that aimed at regulating feelings, can create a disso-
emotions are products of cognitive processes. The ciation between thoughts and feelings. Moreover,
emotional response is elicited by an evaluative per- attack can occur without anger, and avoidance
ception in lower animals, and in humans by a com- without fear. These latter conditions are also in-
plex 'cognitive appraisal of the significance of stances in which the usual link between thought
events for one's well-being. and feeling has been loosened or broken. Yet such
Although there are many other issues concerning separations are less often a rule of living and more
the relations between emotion and cognition, my often a product of coping under special circum-
comments will focus on the role of thought in the stances. The full experience of emotion (as opposed
emotional response. I will refer often to Zajonc's to sham rage, for example) normally includes three
(1980) challenge to the assumption that cognition fused components: thoughts, action impulses, and
occurs prior to emotion. I use his views to illustrate somatic disturbances. When these components are
widespread misunderstandings of what it means dissociated we are left with something other than
to speak of cognition as a causal antecedent of what we mean by a true emotional state. Our the-
emotion; I also use his views as a point of departure ories of emotion must reflect the normal fusion,
for rny argument that cognitive activity is a nec- and separating thoughts, action impulses, and so^
essary as well as sufficient condition of emotion. matic disturbances except under certain specifi-
able conditions (as was done in the old days of
faculty psychology—which treated cognition,
Do Emotions Require Cognitive emotion, and motivation as independent entities)
Mediation? distorts rather than clarifies the structure of the
mind (cf. Lazarus, Coyne, & Folkman, 1982).
My own position on this question is a variant of One bit of fallout from the above analysis is the
a family of theories of emotion centered on the implication, often derived from statements of cog-
concept of cognitive appraisal. Campos and Stern- nitive theory, that cognitive appraisal is a necessary
berg (1981) state, for example, that "The recent
history of the study of emotion has been dominated I wish to thank my research colleague, Susan Folkman, and my
by approaches stressing cognitive factors. In the- secretary, Carol Carr, for providing substantial editorial advice
ories of adult emotional response, cognitive ap- on this article. I appreciate their skill and judgment.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Richard S. Lazarus,
praisal now functions as the central construct" (p. Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley,
273). Its role is, to mediate the relationship between 4105 Tolman Hall, Berkeley, California 94720.

Vol. 37, No. 9, 1019-1024 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • SEPTEMBER 1982 • 1019

Copyright 1982 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0003-066X/82/3709-1019$00.75
I
as well as sufficient condition of emotion. Such a of a computer, proceeds by serially receiving, reg-
position has been criticized trenchantly by Zajonc istering, encoding, storing for the short- or long-
(1980). He writes that affect is erroneously re- run, and "retrieving meaningless bits—a transfor-
garded in contemporary psychological theory as mation to meaning that is called "information pro-
postcognitive, occurring only after extensive cog- cessing." Meanings and their associated emotions,
nitive operations have taken place, and that in ac- or hot cognitions as Abelson (1963) referred to
tuality affective judgments are fairly independent them, are built through such processing. As Erdelyi
of, and even precede, the perceptual and cognitive (1974) and others (e.g., Neisser, 1967) have sug-
activities on which they are said to depend. Zajonc gested, however, emotion can influence the process
argues that not only can affect occur without ex- at any of its stages. With this in mind, it is not
tensive perceptual and cognitive encoding—and surprising that Zajonc might be troubled by the
even before—but that affect and cognition are con- implication that emotion lies at the end of a tor-
trolled by separate and partially independent neu- tuous cognitive chain of information processing,
ral systems (see also Tomkins, 1981). Zajonc thus and therefore find it necessary to suggest an in-
seems to be saying two things contrary to what I dependent system making possible rapid, nonre-
have argued: first, that the proposed directionality flective emotional reactions.
in which cognition determines affect is wrorig and As many have argued (Folkman et al., 1979;
that the actual direction is affect to cognition; and Wrubel, Benner, & Lazarus, 1981), humans are
second, that cognition and affect should be re- meaning-oriented, meaning-creating creatures who
garded as relatively independent subsystems rather constantly evaluate events from the perspective of
than as fused and highly interdependent. their well-being and react emotionally to some of
Building his argument, Zajonc cites a stanza of these evaluations. Zajonc is therefore correct in
poetry from e. e. cummings (1973): asserting that meanings are immediately inherent
since feeling is first in emotionally laden transactions without lengthy
who pays any attention or sequential processing, but for the wrong reasons.
to the syntax of things In my view, the concept of meaning defined by
will never wholly kiss you. (p. 160) the traditional information processing approach
He also cites Wundt's (1907) concept of affective subscribed to by Zajonc has a perfectly reason-
primacy, and Bartlett (1932), Ittelson (1973), Os- able-—and better—alternative.
good (1962), and Premack (1976) as having adopted We do not always have to await revelation from
the view that feelings come first. He states, for information processing to unravel the environ-
example: . < mental code. As was argued in the New Look
In fact, it is entirely possible that the very first stage of movement in perception, personal factors such as
the organism's reaction to stimuli and the very first ele- beliefs, expectations, and motives or commitments
ments in retrieval are affective. It is further possible that influence attention and appraisal at the very outset
we can like something or be afraid of it before we know of any encounter. Concern with individual differ-
precisely what it is and perhaps even without knowing ences leads inevitably to concern with personal
what it is. (p. 154)
meanings and to the factors that shape such mean-
The most serious mistake in Zajonc's analysis lies ings. We actively select and shape experience and
in his approach to cognition, which is characteristic in some degree mold it to our own requirements
of much of present-day cognitive psychology. In (see also Rychlak, 1981). Information processing
this approach information and meaning stem from as an exclusive model of cognition is insufficiently
the conception of mind as an analogue to a com- concerned with the person as a source of meaning.
puter (Shannon & Weaver, 1962), a view illus- The history of debate about the phenomenon of
trated also by the work of Newell and Simon (1961) subception is instructive (see Eriksen, 1956, 1960,
and Weiner (I960). This conception has been re- 1962; Lazarus, 1956; Lazarus & McCleary, 1951).
butted by Dreyfus (1972), Polanyi (1958, 1966), In a controversial experiment, McCleary and I
and others, although the rebuttal has not affected showed that by associating a set of nonsense syl-
the mainstream of cognitive psychology. The lables to the threat of a painful electric shock, sub-
mainstream stance is that meanings for decision jects would later react with a galvanic skin response
and action are built up from essentially meaning- selectively to the shock-associated syllables, even
less stimulus display elements or bits and that sys- when they had misperceived and misreported,
tematic scanning of this display generates infor- them. We referred to this phenomenon as "auto-
mation. Thus, human cognition, like the operations nomic discrimination without awareness," or "sub-

1020 • SEPTEMBER 1982 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

ception," arguing that subjects somehow sensed the basis of these affective judgments. . . . Affective
threat without consciously recognizing the sylla- reactions can occur without extensive perceptual
bles. and cognitive encoding" (p. 151, emphasis added),
The debate sparked by this interpretation and he refers to "affective judgments" (p. 157),
touched on many complex issues, but it mainly implying that cognitive judgment is indeed in-
centered on a claim by Bricker and Chapanis volved in emotion.
(1953) and Eriksen (1956, 1960, 1962) that even Addressing some of Zajonc's statements from my
though the subjects had misreported what had perspective highlights the difference in our views.
been flashed on the screen, they probably had reg- For example, he writes, "in fact, it is entirely pos-
istered perceptually some of the structural ele- sible that the very first stage of the organism's re-
ments of the syllables and had, in effect, reacted action to stimuli and the very first elements of
automatically (emotionally) to "partial cues" of retrieval are affective" (p. 154). This is acceptable
threat. if one adds that this is so only because evaluation
My response (Lazarus, 1956) was that it was rea- or cognitive appraisal also begins at the start. In
sonable to assume that perceptions are often global this connection it is noteworthy that earlier on the
or spherical rather than built sequentially from same page, Zajonc states, "In nearly all cases, how-
structural elements and that emotionally relevant ever, feeling is not free of thought, nor is thought
meanings (connotations) could be triggered by in- free of feelings." With this I agree wholeheartedly.
puts whose full-fledged denotations had not yet Later Zajonc writes that for most human decisions
been achieved. An anecdotal example might be
it is very difficult to demonstrate that there have actually
that when people misperceive the word cigarette, been any prior cognitive processes whatsoever. One
they do not necessarily report a structural equiv- might argue that these are cases in which one alternative
alent such as pencil, but a meaning equivalent such so overwhelmingly dominates all the others that only a
as smoke (cf. Werner, 1948). All this accords nicely minimum of cognitive participation is required and that
with Zajonc's insistence that emotional or affective is why the cognitive involvement preceding such deci-
sions is so hard to detect, (p. 155, second emphasis added)
meaning comes early, even before one knows what
the object or event is. However, I reject the as- Where, then, are we left with respect to the
sumption that this early presence means that it is question of whether cognitive mediation is a nec-
detached from or independent of cognitive ap- essary condition for emotion? By and large cog-
praisal. nitive appraisal (of meaning or significance) un-
If one accepts the principle that meaning lies derlies and is an integral feature of all emotional
at the end of a seriatim cognitive processing, then states. Are there any exceptions? I think not, and
accommodating the fact that we can react emo- I underscore qualifications by Zajonc such as
tionally instantly, that is, at the onset of a trans- "minimum cognitive participation" to reflect that
action, forces us to abandon the idea that emotion emotion or feeling is never totally independent of
and cognition are necessarily connected causally cognition, even when the emotional response is
and to adopt the position that emotion and cog- instantaneous and nonreflective, as emphasized in
nition are separate psychological systems. This is Arnold's (1960) use of the term appraisal. This is
exactly what Zajonc does. the real import of the expression "hot cognition."
However, we do not have to have complete in- The thought and feelings are simultaneous. The
formation to react emotionally to meaning. We only doubts I have are in the arena of phyloge-
can react to incomplete information, which in fact netically based triggers or releasers of fear in hu-
we do in most ordinary transactions. The meaning mans such as those postulated by Hebb (1946).
derived from incomplete information can, of Perhaps humans are "instinctually" wired to react
course, be vague; we need to allow for this type with fear to spiders, snakes, or strangeness. How-
of meaning as well as for clearly articulated and ever, many of these tendencies (such as the sucking
thoroughly processed meaning. reflex) seem to disappear or at least go under-
Zajonc actually appears ambivalent about the ground with an ontogenetic shift to higher mental
cognitive involvement in emotion, as displayed in processes, just as they seem to disappear or go un-
the many qualifying phrases he uses in speaking derground with the phylogenetic accretions of the
of affect or feeling. In the abstract of his article, neocortex that only suppress or regulate but do not
for example, he writes that "affective judgments banish lower functions.
may be fairly independent . . . of perceptual and For all intents and purposes, therefore, meaning
cognitive operations commonly assumed to be the (in the sense of significance for well-being), whether

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • SEPTEMBER 1982 • 1021

primitive or advanced, is always an essential com- chologists treat emotions as primitive, midbrain
ponent of such reactions. Such meaning exists not phenomena, whereas reason is seen to reflect hu-
merely in the environmental display, but inheres man phylogenetic superiority and as vulnerable to
in the cognitive structures and commitments de- being overwhelmed by the primitivizing effects of
veloped over a lifetime that determine the personal passion (see Averill, 1974). One of the most in-
and hence emotional significance of any person- fluential of the cognitive behavior therapists, Ellis
environment encounter. (1962), has argued in accord with this centuries-
old tradition that faulty belief premises underlie
Some Widespread Confusions About psychopathology, creating distressing emotional
states when the person reacts to situations on the
Cognition basis of such premises. The treatment is designed
In his discussion of cognitive activity in emotion, to help the person give up the faulty beliefs so that
Zajonc errs in his understanding of cognitive ap- he or she can operate more effectively and with
praisal, displaying a confusion that is widespread less misery. However, in my view even positively
and had been dealt with much earlier in my" orig- toned, healthy emotions such as joy, peacefulness,
inal treatment of appraisal (Lazarus, 1966). The love, and certainly many human commitments
cognitive activity in appraisal does not imply any- which sustain morale, rest on shared or private
thing about deliberate reflection, rationality, or illusions (Lazarus, in press) and depend on beliefs
awareness. Nevertheless, Zajonc (1980) writes: whose accuracy is often irrelevant to the elicitation
of the emotion. The point is that cognition cannot
The rabbit cannot stop to contemplate the length of the
be equated with rationality. The cognitive ap-
snake's fangs or the geometry of its markings. If the
rabbit is to escape, the action must be undertaken long praisals that shape our emotional reactions can
before the completion of even a simple cognitive pro- distort reality as well as reflect it realistically.
cess—before, in fact, the rabbit has fully established and Finally, cognitive appraisal does not necessarily
verified that a nearby movement might reveal a snake imply awareness of the factors in any encounter
in all its coiled glory. The decision to run must be made on which it rests. In this connection Zajonc writes
on the basis of minimal cognitive engagement, (p. 156,
emphasis added) about two different forms of unconscious processes:
"One emerges where behavior, such as that oc-
This would obviously have to be correct. It must curring in discrimination among stimuli, is entirely
be remembered, however, that as a result of its under the influence of affective factors without the
neural inheritance and experience the rabbit al- participation of cognitive processes" (p. 172). In
ready has cognitive schemata that signify danger this he includes perceptual defense and subliminal
instantly at the sound of a slight rustle in the grass perceptions. The other form of unconscious process
or the sight of a dimly perceived shape. Although "is implicated in highly overlearned, and thus au-
the schemata required in human social affairs are tomatized, sequences of information processing;
apt to be far more complex and symbolic, the ap- this form includes cognitive acts but has collapsed
praisal of danger does not have to be deliberate. them into large molar chunks that may conceal
Zajonc, like many others, also seems to erro- their original component links" (p. 172). Zajonc
neously equate cognition with rationality. He assumes that the former type of unconscious pro-
writes, for example: cess involves no cognitive activity (as in Freud's
Unlike judgments of objective stimulus properties, af- "primary-process" thinking); the latter is a prim-
fective reactions that often accompany these judgments itive, automatized process without significant cog-
cannot always be voluntarily controlled. Most often, these nitive activity or reality testing. I would certainly
experiences occur whether one wants them to or ,not. agree that a person'need not be aware of his or her
One might be able to control the expression of emotion
but not the experience of it itself. It is for this very reason cognitive appraisals and may utilize primitive
that law, science, sports, education, and other institutions logic, but I would argue against the idea that some
of society keep devising ever new means of making judg- appraisals (Zajonc refers to preferences) are non-
ments "objective." We wish some decisions to be more cognitive.
independent of these virtually inescapable reactions.
(p: 156)
Such a statement implies that cognition is ratio- Some,Further Issues About How
nal whereas feeling is irrational and primitive, a Emotion Is Generated
view that goes back to classical Greek times and
that was also emphasized by the Catholic Church There are a number of phylogenetic and ontoge-
during the Middle Ages. Even today most psy- netic implications of this cognitive emphasis. For

1022 • SEPTEMBER 1982 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST

example, those who are less sanguine than I about depends on the development of an understanding
the causal role of cognition in emotion often point of the social context and its significance. Complex
to the startle response, since cognition is obviously and more symbolically based emotional reactions,
absent or negligible in this reaction. I do not con- such as indignation and guilt, probably emerge
sider startle an emotion. Emotion results from an later in ontogenesis than more simple types of
evaluative perception of a relationship (actual, emotion such as anger and fear, although even
imagined, or anticipated) between a person (or anger and fear in humans can have highly complex
animal) and the environment. Startle is best re- and symbolic social and psychological determi-
garded as a primitive neural reflex process. It sig- nants. The capacity for emotional richness seems
nals that something has happened, and although similar in the very young child and the more prim-
it could precipitate a "true" emotional response, itive mammal. However, the capacities diverge as
it is in itself merely a physiological response to an the huijian child acquires symbolic modes of
unanticipated change in stimulation, perhaps anal- thought and knowledge; the child's cognitive pro-
ogous to an eye blink in response to a sudden burst cesses and social circumstances extend its capacity
of light. for emotional richness far beyond that of other
On the other hand, I am also convinced that mammals. By implication, particular emotions will
some emotions depend more on cognitive activity, enter into the child's repertoire only after the child
particularly of the symbolic sort, than others. For has come to master their particular cognitive pre-
example, cognitive activity is apt to be more mod- requisites.
est with respect to symbolic representation in fright From a cognitive perspective, we can also ask
than in anxiety. As Averill and I (Lazarus & Av- whether it is possible to speak meaningfully about
erill, 1972) have argued, anxiety always involves universals in the generation of an emotional state.
symbolic threats (probably to the self), is antici- Across species the basic neurochemical makeup of
patory, and occurs under conditions of ambiguity, animals is quite similar, especially if we take as
whereas fright is immediate, concrete, and con- our starting point MacLeart's (1949,1975) reptilian
cerns survival-related dangers. and mammalian brain, two of three systems of the
From this standpoint, then, in comparatively "triune" brain that also includes the human ce-
simple creatures there should be little symbolic rebral cortex. These similarities provide a neural
representation in the appraisal process, although template that makes emotion in all species similar
no living creature could survive unless it were able in some fundamental ways.
to distinguish harmful from nonharmful events. Of even greater interest to those who emphasize
Perhaps the concept of releaser (i.e., a physical a social and cognitive perspective are the similar-
pattern that matches a neural engram and sets off ities and variations within the human species in
an emotional escape or attack reaction) is now con- the processes underlying the elicitation of an
sidered simplistic. However, the basic idea seems emotion. Here too, although people share some
sound that in more primitive creatures there is biological and social agendas, social and personal
greater dependence on rigid, built-in processes, meanings vary and take on great importance. As
whereas in higher creatures such as humans there Hochschild (1979) points out, every society has
is much more variability and dependence on learn- "feeling rules"—prescriptions and proscriptions
ing and symbolic processes. about how people should feel and act in diverse
Probably all mammals meet the minimal cog- social contexts. The society, then, provides a kind
nitive requirements of emotion if one permits the of template (see also Kemper, 1978) of human rela-
concept of appraisal to include the type of process tionships and meanings on which the appraisal of
described by ethologists in which a fairly rigid, the significance of an encounter for one's well-
built-in response to stimulus arrays differentiates being depends. These shape not only impression
danger from no-danger. An evaluative perception, management but how we actually feel. Further,
hence appraisal, can operate at all levels of com- within a species and within a society, commitment
plexity, from the most primitive and inborn to the patterns and beliefs vary from individual to in-
most symbolic and experience-based. If this is rea- dividual and group to group. Therefore, whatever
sonable, then it is also possible to say that cognitive their origins, there are both common and distinct
appraisal is always involved in emotion, even in agendas that shape appraisals of the significance
creatures phylbgenetically far more primitive than of a particular transaction with the environment
humans. for the well-being of any given individual.
A corollary of the above is that the child's ca- If, as I do, one regards emotion as a result of an
pacity to experience particular emotional reactions anticipated, experienced, or imagined outcome of

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • SEPTEMBER 1982 • 1023

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