Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Xii Economics
Xii Economics
JAIPUR REGION
MENTOR
SH B.L. MORODIA
DEPUTY COMMISSIONER,
KVS RO JAIPUR REGION
Convenor
SH U.S. VIJAY
PRINCIPAL
KV BANSWARA
Prepared by-
1-Mr Pawan Khandal (PGT-Economics) KV Sikar
2-Mr Ramesh Choudhary (PGT-Economics) KV BSF Dabla Jaisalmer
3-Ms Surbhi Yadav (PGT-Economics) KV
4-Ms Kamla Thakan (PGT-Economics) KV Nal Bikaner
5-Mr M.K.Gehlot (PGT-Economics) KV BSF
6-Mr Hiralal Derji (PGT-Economics) KV Avikanagar
7-Mr. Dharmendra Soni (PGT-Economics) KV No.1AFS Jodhpur
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PART – A ( MACRO ECONOMICS)
UNIT - 1 (NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING) (10 MARKS)
Macro Economics:- Branch of economics study as a whole. Ex. National Income, AD & AS, Budget.
• Some basic concept of Macro Economics:-
Final Goods Intermediate goods
Out of the boundary line of production within the boundary line of production
Value not to be added Value to be Added
Included in National Income Not included in National Income
Wheat used by house hold Wheat used by flour mill
Consumption Goods or Consumer Goods:- are those goods which are used for satisfaction of
human wants. Ex. Goods used by Households.
Capital Goods:- Capital goods are fixed assets of the producers. Ex. Plant and machinery.
Stock Flow
(i) It is measured at a point of time. (i) It is measured during a period of time.
(ii) It is not time dimensional. (ii) It is time dimensional. Ex. Per month or per year.
(iii) Stock impacts the flow. (iii) Flow impacts the stock.
(iv) Ex. Money Supply, Capital, Wealth, (iv) Ex. Income, Capital formation (Investment), Population
Population, Saving growth, Savings
Money Flow:- Money flows refer to the flow of money between house hold and Producer (Firm).
Circular flow of income refers to the unending flow between house hold and Producer (Firm).
Expansion and Contraction of Circular Flow: Injections and Leakages
Injection: - Injection refers to the addition of money in to circular flow of Income. Ex. Investment,
Leakages: - Leakage refers to the withdrawal of money from the circular flow of Income. Ex. Savings,
National Income and Related Aggregates
• CONCEPT OF NATIONAL INCOME
National income (NNPFC):- value of final goods and services which are produced by normal residents of
a country during the period of an accounting year.
Domestic income (NDPFC): value of final goods and services which are produced within the domestic
territory in an accounting year.
Transfer Income: - It is the income which is received without giving any factor service. donation
or charity, etc. ,
Factor Incomes: - Factor incomes are the payments made by the producing units (firms) to the
households for the use of their factor services.
Normal Resident: - A normal resident is said to be one
(i) who ordinarily resides in the country concerned, and
(ii) whose centre of economic interest lies in that country.
Domestic territory: it includes political and geographical area and embassies of that country in rest of
world.
• AGGREGATES RELATED TO NATIONAL INCOME
(I) Gross Domestic Product at Market Price [GDPMP]
(2) Net Domestic Product at Market Price [NDPMPl
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(3) Gross National Product at Market Price [GNPMPl
(4) Net National Product at Market Price [NNP MP]
(5) Gross Domestic Product at Factor Cost [GDPFC]
(6) Net Domestic Product at Factor Cost [NDPFC] Or Net Domestic Income
(7) Gross National Product at Factor Cost [GNPFC]
(8) Net National Product at Factor Cost [NNPFC]
GDP Deflator: - It refers to the ratio between GDP at current prices and GDP at constant prices.
𝑮𝑫𝑷 𝒂𝒕 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑮𝑫𝑷 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑫𝑷 𝒂𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔
• Methods of Calculating National Income
Value Added Method/Product method/Output Method: - it measures national income in terms of value
addition by each producing enterprise in the economy during an accounting year.
Gross value added at mp = GDP at mp = value added
Value Added = Value of output – Intermediate consumption
Value of Output = Sales + change in Stock [∆ Stock = Closing Stock – Opening Stock]
NNPfc = value added – depreciation(cfc) + NFIA-Net Indirect Tax (NIT)
Income Method: - According to this method, national income is estimated in terms of factor payments
during an acconting year.
NNPFC = Compensiation of Empliees + Operating Surplus + Mixed Income + NFIA
Compensiation of Empliees = Wages and Salaries in Cash + Payments in Kind + Employers’
Contribution to Social Security + Pension on Retirement
Operating Surplus = Rent + Interest + Profit
(Profit = Dividends + Corporate / Cprporation Profit Tax + Undistibuted Profit)
Mixed Income:- It refers to the incomes of self-employed persons.
Expenditure Method:- According to this method, National income is estimated in terms of expenditure on
final goods and services produced in the economy during an accounting year.
GDPmp = C + G + I + (X – M)
(1) Private Final Consumption Expenditure (C)
(2) Government Final Consumption Expenditure (G) :-
(3) Gross Domestic Capital Formation(I) = Gross Domestic fixed Capital Formation + change in
stock
(4) Net Exports ( X - M )
GDP and welfare
Ans. Often GDP is considered as an index of welfare of the people. Increase in GDP means increase in welfare but there
are few limitations of it.
1- Distribution of GDP: if distribution of GDP is more unequal economic welfare will be less and vice
versa.
2- Composition of GDP: if war goods and harmful products constitute a large share of GDP than high
GDP will not show the welfare.
3- Non-Monetary Exchanges: Non monetary exchanges are quit found in rural areas but they are not
included in GDP. Similarly some activities like services of housewife ,kitchen gardening leisure time
activities are also not included in GDP but they increase the welfare of society.
4- Externalities: Externalities refer to benefits or harms of an activity caused by a firm or an individual, for which they
are not paid or penalized. For example pollution(negative) and Public Garden(positive) . GDP does not consider such
externalities.
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Money is anything which is generally accepted as a medium of exchange, measure of value, store of value and standard
of deferred payments .
Money supply refers to total volume of money held by public at a particular point of time in an economy. It is a stock
concept.
Measures of money supply are as follows –
M1 = C + DD + OD
C- Currency and coins with public
DD-Demand deposits of commercial banks
OD- Other deposits with RBI
Kinds of money-
Full bodied money- Money whose face value is equal to commodity value.
Credit money- Money whose face value is more than commodity value.
Fiat money- Money issued by government like coins and currency notes.
Central Bank
Central bank is an apex body that controls, operates, regulates and directs the entire banking
and monetary structure of the country.
FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL BANK:
i) Currency authority or bank of issue: Central bank is a sole authority to issue currency in the country.
Advantages of sole authority of note issue:
a) Uniformity in note circulation b) Better supervision and control
c) It is easy to control credit d) Ensures public faith
ii) Banker to the Government: As a banker it carries out all banking business of the Government and
maintains current account of the government. Accepts receipts and makes payments for the
government. It also gives loans and advances to the government.
As an agent it has responsibility of managing the public debt.
As a financial advisor it advises government on economic financial and monetary matters.
iii) Banker’s bank and supervisor: Acts as a banker to other banks in the country—
a) Custodian of cash reserves:- Commercial banks must keep a certain proportion of cash reserves with
the central bank (CRR) .
b) Lender of last resort: - When commercial banks fail to need their financial requirements from other
sources, they approach Central Bank which gives loans and advances.
c) Clearing house: - Since the Central Bank holds the cash reserves of commercial banks it is easier and
more convenient to act as clearing house of commercial banks.
d) As a supervisor it regulates and controls the commercial banks.
iv) Controller of money supply and credit: - Central Bank or RBI plays an important role during the
times of economic fluctuations. It influences the money supply through quantitative (volume of credit)
and qualitative direction of (credit) instruments.
Credit creation- Suppose there is an initial deposit of Rs. 1000 and L.R.R. is 20% i.e., the banks have to
keep Rs. 200 and lend Rs. 800/-. All the transactions are routed through banks. The borrower
withdraws his Rs. 800/- for making payments which are routed through banks in the form of deposits
account. The Bank receives Rs. 800/- as deposit and keeps 20% of Rs.800/- i.e., Rs.160/- and lends
Rs.640/- . Again the borrower uses this for payment which flows back into the banks there by
Increasing the flow of deposits.
Deposits (in Rs.) Loans (in Rs.) LRR(CLR+SLR) 20%
Initial Deposit 1000 800 200
Round I 800 640 160
Round II 640 - -
- - - -
Total 5000 4000 1000
Credit Multiplier = 1/LRR, As LRR increase Credit multiplier decrease
Credit Creation = Total deposit –Initial deposit
5000-1000=4000
Aggregate Demand- It refers to planned expenditure on final goods and services in economy in an
accounting
Components of Aggregate Demand (AD) AD=C+I+G+X-M
1-Private Consumption Expenditure (C) 2-Investment expenditure (I)
3-Government expenditure (G) 4- Net Export (X-M)
Consumption Expenditure-
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Consumption function- it refers to functional relationship between consumption and national income.
C =f(Y) , C= a + bY Where C=Consumption a= autonomous consumption Y=National Income and
f=Functional Relationship
Note-There is direct relation between Consumption and Income.
Consumption schedule
It is table showing consumption and Income.
Y (Income) C (Consumption)
0 10
20 20 Breakeven point (Y=C)
40 30
60 40
80 50
100 60
Important Point
Consumption never becomes zero.it remains always positive because we have to consume something even at zero level
of income.
Break-even point-
It refers to the point at which consumption is equal to the national income. At this point saving is zero (0).
PROPENSITY TO CONSUME
There are two aspects of propensity to consume
1-Average propensity to consume (APC) 2-Marginal propensity to consume (MPC)
APC-it is the ratio of consumption and income . APC=C/Y
MPC-it is the ratio of change in consumption and change in income .
MPC=Change in Consumption/Change in income MPC = ∆C/∆Y
Investment
Autonomous Investment Induced Investment
1-not affected by change in level of income 1-affected by change in level of income
2-not induced b y the level of profit 2-induced by the level of profit
3-generally done by the government 3-generally done by the private sector
Ex-ante saving –It means what savers planned to save in an accounting year.
Ex-post saving –It means what savers actually saved in an accounting year.
Ex-ante investment-It means what investors planned to invest in an accounting year.
Ex-post investment- It means what investors actually invested in an accounting year.
Aggregate Supply-
It refers to the total value of final goods and services that all the producers are willing to supply in an economy in a
given period of time. (Aggregate Supply and National income are the same thing.)
Components of Aggregate Supply (AS) AS=C+S
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1-Private Consumption Expenditure (C) 2-Savings
Savings:- It refers to that portion of income which is not spent on the purchase of goods and services at the given
level of income.
Saving function- it refers to functional relationship between saving and national income.
S =f(Y) S = -a + (1-b)Y
Note-There is direct relation between Saving and Income.
Saving schedule
Y (Income) C (Consumption)
0 -10
20 0 Breakeven point (Y=C)
40 10
60 20
80 30
100 40
PROPENSITY TO SAVE
THERE ARE TWO ASPECTS OF PROPENSITY TO SAVE
1-Average propensity to save (APS) 2-Marginal propensity to save (MPS)
APC=S/Y MPS = ∆S/∆Y
APC+APS=1 MPC+MPS=1
There are two approaches for the determination of equilibrium level of income and output
1) AD=AS Approach 2) S=I Approach
I - Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Approach ( AD=AS Approach)
According to this approach the equilibrium level of the economy is determined when aggregate demand is equal to the
aggregate supply. AD=AS
It can be explained with the help of the schedule and diagram.
Schedule showing determination of equilibrium level of income.
Y C S I AD =C+I AS=Y=C+S
0 10 -10 20 30 0
20 20 0 20 40 20
40 30 10 20 50 40
60 40 20 20 60 60
80 50 30 20 70 80
100 60 40 20 80 100
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Diagram showing determination of equilibrium level of income
The above table shows the equilibrium level of income at Rs 60 because at this level of income AD(60 ) =AS(60)
II-Saving -Investment Approach
( S=I) Approach
According to this approach the equilibrium level of the economy is determined at the level when planned saving (s) is
equal to the planned investment (I).
It can be explained with the help of the schedule and diagram.
Y C S I AD =C+I AS=Y=C+S
0 10 -10 20 30 0
20 20 0 20 40 20
40 30 10 20 50 40
60 40 20 20 60 60
80 50 30 20 70 80
100 60 40 20 80 100
The above table and diagram shows the equilibrium level of income at Rs 60 because at this level SAVING (20) is
equals to INVESTMENT(20) .
Meaning of Investment Multiplier
Investment multiplier is a ratio between change in income and change in investment.
K = ∆Y/ ∆I
1 1
Relation between MPC and Multiplier 𝐾 = 1−𝑀𝑃𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝑀𝑃𝑆
There is direct or positive relation between MPC and investment multiplier.
It means if MPC increases than K will also increase and if MPC decreases than K will also decreases
If the value of MPC is minimum i.e. 0 than K will also minimum i.e. 1
If the value of MPC is max. i.e. 1 than K will also max. i.e. ∞
Working of Multiplier
Investment multiplier works on the fact that the expenditure of one person is income of another person.
The working of multiplier can be explained with the help of one numerical example.
Here we assume that initially investment is increased by Rs. 100 carore and MPC is 0.5
Following table will explain the working of K
Working of investment multiplier
ROUND CHANGE IN CHANGE IN CHANGE IN
INVESTMENT ∆I INCOME ∆ Y CONSUMPTION ∆C
I 100 100 50
II 50 25
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III 25 12.5
… …. …. …
TOTAL 200 100
Working of investment multiplier
The table shows that as additional investment increases by Rs. 100 crore there will be change in income by Rs. 100 Crore
in first round, MPC is 0.5 therefore consumption will increase by 100 X 0.5 = 50 crore , the remaining amount will be
saved.
This increased consumption (50 crore) will increase the income by 50 crore in the second round
This process of income generation will go on and the consumption and income will increase in every round till total
income increase by Rs. 200 crore as MPC is 0.5
Full Employment:- Refers to a situation in which all those people, who are willing and able to work at the
existing wage rate, get work without any undue difficulty.
Involuntary Unemployment:- Refers to a situation in which all those people, who are willing and able to
work at the existing wage rate, do not get work.
Budget:- Govt. Budget is the financial statement of estimated receipts and expenditure of the government
for next financial year.
Objective of Budget:-
1. Redistribution of Income and Wealth: -. Gov. tries to reduce inequalities by imposing taxes on rich
people and spending more on the welfare of the poor.
2. Reallocation of Resources: - Govt. uses budgetary policy to allocate resources in the manner such that
there is a balance between the goals of profit maximization and social welfare. Gov. can influence
allocation of resources through:-
(i) Tax concession or subsidies: To encourage investment Gov. can give tax concession subsidies to the
producer like to solar energy and impose heavy tax on production of liquor, tobacco.
(ii) Directly producing goods and services: if private sector does not take interest, gov can directly
undertake the production. Like govt. school
3. Economic Stability:- Government Budget is a tool to prevent economy from the inflation or deflation
and to maintain economic stability.
4. Managing Public Enterprises:- There are large number of public sector undertakings in the economy.
These are established for social welfare of the public.
5. Economic Growth:- Government makes various provisions in the budget to raise overall rate of saving
and investment for economic growth
1. Tax: - Tax is a compulsory payment to govt. without expectation of direct benefit to the tax payers.
There are mainly two type of taxes
Direct Tax Indirect tax
These taxes are imposed on income and wealth. These taxes are imposed on Goods and services.
it cannot be transferred it can be transferred
Its burden can not be transferred Its burden can be transferred
Example: income tax, corporate tax, wealth tax Excise duty, custom duty, VAT, entertainment tax
Revenue Deficit:- Excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts during a financial year.
RD = Revenue Expenditure(RE) - Revenue Receipts(RR)
Fiscal Deficit : Excess of Total Expenditure over Total Receipts other than Borrowings
FD = TE- TR (other than borrowings) FD = Total Borrowings
Primary Deficit : - Fiscal Deficit – Interest Payments
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UNIT – 5 (BALANCE OF PAYMENTS) (6 MARKS)
The BOP of a country is a systematic record of all economic transactions of a country with the rest of the world in a given
period of time.
Balance of Trade (BoT)
It refers to the difference between exports and imports of visible items or Goods. It can be negative if imports are more
than exports
BoT= Exports of Visible Item - Imports of visible items.
Components of BoP
A balance of Payments account broadly comprises two accounts:
Current Account : It records transactions relating to 1. Export and Import of Visible Item (Goods),
2. Export and Import of Invisible Items (Services), 3. Unilateral Transfer
Capital Account :- it records all such transactions between resident of country and rest of the world which cause change
in the asset or liability status of the residents of country or it’s Govt
Components of Capital Accounts
1. Foreign Investment a). Foreign Direct Investment, b). Portfolio Investment
2. Loans and Borrowings, a). Commercial Borrowing b). External Assistance Borrowing
3. Banking Capital Transactions
➢ Sincere attempt to estimate India’s national income and per capita income was made by experts like Dada Bhai
Naoroji, William Digby, Findlay Shirras, VKRV Rao and R C Desai.
1. Agriculture sector on the Eve of Independence -.
Causes of stagnation of agricultural sector -
a. Permanent settlement or Zamindari system,
Under this profits of agriculture sector went to the zamindars in the form of LAGAAN (Rent) .
Zamindar’s interest was only to collect lagan.
b. Commercialisation of Agriculture – It means production of crops for sale in market rather than for
self-consumption. Like jute , cotton. This resulted in shortage of food grains.
c. Low level of productivity – Low level of technology, irrigation facilities and negligible use of
fertilizers resulted in low level of productivity.
2. Industrial Sector – Like agriculture, industrial sector of India could not develop.
(A) De-industrialization of Indian handicraft industry : Two-fold motive of British govt were -
(i) Mere exporter of raw material – To get raw material from India at cheap rates to be used by
upcoming modern industries in Britain.
(ii) Importer of finished goods – To sell finished products of British industries in Indian market at high
price.
(B) Decay of indigenous handicraft industries was due to-
(i) Discriminatory Tariff Policy. (ii) Low priced machine made goods,
(iii) Fall in encouragement to Indian handicraft.
3. Foreign Trade on the Eve of Independence
(i) Monopoly control of Britain on foreign trade – Opening of Suez Canal in 1869 gives speed to foreign
trade with Britain.
(ii) Drain of Indian wealth – Due to excess exports of raw material from India to Britain, India has a huge
export surplus which was used for - (a) Office setup by British Govt. in India;
(b) Meet expenses of war fought by British government; (c) To import invisible items.
4. Demographic conditions on the eve of Independence - First official Census of population of British
India was made in 1881. 1921 is the year of great divide. Before 1921 India was in the first stage of
demographic transition. The second stage of transition began after 1921.
(i) High birth and death rate- Birth rate refers to number of children born per thousand in a year. Death
rate refers to number of people dying per thousand persons in a year. Both birth rate and death rate
were very high as 48 and 40 per thousand respectively.
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(ii) High infant mortality rate – It refers to infants dying before reaching one year of age per thousand
live births in a year. It was 218/1000.
(iii) Low life expectancy ratio – It refers to the average number of years for which people are expected to
live. It is based on the birth year, demographic factors, its age and gender. The life expectance was 44
years at the eve of independence.
(iv) Low literacy rate – Total literacy was less than 16 percent. Female literacy was about 7 %.
5. Occupational structure on the eve of independence - Occupational structure refers to distribution of
working population across different industries and sectors.
(i) Pre-dominance of agricultural sector – This sector accounted nearly 75% share of workforce. Service
and manufacturing sector accounted for remaining 25%.
(ii) Growing regional variation – The states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala,
Karnataka and west Bengal witnessed a decline in dependency of workforce on agriculture sector.
6. Infrastructure on the eve of independence -
(i) Railway – Railways introduce in 1850. First train run between Mumbai to thane in 1853. It enabled:
(a) People to travel long distance; and (b) Fostered commercialization of Indian agriculture.
(ii) Roads – Built primarily for the purpose of mobilizing the army within the country and send raw
material to the nearest port.
(iii) Water and Air Transport – This is developed but proved uneconomical and failed to compete with
railways.
(iv) Communication System – Post and telegraph were developed to maintain law and order in country.
First stamp was released in 1952 and first telegraph line was started in 1953.
7. Positive contribution of British rule –
(i) Self-sufficiency in food grain production, (ii) Better means of transportation,
(iii) Check on famines, (iv) Shift to monetary economy, and (v) Effective administration set up.
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using modern technology and inputs like HYV seeds, pesticides and insecticides etc.
Dr. Norman E Borlaug – Inventor of Green revolution Dr. M. S. Swaminathan - Inventor of Green revolution (In
India)
Achievements of Green Revolution –
1. Rise in Production and Productivity
2. Increase in Income / Marketable Surplus – It refers to that part of agricultural produce which is
sold in the market by the farmers after meeting their own consumption requirements..
3. Buffer Stock of Food Grains
Shortcomings of Green revolution –
1. Increase in disparities between small and big farmers 2. Risk of pest attack of HYV crops
3. Limited crops –There has been no similar rise in production of pulses and commercial crops like
jute, cotton, tea etc. 4. Regional imbalances
Subsidies - To assure availability of fertilizers to the farmers at reasonable price. India has been providing
two types of subsidies – (a) subsidy in agricultural inputs, (b) subsidy on food supplies to PDS.
Arguments in favour -
1. Agriculture is a risky business. 2. Farmers are poor and can’t afford new technology and seeds.
3. Eliminating subsidy will increase income inequality.
Arguments in against –
1. Main benefit is taken by big farmers.2 It does not benefit the target group and creating a huge burden on government
3.More benefit given to the industries, who, produced inputs.
INDUSTRIAL POLICY RESOLUTION, 1956
On 30th April, 1956, a second Industrial Policy Resolution was adopted in India. IPR-1956 has the following
objectives: * Classification of industries into public and private sectors,
* Stress on the role of cottage and small scale industries, * Reduction in regional disparities
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES
According to IPR-1956, the industries were reclassified in to three categories.
1.Public sector industries 2. Joint sector industries 3.Private sector industries.
OUTCOMEs OF IPR-1956
* Scope of the public sector in India got widened* Provision of compulsory licensing was enacted.
* The policy paved the way of development of public sector in India.
INDUSTRIAL LICENSING- was necessary for –
* To set up new industries; * To expansion of existing one
* No new industry was allowed to setup unless a license is obtained.
* Easy to obtained license for industrial setup in backward regions. By giving certain concession like tax
benefits, water and electricity at low tariff etc.
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Import Substitution - It refers to a policy of substitution of imports by domestic production. Export Promotion – It is
a strategy to earn foreign exchange by promoting domestic exports.
Need for Import Substitution –
1. Scarcity of foreign exchange, 2. Un-favourable balance of Trade,
3. Need for industrial development, 4. To protect domestic goods
Objectives of ILTS - The three definite objectives of this policy was:
1. Savings of Foreign Exchange Reserve; 2. Increase in self-sufficiency.
3. Utilisation of Foreign Exchange Reserves in importing developmental goods.
Protection from imports through Tariffs and Quotas –
Tariffs – It refers to taxes imposed on imported goods to make them more expensive and discourage
their use.
Quotas – It refers to fixing maximum limit (quantity) on the imports of a commodity by a domestic
producer.
GLOBALISATION
It means Integrating the economy of the country with the world economy.
Policy Measures adopted Under Globalisation
1. Rise in equity limit participation of foreign investment 2. Devaluation of Rupee
3.Removal of controls on foreign trade 4. Reduction of Tariffs and removal of quota system.
Effects of Globalisation
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(A) Favourable Effects
1. Increasing share of exports in world trade 2. Favourable effect on Export-Import Ratio
3. Application of high technology 4. Stable and strong exchange rate.
(B) Adverse Effects
1. Decrease in Revenue of Indian Industries
2. Increasing Regional disparities 3. Transfer of Profit of MNC’s to ROW
Outsourcing-it refers to a system of hiring business services from outside world.it includes call Centers
(BPO), transcription, clinical advice, teaching/coaching etc. India is an important destination of
outsourcing due to 1-Availability of cheap and skilled labour, 2-revolutionary growth in IT sector.
NEW ECONOMIC POLICY-ANALYSIS
Merits of LPG Policies
1. Increase in Industrial Production 2. A Check on Fiscal deficit and Inflation
3. A Sustainable Increase in For-Ex Reserve
4. Recognition of India as an Emerging Economic Power
5. A Shift from Monopoly Market to Competitive Market
6. Rise in GDP growth and integration with the world economy.
Demerits of LPG Policies
1. Neglect of Agriculture 2. Urban Concentration of Growth Process 3. Economic Colonialism
4. Spread of Consumerism 5. Lopsided Growth Process 6. Cultural Erosion.
POVERTY
It refers to the state in which an individual is unable to fulfill even the basic necessities of life.
Poverty line is defined by the monetary value of the minimum calorie intact that are estimated at 2400 calories foe a
rural person and 2100 calories for a person in the urban area.
Dadabhai Naoroji was the first person who discuss the poverty line in pre- independent India. Jail cost of living is
associated with him.
Chronic poor-It includes people who are always poor and those who are usually poor.
Churning poor - Who regularly move in and out of poverty.
Occasionally poor- Who are rich most of time but poor sometimes.
Head count ratio
When the number of poor is estimated as the proportion of people below the poverty line, it is known as “Head count
ratio.”
Relative Poverty Absolute Poverty
1.It refers to poverty of people relative to other 1.It refers to total number of people living below
people, regions or nations. the poverty line.
2. When we say India is relatively poor, then it is in 2.It has relevance for less developed countries.
comparison with other countries-the comparison is
that of per capita income of different countries.
3.Calculated with help of Lorenz Curve and Gini 3. Calculated with the help of poverty line.
Coefficient.
Causes of poverty
Social, economic and political inequality , Social exclusion, Unemployment, Indebtedness
Unequal distribution of wealth, Population explosion, Low rate of agriculture growth
How to remove poverty-
1. Reducing inequalities of income: -if the high growth rate is accompanied with increased inequalities of income, then
fruits of economic development will accrue only to rich section, whereas the poor will grow in numbers. Thus in equalities
must be reduced if development is to benefit the poor.
2. Population control: -High growth rate of population especially among the poor is one of the causes. So (in order to
remove poverty, it is very essential that population growth rate be checked) poverty can be removed to a greater extent,
if we intensify family planning campaign & reduce the increasing population among the poor.
3. More employment opportunities: -poverty can be eliminated by providing more employment opportunities. So that
people are able to meet their basic needs.
4.Land reforms: -by the imposition of ceilings on land holdings & their effective implementation a good amount of land
can be acquired to be distributed among the landless laborer. On obtaining land, the landless laborers will be able to
employ themselves & will produce subsistence for them.
Poverty alleviation in India-Three dimensional approach
Growth oriented Direct poverty alleviation Minimum need programme
programmes
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Rapid increase in GDP and per Targeted programmes for poor Provide basic aminities.
capita income. section.
Green revolution , industrial MGNREGA, Swarna Jayanti Public distribution scheme, Midday
development. Shahri Rojgar Yojana ,Food for meal, Education for all, PM-Aavas
Work Yojna , PM Ujjawala Yojana,
Education for all etc
Critical evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes-
The absolute number of poor in the country has gone down and some states have less proportion of poor than even the
national average. The policy towards poverty alleviation has evolved in a progressive manner but hunger, illiteracy and
lack of basic amenities continue to be common failure.
The poverty alleviation programmes have been unsatisfactory because of
1.Lack of resources
2.Unequal distribution of assets and the benefits have not reach to the poor.
3. Improper implementation of the programs by government and Bank officials.
4.The resources are in efficiently used and wasted .
5.There has been non-participation of local level institutions and local people in programme implementation .
6. Lack of infrastructure facilities like schools roads, power and training institutions .
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• Increases life expectancy: Formation of human capital raises life expectancy of the people. Health facilities
and availability of nutritive food enable people to live a healthy and long life. This in turn, adds to the quality of
life.
• Improves Quality of life: Educated and healthy people lead a good quality life.
India must develop in to a Knowledge Economy – World Bank
The knowledge economy refers to development of skilled and educated manpower in order to take the country to
progress. Best Example is Japan.
Problems faced by human capital formation:-
1. Population growth 2. Brain drain 3. Low Academic Standard
4. Lack of on the job training in primary sector 5. Poor man power planning
STEPS TO OVERCOME THE PROBLEMS FACED BY HUMAN CAPITAL FORMATION
1. Stop Brain Drain 2. Develop technical education 3. Free Education
4. Invest in health 5. Affordable higher education 6. Proper work culture
7. Education and training to farmers.
Rural Development
To improve the living standard of people living in rural areas by providing proper health, education, transportation
electricity, water and sanitation facilities.(Social and Economic growth of rural areas)
Key Issues in Rural Development
1. Development of human resources 2. Land reforms
3. Development of basic infrastructure 4. Poverty Alleviation
Rural Credit or Agriculture credit –It is required for farming.
(i) Short-Term Credit-6 to 12 months for buying seeds, tools, manure, fertilizers, etc.
(ii) Medium-Term Credit-1 to 5 years for digging wells, buying machinery, etc.
(iii) Long-Term Credit-5 to 20 years for the purchase of land, costly equipment, tube wells, etc.
Sources of Agricultural Credit
(A) Non-Institutional Sources
Money lender, Sahukars, Commission agents, Zamindars, Relatives and Friends etc.
(B) Institutional Sources –
1. Government 2. Co-operative credit societies
3. Commercial banks 4. Regional Rural Banks and Land development bank
5. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
NABARD was set up in July 12, 1982 as an apex body to coordinate the activities of all institutions
involved in the rural financing system. Its main functions are:-
(a) To act as an apex agency for the institutions which advance credit in the rural areas.
(b) To serve as apex funding agency for the institutions providing credit in rural areas.
(c) To provide assistance to the non-farm sectors also.
Micro-credit of Self-help group (SHG)
It has emerged as the major micro finance programme in the country in recent years.
i. Their target groups comprise of small and marginal farmers, agricultural and non-agricultural
labourers artisans etc.
ii. SHGs promote small proportions by a minimum contribution from each member.
iii. From the pooled money, credit is given to the needy members at reasonable interest rates.
iv. SHGs have also helped in the empowerment of women.
Critically evaluation of rural banking system:-
Rapid expansion of the banking system had a positive effect on rural farm and non-farm output,
income and employment.
Following problems are being faced in the rural banking:-
(i) Insufficiency of volume of rural credit. (ii) Inadequate coverage of institutional sources.
(iii) Less attention to poor or marginal farmers. (iv) Growing overdues.
To improve the situation:-
(i) Banks need to change their approach from just being lenders to building up relationship banking with
the borrowers.
(ii) Farmers should also be encouraged to inculcate the habit of thrift and efficient utilisation of financial
resources.
Agricultural Marketing
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“Agriculture Marketing is a process that involves the assembling, storage, processing, transportation, packaging,
grading and distribution of different agricultural commodities across the country.”
Defects of Agricultural Marketing in India
1. Lack of transportation 2. Lack of institutional finance 3. Lack of grading
4. Inadequate and unscientific storage system 5. Lack of market information
Government Measures to improve the system of Agricultural Marketing
1. Establishment of regulated markets. Like Apni mandi (Punjab) and Pythu Bazar (AP)
2. Warehousing facilities. 3. Subsidised Transportation facilities
4. Minimum support price (MSP)
Agricultural Diversification
Diversification of agricultural activities mean to grow multiple crops and extension of activities
subsidiary to agriculture. It has two aspects-
1-Diversification of Crop production –shift from single cropping to multi cropping system.
2- Diversification of production activities-shift from crop farming to other production activities. Ex.
Animal Husbandry: - Livestock farming system (Cattle, goats)
Operation flood ( white revolution) :- To increase production of milk. Ex. Amul (Gujarat)
Fisheries: - Inland and marine fishing.
Blue Revolution:- To increase production of fishes.
Horticulture:- Growing of vegetable, Fruits, & Medicinal Plants.
Golden Revolution:- From 1991 to 2003 India become world leader in production of Mangoes,
Bananas, coconuts and Spices.
Need of Diversification
1. To reduce the risk of agriculture 2. To meet challenges of poverty and other odd situations
3. To reduce the burden of population on agriculture
Diversification of Agriculture Activities in India
1. Animal husbandry/Livestock farming-(poultry (42 %), cattle(25%) and goats/sheep (20 %)
2. Fisheries (Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamilnadu)
3. Horticulture (faming of Fruits, Vegetable and flowers)
EMPLOYMENT
Unemployment: - Unemployment refers to a situation when people are willing to work at the existing
wage rate, not getting work.
Worker: - A worker is an individual who is engaged in some production activity.
Self-employed Workers: These are those workers who are engaged in their own business or own
profession.
Hired Workers: These are those workers who work for others; they render and get wages/ salaries.
Casual Workers: These are the daily wagers. They are not hired by their employers on regular basis.
Regular Workers: These are on permanent pay-roll of their employers and get all social security benefits
including pension, gratuity and provident fund.
Labour supply refers to the amount of labour that the workers are willing to offer corresponding to a
particular wage rate. As may be able to work 10 hours a day, but willing to work only for 6
hours a day at a particular wage.
Labour force refers to the number of workers actually working or willing to work. It is not related to
wage rate.
Workforce = Labour force - Number of persons not working but are willing to work
Number of Persons Unemployed = Labour force - Workforce.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Reason of low rate of participation in India:-
1.High Dependency Ratio in the country.2.Low Level of Productivity in Rural Areas.
3.High Rate of Participation for Women in Rural Areas
Jobless growth is a situation when the level of output in the economy tends to rise owing to innovative
technology without any rise in the level of employment. Jobless growth leads to chronic
unemployment, even when there is a rise in GDP
Casualisation:- Casualisation of workforce refers to a situation when the percentage of casually-hired
workers in the total workforce tends to rise over time.
Formal / Organised Sector: It refers to organised sector and includes all government departments, public
enterprises and private establishments which hire 10 or more workers. Those working in
the organised sector are called 'formal workers'.
Informal / Unorganised Sector: It refers to unorganised sector and includes all such private enterprises
which hire less than 10 workers, besides farming and self-employment ventures. Those
working in the unorganised sector are called 'informal workers'.
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Formal Workers Informal Workers
(i) Work in organised sector of the economy. (i) Work in unorganised sector of the economy.
(ii) Are entitled to social security benefits (like (ii) Are not entitled to social security benefits.
provident fund, gratuity, pension, etc.)
(iii) Can form trade unions (iii) Cannot form trade unions.
(iv) Are protected by various labour laws against (iv) Remain unprotected by labour laws, and are
uncertainties of the market. therefore, highly vulnerable to uncertainties of the
market.
Case Studies: Energy and Health: Problems and Policies- A critical assessment;
Infrastructure:- It refers to the support system of economic and social development of the economy.
Type of infrastructure
Economic Infrastructure :- It directly supports the economic system. Ex. Energy, transport. It will raise the process of
economic growth.
Social Infrastructure: It includes infrastructure releted with Health, education and housing.
It improves the quality of human resources and thus improves the efficiency of manpower. It will raise the process of
human development.
Role/ Significance/ importance of Infrastructure in economic development
(i) Infrastructure Increases Productivity, (ii) Infrastructure Encourages Investment
(iii) Infrastructure Generates Linkages in Production, (iv) Infrastructure Enhances Size of the Market
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(v) Eradication of smallpox, guinea worms and the near eradication of polio and leprosy.
Six systems of Indian medicine system:-AYUSH
A : Ayurveda Y : Yoga and Naturopathy U : Unani S : Siddha H : Homoeopathy.
Medical tourism :- India’s health services combine latest medical technologies with qualified professional
and is cheaper for foreigners as compare to costs of similar health care services their own countries.
GBD (Global burden of disease): - It is an indicator used by experts to gauge the number of people dying prematurely
due to a particular disease as well as the number of years spent by them in a state of disability owing to the disease. India
has bears a frightening 20 per cent of the GBD.
Environment –. It is defined as all those conditions and their effects which influence human life. It includes biotic
components, viz., plants and animals, and abiotic components, viz., trees, water, and air.
Physical environment – this is also known as non biological environment. It includes a biotic element such as land, water
climate, mountain minerals and all other sources which nature provides to us as a free gift.
Biological environment – it is also called living environment. It includes biotic elements such as human, animal, bird,
plants and all micro organisms.
Functions and role of environment –
(1) It supplies resources, (2) It sustain life,
(3) It assimilates waste and (4) It enhances quality of life.
Two basic problems related to environment Pollutions –
(1) Air pollutions, (2) Water pollutions, (3) Noise pollution.
Excessive exploitation of natural recourse –
(1) Deforestation, (2) Degradation of land.
How to save environment
(1) Social awareness (2) Population control (3) Control over industrial and agriculture pollution (4) Water
management (5) Management of solid waste
Sustainable development:- Development that means to satisfy the need of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs is called sustainable development.
Objectives of sustainable development-
(1) to increase economic growth (2) to meet basic needs. (3) to improve quality of life
(4) to maximize the net benefits of future generation.
Features of sustainable developments
(1) Sustained rise in per capita income and economic welfare (2) Rational use of natural resources
(3) Ability of future generation to fulfil their needs not to be impaired (4) Check on population
Strategies to achieve sustainable development
(1) Use of natural non-conventional resources of energy, (2) LPG and gobargas in rural areas
(3) CNG in urban areas (4) Wind power (5) Solar power through photovoltaic cells
(6) bio-composting (7) Shift to organic farming (8) Manage the west
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• Which is why the strategy/model of growth adopted by China is termed as 'statism' (complete ownership of
resources by the state),
• while the strategy/mode/ of growth adopted by India and Pakistan is called the 'mixed economy growth model'.
Country GDP GDP RANK GDP GROWTH GDP PER CAPITA
INDIA $ 2.6 TRILLION 5TH 4.2 $ 1877
ND
PAKISTAN $270 billion 42 0.4 $ 1355
CHINA $ 15.2 TRILLION 2ND 61 $ 10839
Both India and China are very large country on basis of GDP, while Pakistan is very small country in comparison India
and Pakistan. Both India and China stood at top in growth rate in the world for many years
Sector Percent share in GDP Percent share in Employment
INDIA CHINA PAKISTAN INDIA CHINA PAKISTAN
Primary 15.4 7.9 24.4 47 27.7 42.3
Secondary 23.1 40.5 19.1 22 28.8 22.6
Tertiary 61.5 51.6 56.5 31 43.5 35.1
Both India and Pakistan has more share of Primary sector in GDP in comparison China. China has highest share in
secondary sector in GDP in comparison India and Pakistan. Both in Pakistan and India most of working
population is engaged in primary sector. In china maximum working population is engaged in tertiary sector.
• The Great Leap Forward (GLF):- Great Leap Forward (GLF) was the campaign launched in China in 1958 to
accomplish economic and industrial development at faster rate.
• The aim of this campaign was to transform agrarian economy into a modern economy through the process of
industrialisation.
It focused on widespread industrialization of the economy, encouraging people to set-up household industry in their
backyard. In 1958, there were 26,000 communes covering almost all the farm population.
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution:- it was started in year 1965. under this scheme students and professionals were
sent to countryside to work and learn.
Economics reforms were started in 12978 in China. Economic reforms were started in 1988 in Pakistan. Economic
reforms were started in 1991 in India.
In order to attract foreign investors, special economic zones were set up. In China.
DEMOGRAPHIC COMPARISION
Country Population in Annual Population Sex ratio Urbanization
million growth density
India 1331 1.2 441 929 33
China 1371 0.5 146 941 56
Pakistan 188 2.1 245 947 39
• The population growth as being the highest in Pakistan, followed by India and China. The one child norm
introduced in China in the 1979 as the major reason for low population growth. Due to one child policy China
ha more elder people in its population.
• HDI COMPARISION
Item India China Pakistan
HDI Value 0.640 0.752 0.562
Rank 130 86 150
Life expectancy 68.8 76.4 66.6
GDP per capita 6427 (in $) 15039 (in $) 5035 (in $)
People below BPL 60.4 23.5 46.4
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