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Authors:

SWATI MAGAR
(M. Sc. Agri in Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry.)
Ex. TPA at Centre of Studies in Resource Engineering (CSRE), IIT Bombay.
Ex. SRF at National Research Centre for Grapes (NRCG), Pune.

KRUSHNA BHOKARE
(M. Sc. Agri., ASRB-NET, University, Topper, Gold Medal)
Alumni of MPKV Rahuri. Best (M.Sc. Agri) Student awardee, SRF of IASc. (Bengaluru), INSA
(New Delhi), NASI (Allahabad), Worked at National Institute of Plant Genome Research
(NIPGR), New Delhi. and Centre for Excellence on Genomics & Systems Biology at
International Crops Research Institute (ICRISAT), Hyderabad. Mentoring for Agriculture
Optional Since, 2014.

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 INDEX
AGRICULTURE (PAPER II)
MAJOR TOPICS OF THE AGRICULTURE (PAPER II)
9) GENETICS & CELL BIOLOGY
10) PLANT BREEDING
11) SEED PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
12) PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
13) HORTICULTURE AND LAND SCAPING
14) PLANT PROTECTION TECHNIQUES (ENTOMOLOGY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY)
15) FOOD PRODUCTION AND NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

Unit 13.0 HORTICULTURE AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING

Topics
13.1 Major fruits, plantation crops, vegetables, spices and flower crops
13.2 Package practices of major horticultural crops.
13.3 Protected cultivation and high-tech horticulture.
13.4 Post harvest technology and value addition of fruits and vegetables
13.5 Landscaping and commercial floriculture.
13.6 Medicinal and aromatic plants.
13.7 Role of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition.

REFERENCES

13. HORTICULTURE AND LAND SCAPING

Primary Sources:
 Synopsis/handouts by Krushna Bhokare*
 State Agriculture University Course notes
 (e.g. MPKV, ANGRAU, TNAU etc.)

Secondary sources:
 Introduction to Horticulture by N Kumar

Websites:
http://eagri.org/eagri50/HORT281/index.html
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/
13.1 Major fruits, plantation crops, vegetables, spices and flower crops,
13.2 Package practices of major horticultural crops.

Classification of tropical, sub-tropical and acid zone fruit – area and production – scope and
importance.

Based on temperature requirement the fruits crops can be classified as temperate, sub-tropical
and tropical fruits.

 Tropical fruits – mango, banana, sapota, guava, papaya

 Sub-tropical fruits – Mangosteen, litchi, acid lime
 Temperate fruits – Apple, pear, plum. Based on the toleance to the relative
humidity of the atmosphere the fruit crops can be again classified as arid, semiarid
zone crops eg., Ber, anona, datepalm, phalsa.

Arid zone are characterized by sparse and highly variable precipitation, extreme variation of
diurnal and on annual temperature and high evaporation. The mean annual rural rainfall varies
from 100 mm – 500 mm. Temperature will be as low as 4.4° C and high as 50°C. Although
rainfall is low but atmospheric humidity is fairly high.

Scope and importance

In India, fruit crops are cultivated in an area of 3.2 million ha with on annual production
of 26 million tonnes. India contributes to 8 per cent of the total world production. Although the
per day requirement of fruits has been calculated as 230 gram an individual gets only 160
gram. India is the second largest producer of fruits after China. Although fruit is grown
throughout the country, the major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, AP, Bihar, UP & Gujarat.

Fruit crops are capable of giving higher tonnage per unit area.

 Rice – 20-25 tonnes/ha

 Banana -35-40 tonnes/ha

The average calorific value they produce per unit area two crops of wheat produce 52 lakh
calories / ha banana – 370 lakh colorie /ha.

 Fruits are rich source of minerals and vitamins.

 Betacarotene – Vitamin A (Mango, Papaya)
 Banana, Pine apple – Vitamin B, Since fruits are consumed without cooking the
Vitamins are readily available.

Vitamin C – Amla 600 mg/100g of pulp

West Indian Cherry – 1400 mg/100 g.

Fruit culture encourages horticultural based industries like fruit processing and preserved
product like jam, jelly, squash and canned fruits.

Mango – Alphanso, Raisin – export.

MANGO

Botanical name: Mangifera indica Family: Anacardiaceae

Mango is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is called the king of
fruits. Indo Burma – Siam region and Philippines are considered to be the origin of Mango. It is
a leading fruit crop in India. The crop is under cultivation for more than 4000 years in India.

Climate: Mango is essentially a tropical crop and it can also be grown in sub-tropical climate,
from sea level upto on altitude of about 1400 metres.
Rainfall: average annual rainfall as low as 250 mm to as high as 2500 mm.

Soil: Red loamy soil with good drainage is preferable pH 6.5 to 8.

Season of planting: July to December

Planting material: Approach or soft wood grafts

Field preparation: The field is ploughed twice before taking pits. Pits dug at 1x1x1m filled
with top soil mixed with 10 kg FYM and 100 g Lindane 1.3% dust per pit.

Spacing: 7-10 m either way. High density planting 10 x 5m for Alphonso, Banganapalli,
Mallika etc for higher productivity.

Irrigation: Regular watering till establishment. Once in 10 to 15 days interval for better fruit
development and yield. However, for obtaining good flowering the irrigation must be stopped
at least 2 to 3 months before the flowering period.

Manures and fertilizers: Generally chemical fertilizers are applied one year after planting.

Manures and 1 Year old Annual in crease 6th year onwards

fertilizers (kg/tree)

FYM 10.00 10.00 50

N 0.20 0.20 1.0

P 0.20 0.20 1.0

K 0.30 0.30 1.5

Applied during September – October, 45-90 cm away from the trunk upto the peripheral leaf
drip and incorporated.

Intercropping: Inter crops can be grown in the initial years till the main crop establishes.
Short lived and quick growing fruit crops like papaya, phalsa and guava can be grown in the
inter space. Vegetables like onion, tomato, brinjal, chilli etc. can also be grown in mango
plantation.

Mango training pruning: Root stock sprouts and low-lying branches have to be removed.
Mango is a terminal bearer in the past season growth normally does not require any pruning.
But when the trees become very old the bearing capacity decreases. This is due to imbalance
in carbohydrate – nitrogen ratio and imbalance in hormonal status which might be due to
excessive vegetative growth and self-shading of most of the lower branches. The productivity
of old trees can be revived by adopting.

1. Heading back
2. Thinning out
Priming is done during the month of August – September. In heading back process the
hefty criss-cross branches are headed so that the centre is opened up. All the dead and dried
branches should be completely removed. By this, there will be abundant penetration of
sunlight as well as aeration. The dormant buds in the old woods get activated.

In thinning out process the excessive terminal shoots all over the surface of the canopy
are thinned out by retaining only one to two shoots for each previous season growth. By this
the nutrient and hormonal flow is directed to restricted number of shoots so that the terminal
bud is converted into a reproductive bud. Thus the old unproductive trees can be made to
bear a good crop.

Growth regulators: Spray NAA @ 20 ppm at flowering to increase the fruit retention.

Alternate / Irregular bearing

It is phenomenon of bearing heavily in one year followed by a lean crop or non-crop

during next year which is specifically called as alternate bearing. To avoid alternate bearing the
following points should be borne in mind.

 Selection of regular bearing varieties such as Neelum and Banglura – South Indian
Condi Rumai – regular under Gujarat
 Regular ploughing the interspace, manuring and irrigation at appropriate times.
 Regular plant protection – so no crop failure due to adverse pest incidence.
 Preventive excessive production by proper thinning so as to prevent the tress from
exhaustion of nutrients and assimilates.
Plant protection

 Plant hopper – spray two rounds of acephate 75 SP @ 1g/lit.

 Stem borer: Padding with monocrotophos 10 ml in 25 cm2/trel plug the hole with
carbofuran – 5 g/lit.
 Mealy bug:Monocrotophos 1.5 ml/lit
 Nut weevil: Fenthion – 1ml/lit during marble stage and second spray 15 days after
first spray.

Diseases

1. Powdery mildew: Sulphur dust in early morning

2. Anthracnose: Spray mancozeb – 2g / lit as pre harvest spray 3 times at 15 days interval.
3. Sooty mould:Phosphomidon 40 SL @ 2 ml/lit + Maida 5% (1kg Maida or Starch boiled
with 1 lit of water and diluted to 20 lit, avoid, spraying in cloudy weather.
Harvest: March to June

Yield: 8-10 t/ha up to 15 years, 15-20 t/ha from 13-20 years.

Post-harvest treatment: Dip the fruits in 52°±1°C hot water immediately after harvest for 3
minutes followed by 8% plant wax (Fruitox or waxol) to reduce anthracnose disease in mango
during storage. Two pre harvest spray of 0.2% Mancozeb (2.0 g/lit) will also reduce the
incidence.

Physiological disorder

Mango malformation – converting inflorescence to vegetative shoot. This is mainly due to

bio-chemical called malformins 70 control antimalformins like glutathione 2200 ppm or
ascorbic acid 2100 ppm sprayed 3 times at 10 days interval from the time of panicle
emergence.

Black tip: Close to brick kiln small black discoloration appear near the tip of leaves and later
spreads to cover entire leaf. Isolated black spots appear in fruits and causes necrosis.

Phanerogamic parasite: Loranthus partial stem parasite. It is glabrous stout, normally grown
in group on the twigs of mango. Under ambient storage the fruits can be stored for 5-7 days.
The storage life can be extended to 4-7 weeks at 5.6°C to 7.2°C and 85 to 90% RH.

Mango hybrids and their characters

Hybrid Place of research Parentage Important characters

 Mallika IARI, New Delhi Neelum x Regular-bearers, high TSS, good
Dashehari colour, uniform fruits, moderate
keeping quality

Amrapali IARI, New Delhi Dashehari x Dwarf, regular-bearers, cluster-

Neelum bearing, small-sized fruits, good
keeping quality

Ratna FRS, Vengurla Neelumx Regular-bearers, free from spongy

Alphonso tissue and fibre

Sindhu FRS, Vengurla Ratna x Regular-bearer, stone thin

Alphonso

Arka Puneet IIHR, Bangalore Alphonso x Regular-bearer, attractive skin

Banganapalli colour, medium-sized, free
fromspongy tissue. Good
keepingquality,
good sugar, acid blend

BANANA

Botanical name: Musa sp. Family: Musaceae

Banana is one of the oldest fruit known to mankind and also important food for man.

Origin: South East Asia

 ‘Apple of paradise’
 Rich source of energy (137 K. Ca/100g)
 It is a good laxative.

Important status: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andrapradesh and Bihar.

 Edible bananas are mostly hybrids of the two species.

 M. acuminata, M. balbisiana. They set fruits by parthenocarpy.

Climate: Humid tropic plant. Temperature range of 10°C to 40°C with an average of 23°C.

Altitude: Upto 1500 mts from MSL.Wind velocity more than 80 m/hr will damage the crop
heavily.

Rainfall: 100 mm/ month is good.

Soil: Deep well – drained soil with abundant organic matter.

 Depth – one mete

 Soil pH: 5.5 – 8.0 found to be optimum.

Season of planting

o Wet land – Feb-April: Poovan, Rasthali, Monthan

April – May:Nendran, Robusta

 o Garden lands: January – February and November – December
o Padugailands: January – February and August – September
o Hill banana: April – May (lower palani hills)
June – Aug (Sirumalai)

Propagation: Sucker

Sword sucker – suckers with a well – developed base and pointed tip having narrow sword
shaped leaf bladers in the early stage.
Water sucker or broad-leaved sucker – small, undersized suckers of superficial origin bearing
broad leaves.
Sword suckers – more vigorous, grows faster and comes to bearing early. Average weight of
the sucker – 1.5 to 2 kg.

Micropropagation through tissue culture – Rapid multiplication of banana suckers.

Pre-treatment of sucker: The roots and decayed portion of the corn are trimmed. Pseudo
stem is cut leaving 20 cm from the corn.

To avoid wilt disease infected portion of the corn may be pared, dipped for 5 min in
carbendazion 0.1% (1 gm in 1 lit of water) for wilt susceptible varieties – Monthan,
Neyvannan, Virupahshi etc.

Pralinage– with 40 g of carbofuran 3 G granules per sucker.

(The corn is dipped in slurry solution of 4 parts of clay plus 5 parts water and sprinkled with
carbofuran to control nematodes).

Alternatively, dip the corn in 0.75% monocrotophas shade dried for atleast 24 hours and plant.
Sow sunhemp on 45th day incorporate it after about a month. This operation reduce nematode
build up.

TC banana – plants with 5-6 leaves planting – Pseudomonas fluorescence / plant 25 gm.

Field preparation: The land is ploughed deeply and leveled. The pits of size 45 cm3 is dug.
The pits are refilled with top soil, mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 250 g of neem cake and 50 g of
lindane 1.3%.

Spacing Plants / ha

Garden land 1.8 x 1.8 m 3086

1.5 x 1.5 m 4444

Wet land 2.1 x 2.1 m 2267

Hill 3.6 x 3.6 m 750

High density planting: 3 suckers / pit at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6 m

(4600 plants / ha).

Irrigation: Irrigated immediately after planting, life irrigation – 4th day subsequent irrigation
once in a week for garden land 10-15 days in wetland after manuring.

Drip irrigation: 15 lit/ plant/ day from planting to 4th month.20 lit/plant / day from 5th to
shooting and 25 lit/plant/day from shooting till 15 days prior to harvest.

Application of fertilizers

N P K
 Garden land (g/plant/year)

Other than Nendran 110 35 330

Nendran 150 90 300

Wet land

Nendran 210 35 450

Rasthali 210 50 390

Pooven and Robusta 160 50 390

Hill banana: 375 g of 40:30:40 NPK mixture and 130 g MOP/clump per application during
October, January and April. Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria – 20 g each at planting and 5 th
month after planting preceding chemical fertilizer application.

 Apply N as neem coated urea.

 N & K in 3 splits 3rd, 5th and 7th month P at 3rd month of planting.
 For tissue culture banana 50% extra fertilizer at 2 nd, 4th and 6th and 8th month after
planting.
 For maximizing productivity – fertigation.
 25 litres of water / day + 200:30:300 g N: P2O5: K2O /plant using water soluble
fertilizer. For economizing the cost of fertilizers fertigate using normal fertilizers (urea
and MOP) with 30% of the recommended dose along with recommended dose of P as
basal at 2nd month of planting.

Fertigation schedule

Weeks after planting N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)

9-18 (10 weeks) 30 100 20

19-30 (12 weeks) 50 - 40

31-42 (12 weeks) 20 - 32

43-45 (3 weeks) - - 8

Total 100 100 100

Intercultural operation.

 Mammutti digging at bi-monthly interval and earth-up

 De sucker – prune the side suckers at monthly interval
 Dry and dead, leaves are removed and burnt.
 Male flower – removed a week after opening of last hand
 Bunch emergence – propping. The trees are supported with bamboos or casurina poles
to avoid damage by wind.
Growth regulator: Grade of bunch -2,4-D at 25 ppm (25 mg/lit) may be sprayed after the last
hand has opened. This also helps to remove the seediness in poovan variety. Spray CCC 1000
ppm of 4th and 6th month after planting. Spray plantozyme @ 2ml/lit at 6th and 8th month after
planting to get higher yield.

Micronutrient: ZnSO4 (0.5%) FeSO4 (0.2%) CuSO4 (0.2%) ad H3BO3 (0.1%) at 3, 5 and 7 MAP
to increase yield and quality of banana

Bunch cover: Use transparent polyethylene sleeves with 2% (during cool season)-4% (during
summer season) ventilation to cover the bunches immediately after opening of the last hand.

Inter cropping: Leguminous vegetables, beet root, elephant foot yam and sunhemp. Avoid
growing cucurbitaceous vegetables.

Pest

 Banana aphid – vector for bunchy top virus

 Systemic insecticide – monocrotophos 1 ml/lit
 Spray directed towards crown and pseudostem base at 21 days interval thrice.
 Injection of monocrotophos 1 ml/plant (1 ml diluted with 4 ml of water) at 45 days
interval from the 3rd month till, flowering.

Nematode: Bunchy top virus – Pentalonianigronervosa.

Crop duration: bunches will be ready for harvest after 12-15 months of planting.

Harvest: Bunches attain maturity from 100-150 days after flowering.

Yield (t/ha/year)

 Poovan – 40-50
 Monthan – 30-40
 Robusta – 50-60
 Dwarf Cavendish -50-60
 Harvested when the ridges on the skin changes from angular to round.
 Ripened artificially by smoking in pits dug and covered by wooden plan form bunches
are arranged in air tight chamber ethrel – 5000 pppm and kept in petridish. pellets of
Na OH is added and closed ethylene is released.

GRAPES

Botanical name: Vitis vinifera Family: Vitaceae

Grape is a subtropical fruit but adapted to tropical conditions. It is a vine spreading on a

support, native of Armenia, a district near the caspiansea in Russia.

Climate and soil requirement: It is a fruit of semi-arid subtropical regions requiring warm dry
summer and a cool rainy winter.

Soil: Well – drained rich loamy soil with pH of 6.5-7.0. Soil depth should be almost
1 m.

Propagation: Propagated by hard wood cuttings prepared from matured canes (one year old
shoot) of healthy, moderately vigorous, virus tree vines.

Grafting and budding is practiced with a particular root stock for specific requirement.

 Phylloxera resistant root stock

 Vitisriparia, V. rupestris

 Nematode resistant root stock

 Dogridge, Salt creek

 Saline tolerant:Solanis, 1616

Preparation of main field and planting

Trenched of 0.6 m width and 0.6 m depth are dug at a distance of 3 m apart for
Muscat. Other varieties 1 m3 pits are drug. Well decomposed FYM or compost or green leaf
manure has to be applied in the trenches or pit and then covered with soil. The rooted cuttings
are planted during June – July.

Spacing: 3 x 2 m for Muscat

4 x 3 m for other Varieties

Irrigation: Immediately after planting 3rd day and once in a week. Irrigation withheld 15 days
before pruning and also 15 days before harvest.

Special practices: Tipping of shoots and tying of clusters in the pandal after the fruit set.
Remove tendrils. Nipping the growing shoots of axillary buds and terminal buds at 12 to 15
buds. Thinning the compact bunches by removing 20% of the berries at pea stage.

Pests&Nematode: Carbofuran – 60 g/vine a week before pruning and irrigated profusely. The
soil should not be disturbed to atleast 15 days. Application of neem cake 200 g/vine also controls
nematode. We can affordfor application of P. fluorescens.

 Flea beetles: Phosalone – 2ml/lit after pruning and followed with 2 or 3 sprayings.
 Thrips: Dimethoate – 2 ml/lit
 Mealy bug:Monocrotophus – 2 ml/lit

Diseases

 Powdery mildew: Sulphur dusting @ 6-12 kg/ha

 Downy mildew: Spray 1% BM

Ripening: To get uniform ripening bunches are sprayed with 0.2% K chloride at 20 th and 40th
day after berry set and clusters of seedless varieties are diped in 25 ppm GA (25 mg/lit) at
calyptra fall stage and repeated again at pepper stage to increase the size of berries.

Yield

 Seed less: 15 t/ha/yr

 Muscat : 30 t/ha/yr
 Pachadroksha: 40 t/ha/yr
 Anab-e-shahi
 and Arkahybrids: 20 t/ha/yr

ACID LIME

Botanical name: C. Aurantifolia Family: Rutaceae

It is also called or sour lime. The fruit juice is rich in citric acid and ascorbic acid.

Climate and soil requirement: Tropical and subtropical. Can be grown upto 1000 m above
MSL. Deep well drained loamy soils are the best. They are sensitive to frost. The optimum
temperature is 20 to 30°C. Soil pH should be 6.5 to 7.0.

Season: December – February and June – September

Planting: Healthy seedlings may be planted during June to December at 5 to 6 m spacing in

75 cm3 pits.

Irrigation: Irrigated copiously after planting. After establishment, irrigation may be given at
7-10 days interval. Avoid water stagnation.

Manures and fertilizers per plant

 N to be applied in two doses during March and October. FYM, P 2O5 and K2O are to be
applied in October.

Manures and 1 year (kg) Annual income (kg) From 6th year (kg)
fertilizers

FYM 10.00 5.00 30.00

N 0.200 0.100 0.600

P 0.100 0.025 0.200

K 0.100 0.040 0.300

Spray zinc sulphate at the rate of 0.5% (500 g/ 100 lit of water) thrice in a year
(March, July and October) after the emergence of new flushes.

After cultivation: Remove branches of main stem upto 45 cm from ground level. Application
of green leaves 30 kg per tree once in 3 months.

Intercropping: Legumes and vegetable crops can be raised during prebearing age.

Growth regulator: To increase fruit set spraying 2,4-D-20 ppm during flowering. Fruit
retention spraying 2, 4-D@ 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm after fruit set (marble size).

Plant protection

Leaf mine: 2 ml/l dimethoate + neem oil 3%

Leaf caterpillar: Endosulfan – 2 ml/l when infestation is moderate to severe.

Sucking pest

 White fly: Spray quinalphos – 2 ml/lit

 Nematodes: Carbofuran – 75 g/tree
 P. fluroscens – 20 g

Diseases

Twig blight: Dried twigs are pruned and sprayed with 0.3% Cu oxy chloride.

Scab: Spray 1% BM

Tristeza virus: Remove the infected trees and destroy. Spray monocrotophos - @ 1ml/lit to
control the aphids which spread the disease. Use pre immunized acid lime seedling for
planting.

Harvest: Starts bearing from 3rd year after planting.

Though harvested throughout the year, the main crop is harvested during different periods in
different parts of the country. The average yield is 20-25 kg/tree/year.

Post-harvest treatment: Treating the fruits with 4% wax emulsion followed by pre-packing in
200 guage polythene bags with 1% ventilation improves the shelf life for more than 10 days.

ORANGE

Botanical name: Citrus reticulate family: Rutaceae

The group of orange is otherwise called Kamala orange. Nagpur santra of Maharashtra,
Coorg of Karnataka and Kodai orange of Tamil Nadu. This group is characterized by the loose
skin of fruits.
Soil and climate: Subtropical 500-1500 m MSL elevation. A rainfall of about 150 cm to 250
cm is required.

Season: November – December

Planting: Seedling and budded plants

Spacing: 6 x 6 m pit size 75 cm3 planting during May-June and September – October.

Manure and fertilizers: Applied twice in a year during June and October.

For Palani hills

Manures & 1year II year III year IV year V year VI year on

Fertilizers wards

FYM 10 15 20 25 25 30

N 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600

P 0.040 0.80 0.120 0.160 0.160 0.200

K 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.300 0.400

Micronutrient

ZnSO4 – 600 g
In 450 lit of water applied
MnSO4 – 600 g
during new flush
MgSO4 – 600 g

FeSO4– 600 g

After cultivation

 Removal of water shoots

 Rootstock sprouts
 Dead and diseased shoots
 Removal of laterals of the main stem upto 45 m from ground level
 Basins should be provided for each tree with gradient slope.

Growth regulators: To increase the fruit retention spraying the trees at flowering and again
at marble stage with 2,4-D at 20 ppm or NAA 30 ppm.

Harvest: Starts bearing from 3-5 year after planting in budded plants. Incase of seedlings 5-7
years.

Yield: 15-20 t/ha/yr.

A small crop can be obtained from 4 year old tree and the yield will be higher from 7th
year. From flowering to maturity it takes 9 months.

PAPAYA

Botanical name: Carica papaya Family: Caricaceae

Papaya is a native to tropical America and grown in almost all tropical and subtropical regions
of the world. It is believed to have been introduced into India by Portuguese in the middle of
16th century.

Climate and soil requirement: Papaya thrives well in warm and humid tropical climate from
sea level up to 1000 altitude.

Propagation: Papaya is mainly propagated by seeds. Since it is a highly cross-pollinated crop.

The plants raised from seeds have a mixed inheritance which makes them highly variable in
performance. Therefore it is important that genetically pure seeds should be collected from the
side-

Preparation of field and planting: The field should be well prepared through repeated
ploughing and harrowing. After leveling 45x45x45 m size pits are dug at a spacing of 1.8 m x
1.8 m.Pits are filled with top soil and FYM in 3:1 ratio.Seedlings are planted in pits taken along
with polythene bag by tearing the bottom of the bag

Application of fertilizers: Apply FM – 10 kg/plant as basal.50 g in each N, P and K has to be

applied at bi-monthly intervals from 3rd month of planting. 20 gm of Azospirillum and phosphor
bacteria at planting, again six months after planting

Irrigation: Papaya needs regular water for its rapid fruit development and yield. Irrigation
should be given at weekly interval and water logging should be avoided.

Micronutrients: ZnSO4 0.5% H3BO3 0/1% spraying during 4th and 8th month to get more
yield and growth is recommended.

Inter culture: Intercrops like onion, tomato, cowpea can be grown during the per-bearing
period.

Plant protection

Nematode: To control carbofuran 1 g/polybag is applied in the nursery after germination.

Diseases

 Root rot or wilt: Pruning with BM 1% 2-4 times at 15 days interval is recommended.
 Crop duration : 24-30 months
 Harvest: Fruits should be picked of colour break stage.
 Yield: The average yield
 CO2 : 200 -250 t/ha
 CO3 : 100-120 t/ha

Papain extraction

 Papain has several industrial uses the important is one being in brewing
industries.
 It is used as meat tenderizer
 In textile and leather industries and durgs.

Papain yield

 CO2 : 600 kg / ha
 CO5 : 800 kg/ha

SAPOTA

Botanical name: Manilkhara achras Family: Sapotaceae

Sapota is a delicious fruit introduced from tropical America. It is also known as

sapodilla
or chiku in India.
Climate and soil requirement: Sapota being a tropical fruit crop can be grown from sea level
upto 1200 M. It prefers a warm and moist weather and grows in both dry and humid areas.

Propagation: Grafted plants on Manilkhara hexandra (Pala) root stock. Season of planting-June
to December.

Spacing: 8 x 8 m, High density planting 8 x 4 m.

Planting: Pits of 1m3 in drug. Filled with top soil mixed with 10 kg of FYM, 1 kg of neem cake
and 100 g of lindane 1.3%

Irrigation: Irrigated copiously immediately after planting and on the third day and once in 10
days after words till the graft establishes.

Manures and fertilizes (kg/tree)

M&F 1 year old Annual increase 6th year onwards

FYM 10 10 50

N 0.200 0.200 1.000

P 0.200 0.200 1.000

K 0.300 0.300 1.500

After cultivation: Removal of the root stock sprouts, water shoots criss cross and lower
branches.

Intercropping: Legumes and short duration vegetable crops may be raised as intercrop
during pre-bearing stage.

Plant protection

 Leaf webber: Spraying of phosalone – 2ml / lit

 Hairy caterpillars: Spraying of endosulfan – 2 ml/lit of water
 Budworm : Spray phosalone – 2ml/lit

Diseases

Sooty mould: 1 kg maida or starch is boiled with 5 lit of water, cooled and diluted to 20 lit
(5%) and sprayed.

Harvest: Mature fruits are dull brown in colour. When scratched the colour immediately below
the skin will of lighter shade if matured while in the immature fruits it is green. The mature
fruits are harvested by hand picking.Fruits at full maturity develop a dull orange or potato colour.

Season: February – June and September – October. The fruits are ripen by keeping the fruits
in a air tight chamber with. 5000 ppm Ethrel + 10 g NaOH pellets.

Yield: 20-25 t/ha/year.

GUAVA

Botanical name: Psidium guajava L Family: Myrtaceae

Varieties: Allahabad, Lucknow 49, ArkaAmulya, ArkaMridula, and Banaras.

Soil and climate: Guava grows well both in wet and dry regions but it does better under
irrigation in the dry tracts. It can be grown upto 1000 m altitude. Well drained soils are the
best. Tolerates salinity and alkalinity. In saline soils add 3 kg gypsum/plant during planting
and once in three years after planting.

Planting material: Layers

Season of planting: June – December

Spacing: 5-6 m either way

Planting: Plants the layers with the ball of earth in the centre of pit of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm
size filled with FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1 kg and top soil + 50 g Lindane 1.3%.

Irrigation: Irrigate copiously immediately after planting, again on third day and afterwads
once in 10 days or as and when necessary.

Manures and fertilizes: FYM 50 kg and one Kg in each of N, P and K per tree in two split
doses during March and October. To increase the yield spray urea 1% + Zinc sulphate 0.5%
twice a year during March and October. To correct the boron deficiency (reduction in size of
leaves and fruit cracking and hardening) spray 0.3% borax during flowering and fruit set stage.

Micronutrients spray for controlling bronzing of leaves: Spraying of a combination spray

containing ZnSO4, MgSO4 and MnSO4 @ 0.5% and CuSO4 and FeSO4 @ 0.25% plus Teepol @
1ml per 5 lit of solution on various stages.

1. New flush 2. One month after first spray

3. Flowering 4. Fruit set.

Intercropping: Legumes and short duration vegetable crops may be raised during pre-
bearing stage.

Plant protection: Pests

 Tea mosquito bug: Spray endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 2 ml/lit or fenthion 100 EC
@ 1 ml/lit or malathion 50 EC at the rate of 1 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 2
ml/lit or neem oil 3%.
 Aphids: Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1ml/lit or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit.
 Mealy bug:Triazophos @ 2 ml/lit + neem oil 5 ml or phosalone 0.05 % + neem oil 5
ml. Release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri beetles (Coccinellid beetles) @ 10 beetles /
tree.
 Fruit fly: Remove the fallen fruits and bury them deeply with lindane 1.3% dusted over
them. Spray endosulfan 35 EC or malathion 50 EC @ 1ml/lit of four times at 15 days
interval.
 Safe waiting period:Monocrotophos 36 WSC-10 days and malathion 50 EC-9 days.

Diseases

Red rust: Spray copper oxy chloride 2.5 g/ lit or Bordeaux mixture 0.5% or Wettable sulphur 2
g per litre.

Harvest: Layers come to bearing in 2- 3 years

First crop: February – July

Second crop: September – January.

Yield: 25 t/ha.

PINEAPPLE
Botanical name: Ananas sativus Family: Bromeliaceae
Varieties: Kew, Mauritius and Queen

Soil and Climate: Mild tropical climate as found in the humid hill slopes is best suited. It can
be grown in plains under shade.

Spacing: Plant in double rows either in beds or in trenches with the plants into the second
rows set in the middle of the plants in the first row.The spacing between two trenches will be
90 cm. Row to row spacing in the same bed per trench will be 60 cm and plant spacing within
the row is 30 cm.

Planting: Use suckers and slips of 300-350 g weight for planting. Give a slanting cut to the
suckers before planting and dip in Mancozeb 0.3% or Carbendazim 0.1%.

Season: July – September

Manures and Fertilizers: FYM 40-50 t/ha. N 16 g, P 4 g and K 12 g/plant in two equal splits
at 6th and 12th month after planting. Apply as foliar spray 0.5%-1.0% sulphate of Zinc and
Ferrous solutions at 15 days interval to overcome the deficiencies in the early crop phase.

Plant protection

Mealy bug: Spray methyl demeton 2 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2 ml/lit

Crop duration: 18-24 months

Harvest: Fruits can be harvested from 18 to 24 months. Slight colour change at the base of
the fruit indicates maturity.

Yield: 50 t/ha. A plant crop and two ratoon crops are normally taken and in Mauritius variety
up to five crops can be taken.

AMLA

Botanical name: Phyllanthus emblica Family: Euphorbiaceae

Varieties: Banarasi, NA 7, Krishna, Kanchan, Chakaiya, BSR 1

Soil and climate: Amla is a subtropical plant and prefers dry climate. Hardy plant it can be
grown in variable soil conditions. Tolerates salinity and alkalinity.

Planting material: Seedlings, Grafts, Buddings

Planting: Plant during July-August with a spacing of 6 x 6 m in pits of 1 x 1m or 1.25 x 1.25 m

Irrigation: Irrigate the plants initially for establishment. No irrigation is required during rainy
and winter season. Drip irrigation is appropriate with a water saving of 40-45%.

Manures and fertilizers (per plant/year)

Manures and fertilizers Bearing tree

FYM 10 kg

N 200 g

P 500 g

K 200 g

Manuring to be given immediately after pruning.

Training and pruning: The main branches should be allowed to appear at a height of 0.75 –
1m above the ground level. Plants should be trained to modified central leader system. Two to
four branches with wide crotch angle, appearing in the opposite directions should be
encouraged in early years.

During March – April prune and thin the crowded branches to provide maximum fruit bearing
area in the tree.

Plant protection: Pest

Gall caterpillar: Young caterpillars bore into the apical portion of the shoot during rainy
season and make tunnel. Due to this, apical regrowth is checked, side shoots develop below
the gall and subsequent growth in following season is greatly hampered. Cut the infected
apices and spray systemic insecticide like dimethoate 0.03% prophylatically.

Disease

Rust: Rust appear as circular reddish solitary or gregarious pustules on leaves and also on
fruits. Spray 0.2 per cent mancozeb at an interval of 7 to 28 days during July to September.

Yield: 100 kg/tree annually

PEAR

Botanical name: Pyrus communisL Family: Rosaceae

Varieties: Common pear, Kieffer, New Pear, William and Jargonelle.

Soil and climate: Red laterite soil with good drainage and high organic matter content. It can
be grown at an elevation of above 1200 m. pH 5.8 to 6.2.

Planting material: Plant one-year old grafts/rooted cuttings.

Planting season: June to December

Spacing: 5 x 5 m or 6 x 6m in pits of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm size.

Application of fertilizers: Apply FYM 25 kg, N 500 g and 1 kg in each of P ad K per bearing
tree / year.

Training and pruning: Remove stock sprouts regularly. Train the plants to open centre
system and prune every year during November – December. Top working on country pear with
choice varieties can be done during December – January with cleft grafting.

Plant protection: No serious pest and disease are noticed. Prophylactic spray with a copper
fungicides and methyl demeton after pruning can be given.

Harvest: Early varieties will come to harvest in May – June and late varieties in July – October.

Yield: 100 to 120 kg per tree per year in common pear.

LITCHI (OR) LYCHEE

Botanical name: Litchi chinensis Family: Soapberry

It is a native fruit of warm sub tropic zone of China having juice of excellent quality.

Climatic and soil requirements: A warm subtropical climate is ideal for the growth and
flowering in litchi. The winter should be cool as well as dry and devoid of frost (minimum
temperature 150C). The soil pH should be around 5.5.

Cultivars:
Haak Yip: The fruit is heart shaped each weighing 20-22g, skin is thin, soft and purplish red.
Flesh has an excellent aroma and is sweet in taste. It separates easily from flesh. It is the
commercial cultivar of Thailand, Taiwan and China.
Taiso: The fruits are egg shaped each weighing 22-26g, bright red skin changing to dull red at
maturity, flesh is sweet. It is the commercial cultivar of Australia, Queensland and South Africa
(Where it is known as Mauritius).

Propagation and planting: To avoid the high variability and long juvenile period, seed
propagation is not recommended. Semihard and hard wood cuttings of 15-20cm length which
were previously ringed while attached to mother plant and then treated with 10000 ppm of IBA
and Ferulic acid will root easily. Air layering done during spring and early summer season is
commercially used.

The spacing recommended is 10 M x 10 M . If the soil is not fertile and the climate is
comparatively dry, the spacing can be reduced to 8 M x 8 M.

Fertilizers:

Tree’s age
N (g) P (g) K (g/tree)
(Years)

1 75 25 75

2 100 25 100

3 150 50 150

4 250 75 250

5 250 75 250

6 years & above 600 200 250

Training and inter culture: Branches with narrow crotches should be removed. Terminal
buds in long branching cultivars should be removed to encourage branching. However intensive
removal of vegetative growth should be avoided as otherwise it will delay the next season
flowering. Sorghum stubble, wheat straw, groundnut shells can be used as mulch to conserve
soil moisture.

Plant protection: The bark feeder (Indarbelatertronis) can be controlled by plugging the holes
after application of carbon disulphide or formalin. Leaf rollers can be controlled by an
insecticide like Nuvan which has fumigant action also. Red rust can be controlled by spraying
lime – sulphur 3 times during autumn and 3 times during spring.

Leaf galls, caused by eriophid mite Aceria litchi is a common problem. This cab be reduced by
pruning and spraying of conventional (or) new avermectin compounds viz., spinosyn, emanectin,
spiromesifen etc.

Flowering, harvest and yield: Litchi trees vegetatively propagated come to flower at the age
fo 3 –5 years. The new flush arising in spring end in inflorescence. Fruits are harvested after
full maturity and ripening on the tree itself. Fruits are harvested as bunches, precooled and
then stored at 0oC to 1oC.

APPLE

Botanical name: Malus pumila Family: Rosaceae

Climatic and soil requirements: Apple is essentially a temperate crop and grown in
temperate region of the world. Under subtropical zone at an altitude of 1600 – 2500 M above
MSL also, apple can be grown.

The freezing soil temperature can kill the trees. A well-drained, slightlyacidic (pH 6.5 – 6.7)
loamy soil with good depth (45cm or more) is considered to be ideal forapple culture.

Propagation: Apple varieties are propagated by whip and tongue method of grafting. The
root- stocks are either related species such as Malus sylvestris (crap apple), M. prunifolia, M.
sikkimensis or their hybrid derivatives or seedling progenies of cultivated varieties.

M9, M – 27: Dwarfing

M7, MM-106: Tolerant to below freezing (-40o C to – 35o C) resistant to wooly aphids.

Northern spy: Resistant to wooly aphids (Eriosomalanigera).

Robusta-5: Developed at Ottawa. Canada as a selection of Malus robusta – Resistant to

wooly aphid. Other rootstocks used are Merton 779, 793.

Varieties: In India at himachal Pradesh, varieties like king of Pippins, McIntosh, Golden
Delicious, Red Gold, Starking Delicious, Yellow Newton and Granny Smith are grown.

Planting: Pits of size 60 x 60 x 60 cm are dug at a spacing of 5 M x 5M. For effective fruit
set(since self-incompatibility exists in most cultivars) pollinating varieties are interplanted

High Density Planting (HDP) and Medium Density Planting (MDP): For this dwarfing
rootstock like M9, M4, MM106 and M26 have to be used. The grafts are planted at a close
spacing of 2M X 1M, so that 5000 plants/ha. Are accommodated But in comparison with M. D.
P. where in the total number of plants accommodated was 1666 trees/ha (3 M X 2 M), the H.
D. P. did not give much yield. An additional yield of 50% more than HDP can be obtained from
MDP. The fruit colour and quality also better in MDP than HDP.

Training and pruning: Training is done to give a desired shape as well as to get a canopy for
interceptingmaximum sunlight so that all the portions of the tree get sunlight and become
productive. Thetrees are trained as central leader, open centre, modified leader, cordon, dwarf
pyramid, espalier, tatura trellis and Lincoln canopy.

Manures and manuring: Apple trees require all the mineral elements. Depending on the soil
type, rootstock, a quantity of 500g of N, 250g of P, 750g of K/ tree can be applied.

Special cultural operations: The drip or trickle irrigation system has high water use
efficiency in apples. It also suits the tree in hill slopes. Mulching can be done with straw, hay or
sawdust and other organic matter. Weed control can be achieved by application or herbicide
such as Pitezin (Atrazine + Simazine + Propazine) @ 8 – 10 kg/ha, after weed emergence in
1.5 M band along tree rows. Nearer to rootzone littering of straw is advised to maintain organic
matter and earth warm activity. Since herbicide can result in a significant reduction of earthworm
population.

Plant protection Pests

Aphids (Eriosomalanigerum and Aphis pomi) Symptoms

They feed on new wood and roots to farm galls. Cold and wet condition favour the
development of this pest.

Management

1. Destruction of eggs before hatching should be done by spraying tar oil or DNOC –
petroleum oil, thoroughly wetting the bark of the tree. Spraying of organophosphorous
insecticides (malathion 0.2%, phosphomidon 0.2% or dimethoate 0.2%) at green cluster
stage will be effective.
 1. Use wooly aphid resistant rootstocks like Northern spy, Robusta - 5
2. Its main natural enemy, are the parastoid, Aphelinusmali is an important control agent.

Blossom thrips (Thrips flavus) Symptoms

The attacked flowers show withering symptoms, as a result either the fruits do not set or may
fall off in the early stage of development. Heavily infested bloom produces distorted flowers
that open on one side. Excreta are often deposited near the feeding site, which provides a
suitable site for fungal infection.

Management: Chrysopa sp. and lady-bird beetle (Coccinellaseptumpunctata) are the most
voracious predators of thrips.

Pre bloom spray at green tip stage with fenetrothion (-0.05%) reduces the population of thrips.

Red spider mites (Panoychusulmi) symptoms

the mites suck sap from the leaves, which may turn bronze. In severe infestation. the growth
of the plant is markedly reduced.

Management: The component of integrated management of red spider mites is the regulation
of predators Typhlodromuspyri and Amblyseiusandersoni

Diseases

1. Apple scab (Venturia ineequalis)symptomsvelvety brown to olive green powdery lesions

which turn mousy black with age, appear on the leaves and lead to premature yellowing
of leaves, defoliation and fruit drop.

Scab spots n fruit results in misshapen and knotty fruits. Fissures or cracks develop in the
scabbed areas which allow the entry of other pathogens, causing rot of fruit.

Management Spray schedule

Spray
Tree stage Fungicide/ 100lit of water
No.
1. Silver tip to green tip Captafol (300g)/ mancozeb (400g/ captan 50WP
(400g)
2. Pink bud stage Mancozeb (300g)
3. Fruit set (pea stage) Captan 50 WP (300g)
4. Petal fall Thiophanate methyl (50g)/ carbendazim (50g)
5. Fruit set Mancozeb (300g)
6. Repeat fungicide of 5th
spray after 14 days
7. Pre harvest (20 – 25 days Captafol (150g)/ mancozeb (300g)
before)

1. Powdery mildew (Podossphaera leucotricha)

Symptoms: Whitish powdery growth develops on both sides of leaves and twigs. The
affected leaves are desorted in shape and small in size; become hard and brittle. The
powdery coating on twigs finally disappears and a brown. Felt – like covering with black
fruiting bodies is seen, in case of severe infection, leaf fall and premature fruit drop may
occur. The young infected fruits show signs of rusting.
Management: Destruction of over wintering fungus structures reduction of inoculam by
pruning shoots.
Spraying triadimephon (0.05%) or pyrazophos (0.021%).
Harvest and yield: Fully mature when start developing colour can be harvested. The normal
yield ranges from 100 – 150 tonnes/ ha in medium density planting.
 SPICES AND PLANTATION CROPS

Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuvant to add aroma
and flavour (Eg. Pepper, cardamom, clove and nutmeg).

Condiments are also plants, products of which are used as food adjuvant to add ‘taste’ only
(Eg. Coriander, Cumin etc.)

Plantation crops are plants which are grown in extensive scale like coconut, arecanut, tea,
coffee, cocoa and rubber etc., are known as plantation crops.

INTRODUCTION TO SPICES CROPS, CLASSIFICATION AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use as food adjuncts to add
aroma and flavour. Condiments are also spices, products of which are used as food adjuncts to
add taste only. Both spices and condiments contain essential oils, which provide the flavour
and taste. They also stimulate digestion on account of there carminative properties. They are
of little nutritive value. They are used whole, ground, paste or liquid form, mainly for
flavouring and seasoning food. Most spices increase the shelf life of food, especially the dry
varieties. Some are added to improve texture and some to introduce a palatable colour or
odour.

Classification of spices

There are about 35 spices and condiments which can be broadly classified into 6
groups, based upon the parts of the plants from which they are obtained:

a. Rhizomes and root spices: Ginger, Turmeric, and Garlic.

b. Seed spices: Nutmeg, Coriander, Fennel, Cumin, Fenugreek, Dill, Aniseed, Celery and
Bishopweed.

c. Bark spices: Cinnamom

d. Fruit spices: Cardamom, Black pepper, Vanilla, All spice, Cassia, Tamarind, etc.

e. Leaf spices: Bay leaf, Curry leaf, etc.

f. Flower spices: Clove, Saffron, Asafoetida, etc.

Importance of spices in India

Most of the spices are native of our country and hence India is known as the Land of Spices.

1. India produces spices on 2.0 million ha with an annual production of about 2.3 million
tones, contributing nearly 20% of world’s production
2. Nearly 90-95% of the total production is consumed locally and the rest exported
3. India is the biggest exporter of spices
4. They are indispensable part of our culinary preparation especially used for flavouring
and seasoning of food
5. Most of the spices have potential medicinal values. Besides, the spices and spice
products are also indirectly used as flavouring or colouring agents or as preservatives in
many pharmaceutical preparations.
6. Spices have been used in cosmetic and perfumery industries. Spices oils are used in the
manufacture of soaps, tooth pates, talcum powder, aftershave lotions, vanishing
creams, mouth freshners and room fresheners etc.

GINGER
Botanical name: Zingiber officinale Rosc Family: Zingiberaceae

Ginger is a herbaceous perennial, the rhizomes of which are used as a spice. Ginger is
cultivated in most of the states in India.
Climate and soil: Ginger grows well in warm and humid climate and is cultivated from sea
level to an altitude of 1500 m above sea level. Ginger can be grown both under rain fed and
irrigated conditions. Ginger thrives best in well drained soils like sandy loam, clay loam, red
loam or lateritic loam. A friable loam rich in humus is ideal.
Varieties: Maran, Kuruppampadi, Ernad, Wayanad, Himachal and Nadia
Season: The best time for planting ginger in the West Coast of India is during the first
fortnight of May with the receipt of pre monsoon showers.
Land Preparation: The land is to be ploughed 4 to 5 times or dug thoroughly with receipt of
early summer showers to bring the soil to fine tilth.
Planting: Ginger is propagated by portions of rhizomes known as seed rhizomes. Carefully
preserved seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm length weighing 20-25 g each
having one or two good buds. The seed rate varies from region to region and with the method
of cultivation adopted.
Manuring: At the time of planting, well decomposed cattle manure or compost @ 25-30
tonnes/ha has to be applied either by broadcasting over the beds prior to planting or applied in
the pits at the time of planting.
Fertilizer schedule for ginger (per ha)

Fertilizer Basal application After 45 days After 90 days

N - 37.5 kg 37.5 kg
P2O5 50 kg - -
K2O - 25 kg 25 kg
Compost/ Cow dung 25-30 tonnes - -
Neem cake 2 tonnes - -

Ginger Mulching: The first mulching is done at the time of planting with green leaves @ 10-
12 tonnes/ha. Mulching is to be repeated @ 7.5 tonnes/ha at 45 and 90 days after planting,
immediately after weeding, application of fertilizers and earthing up.

Inter cultivation: Weeding is done just before fertilizer application and mulching; 2-3
weeding are required depending on the intensity of weed growth. Proper drainage channels are
to be provided when there is stagnation of water.
Earthing up is essential to prevent exposure of rhizomes and provide sufficient soil volume for
free development of rhizomes. It is done at 45 and 90 days after planting immediately after
weeding and application of fertilizers.

Crop rotation and mixed cropping: Crop rotation is generally followed in ginger. The crops
most commonly rotated with ginger are tapioca, ragi, paddy, gingelly, maize and vegetables.
In Karnataka, ginger is also mix cropped with ragi, red gram and castor. Ginger is also grown
as an intercrop in coconut, arecanut, coffee and orange plantations in Kerala and Karnataka.
However, crop rotation using tomato, potato, chillies, brinjal and peanut should be avoided, as
these plants are hosts for the wilt causing organism, Ralstonia solanacearum.

Plant protection Diseases

Soft rot: Soft rot is the most destructive disease of ginger which results in total loss of
affected clumps.
Treatment of seed rhizomes with Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes before storage and once
again before planting reduces the incidence of the disease

Application of Trichoderma harzianum along with Neem cake @ 1 kg/bed helps in preventing
the disease. Once the disease is located in the field, removal of affected clumps and drenching
the affected and surrounding beds with mancozeb 0.3% checks the spread of the disease.
Bacterial wilt: caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Biovar-3 is also a soil and seed borne
disease that occurs during south west monsoon.
The cultural practices adopted for managing soft rot are also to be adopted for bacterial wilt.
Seed rhizomes must be taken from disease free fields for planting. The seed rhizomes may be
treated with Streptocycline 200 ppm for 30 minutes and shade dried before planting. Once the
disease is noticed in the field all beds should be drenched with Bordeaux mixture 1% or copper
oxychloride 0.2%.

Leaf spot: Leaf spot is caused by Phyllostictazingiberi and the disease is noticed on the leaves
from July to October. The disease starts as water soaked spot and later turns as a white spot
surrounded by dark brown margins and yellow halo. The lesions enlarge and adjacent lesions
coalesce to form necrotic areas. The disease spreads through rain splashes during intermittent
showers. The incidence of the disease is severe in ginger grown under exposed conditions. The
disease can be controlled by regular spraying of Bordeaux mixture 1% or mancozeb 0.2%.

Insect pests

Shoot borer: The shoot borer (Conogethespunctiferalis) is the most serious pest of ginger.
The larvae bore into pseudostems and feed on internal tissues resulting in yellowing and drying
of leaves of infested pseudostems.
An integrated strategy involving pruning and destroying freshly infested pseudostems during
July-August (at fortnightly intervals) and spraying Malathion (0.1%) during September-October
(at monthly intervals) is also effective against the pest.

Rhizome scale: The rhizome scale (Aspidiellahartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later stages)
and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1 mm diameter) and light brown to
grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and when the rhizomes
are severely infested, they become shriveled and desiccated affecting its germination. The pest
can be managed by treating the seed material with Quinalphos (0.075%) (for 20-30 minutes)
before storage and also before sowing in case the infestation persists. Severely infested
rhizomes are to be discarded before storage.

TURMERIC
Botanical name: Curcuma longa Family: Zingiberaceae
Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa, an herbaceous plant, and native to tropical
south East Asia

Climatic and soil: Turmeric can be grown in diverse tropical condition from sea level to
1500m in the hills, at a temperature range of 20 to 300C with a rainfall of 1500 to 2250 mm
per annum. It is also grown as an irrigated crop. It is grown in different types of soil from
lights black, loam and red soils to clay loams, but it thrives best in a well-drained sandy rich in
humus content.

Preparation of land: The land is prepared with the receipt of early monsoon. Soil is brought
to a fine giving about four deep ploughings. Weed, stubbles, roots etc. are removed.
Immediately after the receipt of pre- monsoon showers, beds of 1 to 1.5m width and 15cm
between beds is prepared. Planting is also done by forming ridges and furrows.

Planting: Kerala and others west costal areas, crop can be planted during April – May with the
receipt of pre-monsoon showers. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, sowing is done during May
– June or July – August. Since turmeric is a shade loving plant, castor or Sesbania grandifolia
may be raised along the borderlines in the field.

Seed material: Whole or split mother rhizomes weighing 35 to 44g are used for planting. Well
developed healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected.

Manure and manuring: Farm yard manure @ 10t/ha is applied as basal dressing.

Tamil Nadu (Kg/ha) Kerala (Kg/ha)

Manure
 Neem 200 – Basal -
cake
N 125kg N - 25kg each at basal, 30,60,90 30kg N - 20,10kg N at 40 and 90
and 120 days after planting respectively days after planting respectively
P2O5 60 kg as basal 60 kg as basal
K2O 60 kg as basal 60 kg – half as basal and half at 90
days after planting
FeSO4 30 kg as basal -

Mulching: The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting with green leaves or banana
pseudostem or sugarcane trash at the rate of 12 to 15 tonnes per hectare. It may be repeated
for second time after 50 days with the same quality of green leaves after weeding and application
of fertilizers.

Plant protection Diseases

Leaf blotch: Leaf blotch is caused by Taphrina maculans and appears as small, oval,
rectangular or irregular brown spots on either side of the leaves which soon become dirty
yellow or dark brown. The leaves also turn yellow. In severe cases the plants present a
scorched appearance and the rhizome yield is reduced. The disease can be controlled by
spraying mancozeb 0.2 per cent.

Leaf spot: Leaf spot is caused by Colletotrichum capsici and appears as brown spots of
various sizes on the upper surface of the young leaves. The spots are irregular in shape and
white or grey in the centre. Later, two or more spots may coalesce and form an irregular patch
covering almost the whole leaf. The affected leaves eventually dry up. The rhizomes do not
develop well. The disease can be controlled by spraying zineb 0.3 per cent or Bordeaux
mixture 1per cent.

Rhizome rot: The disease is caused by Pythium graminicolum or P. aphanidermatum. The

collar region of the pseudo stem becomes soft and water soaked, resulting in collapse of the
plant and decay of rhizomes. Treating the seed rhizomes with mancozeb 0.3 per cent for 30
minutes prior to storage and at the time of sowing prevents the disease. When the disease is
noticed in the field, the beds should be drenched with mancozeb 0.3 per cent.

Nematode pests: Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and burrowing nematode
(Radopholussimilis) are the two important nematodes causing damage to turmeric. Root lesion
nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are of common occurrence in Andhra Pradesh. Wherever,
nematode problems are common, use only healthy, nematode-free planting material.
Increasing the organic content of the soil also checks the multiplication of nematodes.
Pochoniachlamydosporia can be applied to the beds at the time of sowing @ 20 grams/bed (at
106cfu/g) for management of nematode problems.

Insect pests

Shoot borer: The shoot borer (Conogethespunctiferalis) is the most serious pest of turmeric.
The larvae bore into pseudo stems and feed on internal tissues. Spraying Malathion (0.1%) at
21 day intervals during July to October is effective in controlling the pest infestation. The
spraying has to be initiated when the first symptom of pest attack is seen on the inner most
leaf.

Rhizome scale: The rhizome scale (Aspidiellahartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later
stages of the crop) and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1mm diameter)
and light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. Treat seed material with
quinalphos (0.075 per cent) (for 20-30 minutes) before storage and also before sowing in case
the infestation persists. Discard and do not store severely infested rhizomes.
Harvesting: Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in seven to nine
month. Usually it extends from January – March. Early varieties mature in 7 to 8 month,
medium varieties after 9 month. The land is ploughed and the rhizomes are gathered by hand
picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade. Harvested rhizomes are cleaned of mud
other extraneous matter adhering to them. The average yield per hectare is 20 to 25 tonnes of
green Turmeric.

Preservation of rhizomes: Rhizomes for seed purpose are generally stored after heaping
under the shade of a tree in well ventilated shed and covered with turmeric leaves. Sometimes
the heap is plastered with earth mixed with cow dung. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in
pits with sawdust. The pits can be covered with wooden planks with one or two holes for aeration.

Processing of turmeric: Processing of turmeric involves three steps 1. Curing, 2. Polishing

and 3. Colouring

1. Curing: Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes and are usually kept as seed material.
The fresh turmeric is cured before marketing. Curing involves boiling of fresh rhizomes in
water and drying in the sun.

Traditional method of curing: In the traditional method, the cleaned rhizomes are boiled in
copper or galvanized iron or earthern vessels, with water just enough to soak them. In certain
places, cow dung slurry is used as boiling medium. From hygienic point of view, such rhizomes
fetch poor market value. Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear
giving out a typical odour. The boiling lasts for 45 to 60 minutes when the rhizomes are soft.
Over cooking spoils the colour of the final product. While under cooking renders the dried
product brittle.

2. Polishing: Dried turmeric has poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales
and root bits. The appearance is improved by smoothening and polishing outer surface by manual
or mechanical rubbing.

Manual polishing: It consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or
trampling them under feet, wrapping in gunny bags.

Improved method: The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted
on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled
with turmeric is rotated at 30 rpm, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the
mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. The
turmeric is also polished in power- operated drums. The yield of polished turmeric from the raw
materials varies from 15 to 25 percent.

Colouring: It is done to give a good appearance and better finish to the product. This is done
to half polished rhizomes in two ways, known as dry and wet colouring.

Dry colouring: Turmeric powder is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 minutes in dry
process.

Wet colouring: In this process, turmeric powder is suspended in water and mixed by
sprinkling inside the polishing basket. For giving a brighter colour the boiled, dried and half
polished fingers are taken in baskets which are shaken continuously when an emulsion is
poured in. When the fingers are uniformly coated with the emulsion, they may be dried in the
sun. The composition of the emulsion required for coating, 100 kg of half boiled turmeric is as
follows, Alum 0.04 kg, Sodium bisulphate 30 g, Turmeric powder 2.00 kg, Conc. HCl 30 ml and
Castor seed oil 0.14 kg

PEPPER
Botanical name: Piper nigrum, Family: Piperaceae
Black pepper, the king of spices, is obtained from the perennial climbing vine, Piper nigrum
which is indigenous to the tropical forests of Western Ghats of South India.

BOTANY: It is a climbing evergreen plant and grows to a height of 10m or more.

Climate and soil: Pepper is a plant of humid tropics requiring adequate rainfall and humidity.
The hot and humid climate of sub mountainous tracts of Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats is
ideal for its growth.

Pepper can be grown in a wide range of soils such as clay loam, red loam, sandy loam and
lateritic soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.0, though in its natural habitat, it thrives best on virgin soil
rich in organic matter.

Varieties: Kottanadan, Narayakkodi, Aimpiriyan, Neelamundi, Kuthiravally, Balancotta,

Kulluvally, Malligesara and Uddagare.

Improved varieties of Black pepper: Panniyur-1, Sreekara, Panchami

Propagation: Pepper is propagated by cuttings raised mainly from the runner shoots. Cuttings
from the lateral branches are seldom used, since in addition to reduction in the number of
fruiting shoots, the vines raised from them are generally in raising pepper in pots.

Preparation of land and planting standards

Cultural practices: As the cuttings grow, the shoots are tied to the standards as often as
required. The young vines should be protected from hot sun during summer by providing
artificial shade. Regulation of shade by lopping the branches of standards is necessary not only
for providing optimum light to the vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight.
Adequate mulch with green leaf or organic matter should be applied towards the end of North
East monsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as to avoid root damage.

Manuring and fertilizer application: Manuring and fertilizer application for pepper vines is
to be done for black proper establishment and growth of plants. Recommended nutrient
dosage for black pepper vines (3 years and above) are as follows.

NPK 50:50: 150 grams/vine/year (General recommendation)

NPK 50:50: 200 grams/vine/year (for Panniyur and similar areas)

NPK 140:55: 270 grams/vine/year (for Kozhikode and similar areas)

Plant protection

Foot rot disease: Foot rot (quick wilt disease) caused by Phytophthora capsici is the most
destructive of all diseases and occurs mainly during the south west monsoon season.

Management: The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated disease management

strategies.

Chemical control

1. Copper oxychloride 0.2 per cent @ 5-10 litres/vine + A foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture
one per cent is also to be given

2. Potassium phosphonate 0.3 per cent @ 5-10 litres/vine + A foliar spray with 0.3 per cent
potassium phosphonate

The following strategies are recommended for the management of the disease.

 Use virus free healthy planting material

  Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the removed plants may be burnt or
buried deep in soil
 Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standards should be controlled
with insecticide spray such as dimethoate or monocrotophos @ 0.05 per cent.

Insect pests

Pollu beetle: The pollu beetle (Longitarsusnigripennis) is the most destructive pest of black
pepper and is more serious in plains and at altitudes below 300 meters. The adult is a small
black beetle measuring about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish brown
and the fore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy-white and measure about five
mm in length.

Spraying quinalphos (0.05 per cent) during June-July and September-October or quinalphos
(0.05 per cent) during July and Neem gold (0.6 per cent) (Neem-based insecticide) during
August, September and October is effective for the management of the pest. The underside of
leaves (where adults are generally seen) and spikes are to be sprayed thoroughly.

Top shoot borer: The top shoot borer (Cydiahemidoxa) is a serious pest in younger
plantations in all black pepper areas. The adult is a tiny moth with a wing span of 10-15 mm
with crimson and yellow fore wings and grey hind wings.

Spray quinalphos (0.05 per cent) on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals
(during July-October) to protect emerging new shoots.

Harvesting and curing: Pepper vines start yielding usually from the 3rd or 4th year. The
vines flower in May-June. It takes 6 to 8 months from flowering to ripening stage. Harvesting
is done from the November to February in the plains and January to March in the hills. When
one or two berries on the spikes turn bright or red, the whole spike is plucked.

Yield: Pepper vines attains full bearing stage in the 7th or 8th year after planting and it starts
declining after 20 to 25 years and replanting has to be done thereafter. One-hectare
plantation of 7 or 8 years old gives about 800 to 1000kg of black pepper.

CARDAMOM

Botanical name: Elettaria cardamom, Family: Zingiberaceae

Cardamom, popularly known as Queen of Spices is native to the evergreen rainy forests of
Western Ghats in South India. It is cultivated in about 1, 00,000 ha mainly confined to the
Southern States viz; Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu accounting for 60,31 and 9% of the
total area respectively.

Climate and Soil: The natural habitat of cardamom is the evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats. It is grown in the areas where the annual rainfall ranges from 1500 to 4000 mm, with a
temperature range of 10 to 35 C and an altitude of 600 to 1200 m above MSL.

Varieties: Mysore, Malabar and Vazhukka (natural breed between Mysore and Malabar). These
types are identified mainly based on the nature of panicle and shape and size of fruits as
follows.

Propagation and nursery: Cardamom is propagated mainly through seeds and also through
suckers each consisting of atleast one old and a young aerial shoot.

1. Clonal Propagation: The suckers are commonly used for gap filling but suckers may not be
available in larger numbers. Therefore, a rapid Clonal multiplication technique evolved by
Indian Institute of Spice Research, Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala, is proved to be
quick, reliable and economic for production of large number of quality planting materials.

2. Seed propagation: Seedlings are normally raised in primary and secondary nurseries. The
nursery site should be selected on gentle sloppy lands, having an easy access to a water
source.
Preparation of land: All under growth should be cleared and excess shade trees or branches
should be thinned out to have an even overhead canopy. Pits of 45x45x30 cm size are dug in
April – May and filled with a mixture of top soil and compost are well-decomposed farm yard
manure.

Planting: The planting is carried out during the rainy season commencing from June. Under
Eastern Ghats hills July planting is adopted. Seedlings are to be adopted. Seedlings are to be
planted up to the collar region for better growth.

Mulching: It is an important cultural practice in cardamom. Fallen leaves of the shade trees
are utilized for mulching.

Weeding: Depending upon the intensity on weeds, 2-3 weedings are necessary in a year. The
first round of weeding is to be carried in May – June, the second in August – September and
the third in December – January. In sloppy land slashing of weeds is alone to be carried out
otherwise it encourages to more soil erosion. Weedicides like paraquat @ 625 ml in 500 liters of
water may be sprayed in the interspaces between rows leaving 60 cm around the plant base.

Trashing: Trashing consists of removing old and drying shoots of the plant once in a year with
the onset of monsoon under rainfed conditions and 2-3 times in high density plantations provided
with irrigation facilities

Shade regulation: Cardamom being a pseophyte is very sensitive to moisture stress. Shade
helps to regulate soil moisture as well as temperature and provides congenial microclimate for
cardamom.

Earthing up: After the monsoon is over, a thin layer of fresh fertile soil, rich in organic matter
may be earthed up at the base of the clump, covering up to the collar region by scrapping
between the rows or collecting soil from staggered trenches/check pits. This encourages new
growth.

Irrigation: In order to overcome the dry spell during summer, it is necessary to irrigate the
crop to get maximum production as it helps in initiation of panicles, flowering and fruit set.
Depending on the moisture holding capacity of soil and topography of the soil and topography
of the estates, they may be irrigated at an interval of 10 to 15 days till the onset of monsoon.
Sprinkler irrigation and or drip irrigation at the rate of 4 litres per clump per day during dry
month’s increases the yield.

Harvesting and Processing: Cardamom plants normally start bearing two years after
planting. In most of the areas the peak period of harvest is during October- November. Picking
is carried out at an interval of 15-25 days. Ripe capsules are harvested in order to get
maximum green colour during curing.

Plant protection: Important pests and diseases affecting cardamom are given below with
their typical damages/symptoms and control measures.

Pest/Disease Damage/symptoms Control measures

Pests Adults and nymphs such Regulate shade in
Thrips (Sciothripsacrdamomi) sap and cause damage to thickly shaded
leaves, shoots, area, spray
inflorescence, and thrips monocrotophos
affected capsules fetch 0.025% during
lower price. March to
September
Shoot, panicle, Larvae bore the unopened Spraying
capsule/borer (Conogethespunctiferalis) leaf buds, panicles causing monocrotophos or
drying of feed on young fenthion 0.075% at
seeds causing the capsules
 empty, incidence occur early stage of
throughout year, but more infection.
pronounced during March-
April, May-June and
September-October.
Aphids (Pentalonianigronervosa) Nymphs and adults suck the Spray 0.05%
sap and act as vector of the dimethoate.
mosaic or ‘Katte’ Virus.
Parasitic nematodes Occurs in nursery and main Treat the plants in
(Meloidogyne incognita) field. Poor germination and the nursery with
establishment in the carbofuran 3 g @ 5
nurseries, stunted and poor kg i.e. /ha or in the
growth of plants, shedding main field with
of immature capsules in the carbofuran 5-g
main field, heavy galling a.i./clump and
and abnormal branching of apply 0.5kg of
roots. Neem cake per
clump twice a year.
Diseases Spindle shaped, slender Use healthy
Katte diseases chlorotic flecks appear on seedlings, rougue
(Viral disease) youngest leaves, later there the infected plants.
develop into pale green
discontinuous stripes as
leaves mature, mosaic
symptoms are marked,
infected clumps are
stunted, smaller in size,
with slender
tillers and shorter panicles.
Azhukal capsule rot Occurs in heavy rain zones, Do trashing;
(Phytophthora meadii) affected capsules turn remove infected
(P.nicotianae var. nicotianae) brownish black in colour, and dead plants
often rotting extends to etc. During pre
tillers and rhizomes also. monsoon months.
Spray 1-%
Bordeaux mixture
during May and
repeat again in
August.
Damping or rhizome rot Excessive soil moisture and Pre treat the
(Pythium vexans and poor drainage favour this nursery with 1:50
(Rhizoctonia solani) disease in the nursery, formaldehyde;
infected seedlings collapse drench the soil
at collar region and die in after germination
patches, and entire clump with
dies in grown up plants. 0.2% copper
oxychloride.

CUMIN

Botanical name: Cuminum cyminum Family: Apiaceae

Cumin, commonly known as Jeera, widely cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and in some parts of
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh as Rabi crop. Cumin is mainly used in flavouring foods. It is
also used in Ayurvedic medicines.
Climate and soil: Cumin is a tropical plant. It grows well in sub-tropical climate too. High
humidity during flowering & fruit set, causes fungal diseases in this crop. Cumin can be
cultivated in all types of soils but well drained sandy loam and medium soils are suitable for the
crop.

Varieties: Improved varieties like S-404, MC-43, Gujarat Cumin-1(GC-1), GC-2, GC-3, RS-1,
UC-198, RZ-19, etc., evolved by Agricultural Universities of Gujarat and Rajasthan having
higher yield potential are useful for cultivation. The maturity days are 110 to 115 days
depending on variety.

Sowing and Seed rate: Sowing is done from 1st week of November to 1st week of December
by broadcasting or in rows drilled at 30 cm. Seed rate vary from 12 to 15 kg / ha, depending
upon method of sowing & type of soil.

Land preparation: Soil is brought to fine tilth by 2-3 ploughings with harrow or deshi plough.
Stubbles of previous crops should be collected and removed from the field.

Manures & Fertilizers: 15 – 20 MT FYM, 30 kg Nitrogen & 15 kg Phosphorus per ha is

recommended for cumin crop.

Weeding: The crop should be kept free from weeds for proper growth and development of
plants.

Irrigation: Based on type of soil, crop requires 4-6 irrigation. 1st light irrigation should be
given immediately after sowing and second irrigation should be given after 6-10 days from 1st
irrigation.

Plant Protection: Aphid is a major pest of cumin crop, it sucks the sap of tender parts and
reduces the yield. Spraying of 0.03% solution of Dimethoate or 0.025% solution of Methyl
demeton or 0.04% solution of Monocrotophos is recommended to control the aphid.

Leaf eating Caterpillar: This pest causes damage to the foliage of plants reducing yield of
the crop. It can be controlled by spraying of 0.02% solution of Phosphomidon in the early
stage of crop.

Fusarium wilt: Infected plants show peculiar symptoms of dropping of tips and leaves,
leading to mortality of the entire plant. Attack of wilt is severe in younger plants. There is no
chemical control for this disease. Crop rotation and use of Neem cake are helpful in checking
spread of the fungus vis-à-vis disease. Seeds collected from disease free plots should only be
used for sowing.

Alternaria Blight: The blight affected plants show very minute brownish necrotic spots, which
later turn to blackish. Mostly diseased plants fail to produce seeds. If seeds are produced they
remain shriveled, light in weight and dark in colour. For the control of this disease seed treatment
and spraying of 0.2% solution of Dithane-M-45 4 times at 10 days interval commencing from
40 days after sowing is recommended. Add 1 ml soap solution / liter water for better efficiency
of fungicide. The crop should be kept free from weeds. Crops requiring more irrigation and
mustard crop should not be grown in vicinity of this crop.

Powdery mildew: Affected plants in early stages show minute whitish spots on leaves,
petiole, stem pedicel and seeds. In severe condition, it looks as the plants have been dusted
with white powder. At later stages of attack seeds become white and shriveled and light in
weight. Crop should be dusted with 300 mesh Sulphur dust @ 25 kg/ha to control this disease
as soon as the symptoms are noticed. Spraying of wettable Sulphur or Dinocap (Karathane or
Thiowet) can also be used to control the disease @ 20-25 g per 10 liter of water at the initial
stage of this disease. If needed second spray should be given 15-20 day after first spray.
Harvesting: Generally, cumin crop takes about 110-115 days to reach maturity. Crop
becomes ready to harvest, when plants turn yellowish brown. Harvesting should be done early
in the morning by cutting/uprooting the whole plants. Harvested crop should be dried in the
threshing yard thrashed to separate the seeds. Seeds should be cleaned by winnowing.

Yield: 600 to 700 kg/h

FENUGREEK

Botanical name: Trigonella foenum-graecum, Family: Fabaceae

Fenugreek, a native of south Eastern Europe and west Asia, is cultivated as a leafy vegetable,
condiment and as medicinal plant.

Climate and soil: It has wide adaptability and is successfully cultivated both in the tropics as
well as temperature regions. It is tolerant to frost and freezing weather. It does well in places
receiving moderate or low rainfall areas but not in heavy rainfall areas. It can be grown on a
wide variety of soil but clayey loam is relatively better. The optimum soil pH should be 6-7 for
its better growth and development.

Varieties: CO 1, Rajendra Kanti, Lam Sel. 1

Land preparation and sowing: Land is prepared by ploughing thrice and beds of uniform
size are prepared. Broad casting the seed in the bed and raking the surface to cover the seeds
is normally followed. But, line sowing is advocated in rows at 20-25 cm apart which facilitates
the inter cultural operations. Sowing in the plains is generally taken up in Sep-Nov while in the
hills, it is grown from March. Approximately 20 kg of seed is required for one hectare and the
seed takes about 6-8 days to complete its germination.

Manures and fertilizer: Besides 15 tonnes of farm yard manures, a fertilizer dose of 30 Kg N,
25Kg P2 O5 and 40Kg K2O per ha is recommended as basal. 20 kg N at 30 days after
sowing. To obtain more successful leafy growth, nitrogen should be applied after each cutting.

Irrigation: First irrigation is given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigation is
applied at 7 to 10 days interval.

Yield: 500-700 kg of seeds and about 4000-5000 kg of leaves may be obtained per hectare in
crops grown for both the purposes.

Plant protection: Root rot is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching
carbendazim 0.05% first at the onset of the disease and another one month.

COCONUT

Botanical name: Cocus nucifera, Family: Palmae

Climate and soil: The coconut palm is found to grow under varying climate and soil condition.
It is essentially a tropical plant, growing mostly between 20 N and 20 S latitudes. Coconut is
adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions, from light sandy soils to heaviest clays with a pH
ranging from 5.2 to 8.0. Best soils are deep, friable, loamy soils. In heavier soils, it requires
good drainage.

Cultivars and Hybrids: West Coast Tall and East Coast Tall. The common dwarfs available in
India are Chawghat Orange Dwarf, Chawghat Green Dwarf, Malayan Green Dwarf, Malayan
Yellow Dwarf, Malayan Orange Dwarf, Gangabondam etc.
Hybrids: Chandra Sankara: Chawghat Orange Dwarf X West Coast Tall, ChandraLaksha:
Laccadive Ordinary X Chawghat Orange Dwarf, Laksha Ganga: Laccadive Ordinary X
Gangabondam

Pest management

Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros)

Symptoms: The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes. The attacked frond
when fully opened shows characteristic triangular cuts.

Control

1. Provide field sanitation to prevent breeding of beetles.

2. Hook out the beetles from the attacked palms by using beetle hook.

3 The topmost three leaf axils around the spindle may be filled with any of the following
mixtures as a prophylactic measure:

(a) Sevidol 8G 25 g + fine sand 200 g, which is to be done thrice in a year in April-May,
September-October and December-January. (b) Naphthalene balls 10.5 g (approx. three balls)
covered with fine sand, once in 45 days.

4. Treat manure pits and other possible breeding sites with 0.01% carbaryl on w/w basis.
Treatment will have to be repeated every three months.

5. Release Baculovirus oryctes infected adults @ of 10-15 / ha to bring down the pest
population.

6. Inoculation of breeding sites with entomopathogenic fungus Metarrhiziumanisopliae (@ 5 x

1011 spores / ml) gives effective control.

ARECANUT

Botanical name: Areca catechu, Family: Palmae

Arecanut palm is cultivated primarily for its kernel obtained from the fruit which is chewed in
its tender, ripe or processed form.

Climate and Soil: The arecanut palm is capable of growing under a variety of climatic and soil
conditions. It grows well from almost sea level up to an altitude of 1000 metres in areas
receiving abundant and well distributed rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is grown in
soils such as laterite, red loam and alluvial soils. The soil should be deep and well drained.

Varieties: Thirthahalli, South Kanara, Mettupalayam, Mohitnagar. Regional Station, Vittal has
released three improved cultivars, they are,Mangala, Subamangala, Sreemangala, SAS-1:

Planting: The planting is done during May- June with the onset of monsoon. Arecanut palms
need adequate protection from exposure to the South Western sun as they are susceptible to
sun-scorch. Pits of 90 X 90 X 90cm are dug and the pits are filled with a mixture of top soil,
powdered cow dung and sand to a height of 50 to 60 cm from the bottom.
UPSC-Agriculture Optional Mains Mentorship Programme™ © www.krushnabhokare.in | 33
Manuring: Adequate supplies of plant nutrients in the soil throughout the life of the crop are
essential to get high yield. Hence, an annual application of 100: 40: 140 g of NPK per tree in
the form of fertilizers and 12 kg each of green leaf and compost or cattle manure per bearing
palm is recommended.

Irrigation and drainage: The palms should be irrigated once in four to seven days depending
on the soil type and climatic factors.

Harvesting and processing: The stage of harvesting depends on the type of produce to be
prepared for the market.

1. Dried ripe nuts/Chali/Kottapak: The most popular trade type of arecanut is the dried,
whole nut known as chali or kottapak. Fully ripe, nine months old fruits having yellow to
orange red colour is the best suited for the above purpose. Ripe fruits are dried in the sun for
35 to 40 days on dry leveled ground. For drying and dehusking, sometimes fruits are cut
longitudinally into halves and sun dried for about 10 days, then the kernels is scooped out and
given a final drying.

2. Kalipak: Another form of processing is by making kalipak. The nuts of 6 to 7 months

maturity with dark green colour are dehusked, cut into pieces and boiled with water of dilute
extract from previous boiling; a kalli coating is given and dried finally. Kali is the concentrated
extract obtained from boiling 3 to 4 batches of Kalipak.

3. Scented suparis: There are many varieties of scented suparis. Dried arecanuts broken into
bits, blended with flavour mixture and packed. Formerly the bits were roasted in ghee or oil,
but it is almost fully given up nowadays, owing to development of rancidity. The flavouring of
supari varies with region and is a closely guarded secret.

Yield: More than 10 kg of ripe nuts per palm at the 10th year is considered as normal yield in
any plantation.

(NOTE: Tables/content for Vegetables and Flowers attached at the end of this
document)

UPSC-Agriculture Optional Mains Mentorship Programme™ © www.krushnabhokare.in | 34

13.6 Medicinal and aromatic plants.

MEDICINAL YAM

Botanical name: Dioscorea sp., Family: Dioscoreaceae

Diosgenin, obtained from Dioscorea tubers, is the major base chemical for several steroid
hormones including sex hormones, cortisone, and other corticosteroids and is the active
ingredient in the oral contraceptive pill. The growing need for steroidal drugs and the high cost
of obtaining them from animal sources led to a widespread search for plant sources of steroidal
sapogenins; which ultimately led to the identification of the genus Dioscorea as the most
promising one.

Climate and soil: It is a tropical species preferring a tropical climate without extremity in
temperature. It is adapted to moderate to heavy rainfall areas. Dioscorea plants can be grown
in a wide variety of soils, but light soil is good as harvesting of tubers is easier in such soils.
Extremely heavy clay soils are, in general not recommended, as they restrict tuber growth and
make harvesting difficult. Dioscorea tolerates fairly wide variation in soil pH, though very acid
soils should be avoided, the ideal soil pH being 5.5 to 6.5.

Varieties: The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has released so far two
improved varieties.

1. FB(c)-l: This is a composite strain of D. floribunda, which has been released for commercial
cultivation. This is a vigorous growing strain relatively free from diseases: This has a diosgenin
content of 3 to 3.5 per cent. It is suitable for cultivation around Bangalore and Coorg
(Karnataka), Goa, Assam, Maghalaya, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and Andaman.

2. Arka Upkar: This is a high yielding clone released recently. The plants are very vigorous
with a stout, robust vine, bearing broad dark green leaves: The tuber branches are thick,
broad and deep. It has a higher diosgenin content of 3.5 to 4.0 per cent.

Propagation: Dioscorea floribunda can be propagated by tuber pieces, single node stem
cuttings or seed. Commercial planting is normally established by tuber pieces only.
Propagation through seed progeny is variable and it may take longer time to obtain tuber
yields.

Planting: Land should be prepared thoroughly till a fine tilth is obtained. Deep furrows should
be made at 60 cm distance with plough. The stored tuber pieces are ready for planting,
seedlings or single node stem cuttings should be planted in furrows with 30 cm between the
plants for one-year crop and 45 cm for two-year crop. The tuber pieces are planted at about
0.5 cm below the soil level. The new sprouts should be staked immediately. After sprouting is
complete, the plants could be earthed up. Soil from the ridges may be used for earthing up so
that the original furrows will become ridges and vice versa.

After care: Dioscorea vines need support for their optimum growth and hence the vines are
trained over pandal system or trellis.

Weeding: Initially, the vines are weak and tender and cannot compete efficiently with the
surrounding weeds. Periodic hand weeding, as and when necessary, is essential for the first
few months. Experience has shown that once the plants have climbed up on the pandal, the
weed populations considerably reduced due to shading. The plants by this stage can also
compete more successfully with weeds.

UPSC-Agriculture Optional Mains Mentorship Programme™ © www.krushnabhokare.in | 107

Manures and Fertilizers: D.floribunda requires high organic matter for good tuber formation.
Besides a basal dose of 18 to 20 tonnes of per ha, a complete fertilizer dose of 300 Kg
nitrogen, 150 Kg phosphorous and 150 Kg of potassium should be applied per hectare.
Phosphorous and potassium should be applied in two equal doses one after the establishment
of the crop during May-June and the other during vigorous growth period of the crop (August-
September).

Irrigation: Irrigation may be given at weekly intervals in the initial stage and afterwards at
about 10 day’s intervals. However, during rainy season no ~irrigation is needed. In Anamalais,
it is raised under pure rainfed conditions.

Inter cropping: Intercropping with legumes like cowpea, horse gram, duster bean and French
bean has been found to smother weeds and also provide an extra income without adversely
affecting' the tuber yield and diosgenin content.

Duration: The diosgenin content tends to increase with age (2.5 to 3:0 per cent during the
first year and 3.0 to 3.5 percent in the second year) and also the tuber yield and hence a two-
year crop is found to be more economical.

Harvesting: The tubers grow to about 25 to 30 cm depth and hence harvesting is done by
manual labour. The best season for harvesting is Feb- March, coinciding with the dry period.
On an average 50 to 60 tonnes of fresh tubers can be obtained from one hectare in two years
duration.

Plant Protection: The major pests of Dioscorea are the aphids and Red spider mites. Aphids
occur more commonly on young seedlings and vines. They feed on the young leaves and stem.
Young leaves and vine tips eventually die if aphids are not controlled. Older growth is seldom
affected. Red spider mites attack the underside of the leaves at the base near the petiole.
Severe infestations result in necrotic areas, which are often attacked by fungi. Both aphids and
spider mites can be very easily controlled by 0.5 a.i. Kelthane. No serious disease is reported
to infect this crop.

SARPAGANDHA

Botanical name: Rauvolfia serpentina, Family: Apocynaceae

Rauvolfia root or Serpentine root is one of the important crude drugs used in modern medicine.

Habitat: It is an erect under shrubs (woody herb) and occasionally in scrub jungles and forest
clearings growing for a height of 60-90 cm growing wild in Norh East region up to an altitude
of 500 m.

Soil and Climate: The plant grows in a wide variety of soils, from sandy alluvial loam to red
lateritic loam with large percentage of humus and acidic in reaction. The ideal pH for this crop
is from 4.6 – 6.5. It prefers hot humid climate, humus rich sandy loam soil. A climate with a
temperature range of 10 – 300C seems to be well suited for this plant. The areas with high
rainfall and properly drained soil are best.

Variety: R.S-1.

Propagation: Rauvolfia can be propagated by seed and also by vegetative means like root
cutting, root stumps, and stem cutting. Seed propagation is best method for commercial
plantation. A healthy mother stock should be raised before hand for collection of seeds.
A) Seed propagation

Seed germination is highly variable. Germination of heavy seeds during April-June after
soaking them in water for 24 hours is about 20-40 % while freshly collected heavy seeds
germination is highest (up to 60 %). April-May is found to be suitable for sowing seeds in
nursery. The nursery is prepared by raised beds mixing with one-third of well matured FYM
and leaf mould two-third- amount medium silt-loam soil under partial shade.

B) By stem cutting

As collection of seeds is both laborious and costly, vegetative propagation by root or shoot
cuttings has been advocated for raising plantation to collect the seeds, as well as to quickly
multiply the genetically superior clones. Hard wooded stem cutting measuring 15-20 cm are
loosely planted during June in the nursery beds where continuous moisture is maintained. After
sprouting and giving out roots, these plants are transplanted in the main field at given spacing.
Nearly 75-95 % success is obtained if treated with rooting hormone β- indole acetic acid @ 30
ppm for 12 hours. Treated cuttings root within 15 days.

C) By root cutting

Large taproots with a few filiform lateral secondary rootlets are used. They are cut at 2.5- 5
cm in length and planted on moist sand bed. Root cuttings of about 0.25 cm diameter planted
in March-June give about 80 % or more success in about 1-1.5 months time. About 100 kg of
root cuttings are required to plant 1 ha.

D) By root-stump

This is prepared by cutting about 5 cm root with a portion of the stem above the collar and
gives about 90-95 % success. Such plants are transplanted in May-July. Limitation is only one
plant can be raised from a single stump.

However, a best result for commercial cultivation is obtained from seed propagation only. To
establish initial mother stock the above methods may be used.

Planting: Transplanting the nursery grown seedlings of 40-50 days old which have 4-6 leaves
(10-12 cm tall, naked rooted or in poly bags), are planted at spacing of 30 x 30 cm is
optimum. Seedlings are carefully dugout and the taproot is cut. They are then dipped in a 0.1
% solution of fungicide before planting to protect them against soil borne fungus causing
damping off disease. Sarpagandha takes a long duration (18 months onwards) as it is slow
growing crop particularly in the initial stage. About 80,000 – 1, 00,000 number of seedlings
are required/ha as a sole crop.

Manures and fertilizers: FYM @ 20-25 MT/ha should be applied during land preparation.
After planting N,P& K at the rate 10:60:30 kg/ha is applied as basal dose. Later two equal
doses of N each of 10 kg /ha in moist soil may be applied at 50 days and 170 days after
planting.

Irrigation: Rouvolfia is cultivated as a rainfed crop. However, if available, 4 irrigations in

summer and 2 in winter at one month interval may be applied for higher yield.

Inter cropping: It is possible to grow inter crop in Rauvolfia plantation, like patchouli in the
first year particularly where good irrigation facilities are available. Since Rouvolfia is shade
loving it can be planted as intercrop in orchards or some other plantation crops.
Weeding: Weeding, cleaning, and hoeing twice during rains and after rains.

Defloration: Flowering and fruiting starts from 6 months onward after transplanting which is
irrelevant, unless there is need to collect sufficient seeds for sale or for mass multiplication. If
the plant is allowed to flower and bear fruits, these markedly depress both shoot and root
growth, because a significant amount of photosynthates is utilized for the production of flowers
and fruits by the plants. Therefore, defloration is recommended for better root growth and
yield. For seed collection an area may ear marked.

Insect pests

1. Root knots appear as galls caused by nematode causes stunted growth, etiolation and
decrease in the leaf size are the symptoms in the aerial portion. Application of 25 kg of 3 G
Carbofuran or 20 of 10 G Phorate granules /ha will control them. Tagetes may be intercropped
as trap crop against nematode.

2. A pyralid caterpillar (Glyphodesvertumnalis) cause appreciable damage to the leaves.

Some other caterpillars roll the leaf and feed on the green matter of tender leaves causing
defoliation. They can be controlled by spraying 0.2 % Rogor.

3. Cockchafer grubs (Anomalapolita) attack the seedlings about 2 cm below the

hypocotyls, resulting in their drying up. To control the attack of grubs, mix phorate granules
with the soil at the time of nursery preparation.

Diseases

1. Leaf spot caused by Cercosporarauvolfiae manifests as dark-brown coloured spots on the

upper surface of the leaf and yellowish – brown on the lower surface. The affected leaves turn
yellow, become dry, and subsequently fall off, resulting in defoliation. To control this Dithane
M-
45 @ 0.2% is to be sprayed before the monsoon and repeated at monthly intervals until
November.

2. Alternaria tenuis attacks the leaves, resulting in minute, brownish or dark coloured
circular spots with a yellowish margin on the ventral side of the leaves. The fungus also affects
the flowers and fruits. The crop should be sprayed with 30 g Blitox in 10 litre water, whenever
the symptoms are seen.

Collection of seeds: For collection of seeds, plants in small portion of plantation are allowed
to flower and bear fruits. The fruits start maturing from middle of July and continue till
February. Mature seeds bear a purplish black fleshy covering. Since all the seeds do not
mature at a time, these are picked periodically, otherwise ripe seeds drop off. After the
collection, fleshy covering should be removed by washing the seeds in water. After washing,
the seeds are dried in shade and are stored in airtight containers.

Harvesting & processing: The marketable roots are generally collected 2-3 years after
plantation preferably after 30 months of planting. When transplanting is done during June-July
harvesting period coincides with shedding of leaves during early autumn. At this stage root
contains maximum concentration of total alkaloids. During harvest the roots may be found to
go up to 40 cm deep in the soil. During root harvesting the thin roots are also collected. Care
should be taken to keep the root bark intact as the bark constitutes 40-56 % of the whole root
and has a higher alkaloid content. In general during winter months plants remain dormant, is
considered ideal for harvesting.
Application of a light irrigation if possible, will make digging easier. After digging, the roots are
cleaned, washed and cut into 12-15 cm pieces for drying and storage. The dry root possesses
up to 10-12 % moisture. The dried roots are stored in polythene lined gunny bags in cool dry
place to protect them from mould.

Yield: Though Rauvolfia can be propagated by various methods; maximum yield of root is
obtained when the propagation is done by seeds that varies from 0.1 to 0.4 kg per plant. The
average yield of Rauvolfia dry root is approximately 2000-2500 kg/ha under average
management when harvested at 30 months.

ALOE VERA

Botanical name: Aloe barbadensis miller Family: Liliaceae

Aloe species, perennial succulents belonging to the family Liaceae, are the source of the drug
aloe. Of the 275 species, there are three commercially important species which are the main
sources of the drug.

Origin and Distribution: Plants of the genus Aloe belong to the old world and are indigenous
to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain. The species spread to the
Mediterranean basin and reached the West Indies, India, China and other countries in the 16th
century.

Soil: Aloe is a hardy plant and grows on a variety of soils. It does well in the sandy coastal to
loamy soils of the plains with a pH of up to 8.5. However, water-logged conditions and
problematic soils do not suit its cultivation.

Climate: Aloe is usually cultivated between March and June. The plant has a wide adaptability
and can be seen growing throughout the length and breadth of the country. It is found growing
in warm, humid or dry climate with even 150-200 cm to about 35-40 cm of yearly rain¬fall
during the growing period. However, in dry regions, the crop should be provided with
protective irrigation.

Land Preparation: Before cultivation, the land should be ploughed twice and the field should
be cleaned thoroughly of weeds. If required, small canals may be prepared for drainage. About
25 t/ha of cow dung manure is also added.

Propagation: The plants are generally propagated by root-suckers or rhizome¬ cuttings.

Planting: The plants are planted at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm or 60 x 45 cm. About 15-18 cm-
long root-suckers or rhizome-cuttings are planted in such a way that two-thirds portion of the
root-sucker or rhizome¬ cutting should be under the ground.

Manuring: It is a newly domesticated crop and its full production technology including
manurial requirement is yet to be worked out. An ad hoc basis application of a mixture of 150
kg/ha of nitrogen (N), potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) is recommended. The fertilizers are
applied in the soil near the root-system, after the plants are established. 30 kg of N and 120kg
gypsum is recommended for Tamil Nadu.

Irrigation: Soon after planting, the land should be irrigated. During the crop period, irrigation
must be provided according to the moisture content of the soil. Generally, 4 to 5 irrigations per
year are sufficient. However, water should not be allowed to stagnate near the plant.
Weeding: Weeding may be done twice a year and the land should be kept weed-free.

Pests and Diseases: Normally, the plant is not affected by any pests or diseases of a serious
nature. But recently, the leaf-spot disease caused by Altarnaria alternata and Fusarium solani
has been reported from India.

Harvesting: The plants are harvested' eight months after planting. While harvesting, the
plants can be removed manually or with the help of a tractor-drawn disc harrow or cultivator.
The broken rhizome part left in the soil throws out new sprouts in spring for raising the
succeeding crop. An aloe plantation gives a commercial yield from the second year up to the
age of five years, after which it needs replanting.

Yield: The yield of the crop on a fresh-weight basis will be around 10,000-12,000 kg/ha.

GUGGAL

Botanical name: Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Family – Burseraceae

It is a shrub or small tree reaching upto 3 to 4 m. high. Leaves sessile, alternate, 1-3 foliate.
Plants are dimorphic, Flowers small in fascicles. Fruits are ovoid, drupe.

Distribution: Found in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Deccan and Gujarat.

Part Used: Olio gum resin

Soil and Climate: It can be cultivated in sandy to silt-loam or rocky soils, poor in inorganic
matter but rich in several other minerals. The growth is vigorous in the soils, which have
moisture-retaining capacity.

Nursery Raising and Planting: The plants are best raised from stem cuttings of semi-wood
(old) branch. Woody stem of one meter in length and l10mm thickness is selected and the cut
end is planted in a well-manure nursery bed during June-July. The bed should be given light
irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in l0-15 days and grow into green sprout
in next 10-12 months. These rooted plants are suitable for planting in the field during next
rainy season. The cuttings give 80-94 % sprouting.
Seed germination is very poor (5%) but seedlings produce healthier plants, which withstand
high velocity wind.

Thinning and Weeding: The plantation does not require much weeding and hoeing. But soil
around the' bushes should be pulverised twice in a year to increase the growth.
Manure/Fertilizer: Application of 5 kg FYM per plant per year is sufficient.

Irrigation: Requires moderate irrigation. Even limited irrigation during summer, enhances the
rate of growth.

Harvesting/Post Harvesting Operation: Plants attain normal height and girth after 8-10
years of growth when they are ready for tapping of the gum by shallow incision on the bark
between December and March.

Chemical Constituents: Guggulsterol, Myricyl alcohol, cembrene etc.

Active Constituents: Gum resin shows different pharmacological properties and clinical
applications: Astringent, expectorant, aphrodisiac, demulcent, carminative, alterative,
antispasmodic, emmengogue, to enrich blood, against snake bite and scorpion sting. Anti fertility
effect. Plant has use in Arthritis also.

Yield: Approximately 500-800 g gums are obtained per plant.

Substltutes/Adulterants: Guggal is often adulterated with the olio gum resin of Boswellia
serrata or sometimes with resin of pinus sp. However Boswellia gum can be identified with its
whitish colour and powdery appearance externally. Pinus resin is stickier and is generally in the
form of paste at normal temperature.

BELLADONNA

Botanical name: Atropa belladonna L. Family: Solanaceae

The commercial drug is obtained from the leaves, flowering tops and roots of
A.belladonna. Leaves and roots of belladonna contain tropane alkaloids whose concentration
varies from 0.13 to 0.70 per cent (average 0.45%). Belladonna leaves are widely used for the
manufacture of tinctures and plasters. The drug serves as an anodyne, sedative, stimulant,
antidiuretic, antiasthmtic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory. It is also used in the treatment of
renal and bilary colic, stomach disorders and to stop sweating. The roots are primarily used in
the external treatment of gout, rheumatism and other affiliations.

Soil: Belladonna grows well in deep fertile soils of medium texture, which are rich in humus.
Heavy clay soils which are water-logged should be avoided to cultivate this crop.

Climate:It is a temperate crop. It behaves as a perennial in temperate climates and gives

maximum herbage and alkaloid yield. In sub-tropical areas, it can be grown as a winter crop.
However, the plant behaves as an annual as it dies during the summer months and hence the
yield is poor.

Varieties: There are no named varieties in this crop.

Propagation: The crop is propagated through seeds extracted from berries collected usually
from September-November. Seeds may be treated with 80 per cent sulphuric acid at the time
of sowing for 2 minutes to improve the germination.

Nursery rising: It can be cultivated by direct sowing, but raising nursery gives best results.
The nursery may be raised from the second week of May to the end of autumn (September to
October) under sufficient shade. The land should be ploughed well so as to give a fine tilth.
Raised beds of size 3m x 1m surrounded by drainage and irrigation channels to be made and
apply well decomposed FYM to the soil. Seeds treated with fungicides like Dithane M-45 or Agallol
(10 g per kg of seeds) may be mixed with fine soil (1:4 ratios) and broadcasting in the nursery
beds. Cover the seed beds with a layer of FYM and then with straw. Watering of beds should
be done immediately after sowing with a rose can. The seeds germinate in 3 weeks time.
Seedlings will be ready for planting in the field when they attain a height of 15-20 cm after 8-
12 weeks.

Transplanting: The ideal time for planting in the field is March-April or October-November.
Before planting, the seedlings are treated with fungicide like Agallol. Seedlings are planted at a
spacing of 50-60 cm in rows kept 60-70 cm apart. It is always safer to plant the seedlings on
raised beds with 1 m wide strips or ridges as it avoids water logging and facilitates irrigation.
The field may be irrigated immediately after transplanting.

Harvesting, Processing and Yield: The first harvest of the leaves is available three month
after planting. Harvesting should be done as soon as the plants start flowering, as it is the
period when alkaloid content is higher. The leaves are cut with the help of pruning scissors.

Leaves are dried immediately after the harvest under shade or sun or artificial heat with or
without fans for air circulation. Leaves should be turned over frequently while drying.

The roots are also harvested after 3 years. After the harvest, they are washed, cut into 4
inches length, split length wise if thick and shade or sun dried.

During the first year an average of 1000 kg of dry herb is obtained. The yield increases to
1500 kg per hectare during 2nd and 3rd year. The yield of dry roots will vary from 170 to 335
kg per hectare.

AONLA

Botanical name: Emblica officinalis Family: Euphorbiaceae

A small to medium sized deciduous tree, 8-18m in height with crooked trunk and
spreading branches. Leaves simple, sub sessile; flower greenish yellow; fruit nearly spherical
pale yellow with 6 vertical furrows.

Distribution: Wild or planted throughout the deciduous forests of tropical India and on hill
slopes up to 1800M.

Part used: Fruit, seed, leaves, root, bark and flowers

Medicinal properties and uses: Amla is an antioxidant with the free radical scavenging
properties, which may be due to the presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase. It is
effective in the treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc. The fruits exhibit
hypolipidaemic and antiathero-sclerotic effects in rabbits and rats. Further reported are
hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antimutagenic, cytoprotective, anti-tumour & antimicrobial.

Soil: A light as well as medium heavy soil except purely sandy soil is ideal for amla cultivation.
The tree is well adopted to dry regions and can also be grown in moderate alkaline soil.

Climate: It is a tropical plant. Annual rainfall of 630-800 mm is ideal for its growth. The young
plant up to the age of 3 years should be protected from hot wind during may-June and from
frost during winter months. The mature plants can tolerate freezing temperature as well as
high temperature up to 460c

Varieties: The varieties recommended for cultivation are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, NA-4
(Krishna), NA 5 (Kanchan), NA-6, NA-7, NA-10 and BSR-1 (Bhavanisagar)

Propagation: Amla is generally propagated by shield budding. Budding is done on one year
old seedlings with buds collected from superior varieties yielding big sized fruits. Older trees or
poor yielder can be changed into superior types by top working.

Planting: The pits of 1 m2 are to be dug during May-June aa distance of 4.5 m spacing and
should be left for 15-20 days exposing to sunlight. Each pit should be filled with surface soil
mixed with 15 kg farm yard manure and 0.5 kg of phosphorus before planting the budded
seedling.

Irrigation: Young plants require watering during summer months at 15 days interval till they
are fully established. Watering of bearing plants is advised during summer months at bi-weekly
interval. After the monsoon rains, during October-December about 25-30 litres of water per
day per tree through drip irrigation should be given.

Training and pruning: Leaving only 4-5 well shaped branches with wide angle at about 0.75
m from the ground level, other dead, diseased week crisscrossing branches and suckers should
be pruned off at the end of December.

Mulching and Intercropping: During summer, the crop should be mulched with paddy straw
or wheat straw at the base of the tree up to 15-20 cm from the trunk. Inter crops like green
gram, black gram, cow pea and horse gram can be grown up to 8 years.

Major insect: Bark Eating caterpillar (Inderbellatetronis)

Major disease: Rust (Ravenelliaemblicae)

Harvesting: Amla tree starts bearing after about 4-5 years of planting. The fruits are
harvested during February when they become dull greenish yellow from light green. The
mature fruits are hard and they do not fall at gentle tough and therefore vigorous shaking is
required. Fruits can also be harvested using long bamboo poles attached with hooks.

Yield: A mature tree of about 10 years will yield 50-70 kg of fruit. The average weight of the
fruit is 60-70 g and 1 kg contain about 15-20 fruits. A well-maintained tree yields up to an age
of 70 years.

ISUBGOL
Botanical name: Plantago ovata Family: Plantaginaceae
Isubgol or Psyllium (Plantagoovata) is important for its seed and husk which have been used
in- the indigenous medicine for many countries. II has the property of absorbing and retaining
water (40-90%) and therefore it works as an anti-diarrhoea drug. It is beneficial in chronic
dysenteries of amoebic and bacillary origin.
Climate and Soil: It requires cool and dry weather and hence in India, the crop is grown in
winter i.e. from November - December to March - April. Humid weather, at maturity results in
shattering of seeds. A light well drained sandy loam to rich loamy soil with a pH of 7 -8 is
ideal.
Varieties: Gujarat Isabgol-1 and Isabgol - 2
Preparation of land: Field must be free of weeds and clods and should have fine tilth for
good germination. The land is laid into flat beds of convenient size i.e. 1.0m x 3.0 m or 2.5 m
or 2.5 m.
Sowing: Fresh seeds from the preceding crop season should be sown for getting high percent
germination. The seed rate varies from 4 - 6 kg and is sown after pretreatment with thiram @
3 g/kg of seed to protect the seedlings from the possible damage of damping off.
After cultivation: Timely weeding is important to encourage good growth of the plants. After
20-25 days of sowing, first weeding is done and 2-3 weeding are required within 2 months of
sowing. It responds to manuring. 25 Kg N/ha and 25 Kg P/ha are applied as basal dose at the
last ploughing and another dose of 25 Kg N/ha is top dressed 30 days after sowing.
Harvesting and processing: The crop will be ready in about 110-130 days after sowing.
When mature, the crop turns yellowish and the spike turns brownish. The seeds shed when the
spikes
 are pressed even slightly. At the time of harvest the atmosphere must be dry and there should
not be any moisture on the plant.
The plants are normally cut at the ground level or uprooted if the soil is loose textured. The
harvested plants are threshed and winnowed, and the seeds repeatedly sifted until clean. The
seeds may be marketed whole or the husk may be sold separately. Seeds are fed to a series of
shellers; in each sheller the grinding pressure is so adjusted to remove only the husk. This is
separated by fans and sieves at each sheller and the ungrounded material is sent to the next
sheller. The husk: seed ratio is 25:75 by weight. The average yield is about one tonne of seeds
per hectare.
Plant protection: Downy mildew caused by Peronospora plantaginia is the serious disease at
the time of spike initiation. Spraying of copper oxy chloride or Dithane Z.78 @ 2.0 g/litre of
water is recommended as a prophylactive measure on 30th day from sowing and repeated
twice, at an interval of 15 – 20 days.
LEMONGRASS
Botanical name: Cymbopogon flexuosus Family: Poaceae

as a main substitute for ‘Cod liver oil’. Citral itself is used in perfumery for various grades of soaps detergents, cosmetics and flavour agent for soft d

, best suited to >well drain sandy loam. Water logged conditions should be avoided as they are unsuitable for its cultivation.It requires a warm hum

(i) For irrigated condition C.K.P-25 released by RRL, Jammu

(ii) Krishna developed by CIMAP both for irrigated and rainfed and also hill slopes (iii) Nima a
dwarf variety developed by CIMAP found promising. The citral content of Nima is much higher
than Krishna. Oil recovery is in between 0.8-1.0 %.
(iv) Another suitable variety for NE region is Jor Lab L-2 developed by RRL, Jorhat.
Preparation of root slips: It is propagated vegetatively by obtained from well-grown clumps.
Tops of culms are cut off within 20-25 cm above ground. The culm (root portion) is divided
into slips containing 2-3 tillers. The lower sheath is removed to expose young roots and the old
roots are clipped off keeping the slip 25-30 cm long
Spacing: 45 x 45 cm in plains or 60 x 45 cm in sloppy land with a requirement of slips
45,000- 50,000/ha.
Planting: Planting is done in May-June. However, with irrigation planting can be done during
any month of the year except December-January. One or two slips are planted into each hole,
about 5-8 cm deep. It is better to plant on ridges in high rainfall areas. Slips are transplanted
firmly into the ground. Plants get established well within 25-30 days after planting.
Manures and fertilizer application: FYM 10 t/ha to be applied and mixed well at the time of
final land preparation.
Fertilizer: N, P205 & K20-150: 60: 60 kg/ha/year should be applied along with adequate quantity
of organic matter. Before planting, the field is thoroughly prepared and the full dose of
phosphorus and potash is incorporated. The nitrogen is applied in six equal split doses at two
monthly intervals. For economic use of fertilizers the soil should be analyzed first.
Irrigation: Irrigation is given immediately after planting when planting is done in dry days.
Thereafter two irrigations are given at 10 days interval to establish the crop. During dry season
after each harvest one irrigation and subsequently application of recommended dose of
fertilizers are to be followed for optimum herb production. For undulating areas sprinkler
irrigation is advisable.
Weeding and inter culture: Lemongrass has the weed suppression capacity. One hand
weeding at 25-30 days followed by one hoeing at 40-60 days after planting is enough to
control weeds. After each harvest a nominal weeding and earthing up of plants is beneficial for
the next flush.
Mulching: Distillation waste (spent grass) applied as organic mulch @ 3 tons/ha in between
the rows has been found very effective in controlling weeds and maintaining soil moisture as
well.
Pests and Diseases: Lemongrass may be attacked by leaf blight caused by
Carbulariaveruciformis that can be controlled by benzimidazole like Benlate 50 WP at 0.2% @
550-750 litre/ha at 10 days interval.
The most important pest is scale insect, which produces yellow spot on the stem and sucks the
sap of the leaves and stem. The insect can be controlled by spraying 0.5 % Dimethoate.
Harvesting: First harvest is taken at 4 months age of the crop and subsequent harvests are at
2 – 3 months intervals. Harvesting is done by cutting the grass 10 cm above the ground level.
During first year 3 cuttings and subsequently 5 cuttings per year can be taken subject to weather
conditions and irrigation management. Both immature and over mature crops give low yield
and oil of poor quality. The optimum period of harvesting when grown on hilltop or upper
slopes is 75 days while at foothill and plains it is 60 days.
Distillation: The oil extracted from the wilted herb by steam distillation in stainless steel unit.
The factors influencing the oil production during distillation are: (i) Storage of the plant
material,
(ii) Treatment (wilting and cutting into pieces) of the material and (iii) The method of
distillation.
The major source of loss is by oxidation and resinification of the essential oil. So if the material
is to be stored before processing, it should be kept in a dry atmosphere with limited air
circulation. The essential oils are present in the oil glands, oil sacks and glandular hairs of the
plant. Therefore, before distillation, the day wilted plant material is cut into small pieces enable
them to expose directly as many oil glands as is possible. Once the plant material has been
reduced in size, it must be distilled immediately to avoid oil loss. The wilted leaves are steam
distilled which takes about 3 hours. Dipping the chopped lemongrass in sodium chloride
solution for 24 hours at 1-2 % concentration before distillation has been found to increase the
citral content.

Utilization of spent material: The residue thrown out after the extraction of oil is called
spent grass. Cattle relish it when it is hot or is converted into silage by adding a dilute solution
of molasses. Besides a good source of manure and mulching material the spent is used as fuel
for distillation after drying and also cheap packing material for fragile objects.
CITRONELLA
Botanical name: Cymbopogon winterianus Family: Poaceae
Citronella oil is an essential oil containing citronellal, geraniol and hydroxy citronellol and other
high value perfumery bases obtained on steam distillation of citronella grass.
Soil and climate: Citronella grow well in Assam where there is abundant sunshine and high
humidity (70 % and above). Temperature range between 200C to 380C and well-distributed
rainfall of 2000-3000 mm are desirable but if irrigation is available citronella can be cultivated
in regions of low rainfall also (rain shadow belt).
Citronella grows best in sandy loam soils. Heavy clayey soils, which tend to water log and light
sandy soils are not suitable for this crop. It does not tolerate water stagnation. A good amount
of organic matter is desirable. The ideal pH range is 5.0-7.0. Soil testing is important for best
fertility management and higher productivity.

Land preparation: The land is prepared to fine tilth. Organic, P and K fertilizers are mixed
into the soil at this stage. In plains ridges are made at 45 cm apart. Apply at last ploughing
25-30 tons FYM or well decomposed crowding and mixed with the soil. At this time 1.25 kg
Semazine or 1.25 kg Diuron in 1250-1500 litre water or 625 g Oxyflorofen or any suitable pre-
emergence herbicide may be applied at least 15 days before planting.

Preparation of slips: Citronella is propagated by splitting the clumps of vigorously growing

plant of 6-months to one year old into slips. The clump is gently dug out and separated into
number of slips containing 2- 3 tillers/slip. The fibrous roots and leaves are trimmed off at 25 –
30 cm height before planting. One-year-old clump on an average, gives about 50 slips.

Varieties: Jor lab C-2 released by RRL, Jorhat is recommended. Jalpallavi (a CIMAP variety) is
better choice.
Time of planting: The ideal planting time is the beginning of monsoon (May-June). Late
planting after July may result heavy casualty. Under irrigated condition March-April is also
suitable when there will be low weed growth.

Planting: The slips are planted at 45 x 45 cm in plain land at 5-8 cm depth on one side of the
ridges half way up the slope in plains or 60 x 45 cm in sloppy land. One slip is inserted in each
pit, latter filled with loose soil and firmly pressed keeping the slip vertical. The soil moisture is
maintained till the crop establishes. Casualty should be replaced within the next month.
40,000 slips are required to plant one-hectare area.

Closure spacing at planting: Planting may be done at closure spacing at 45 x 22.5 cm and
after first harvest every alternate plant from the row is uprooted and used as planting
material. This gives good harvest in the first cutting and helps in keeping down the weed
problems due to higher plant population. The grass can be intercropped with arecanut and also
coconut in the initial 3-4 years of growth as these crops attain bearing stage after about 6-7
years. Growth: If properly planted about 90% survival is obtained. Plants get established
within 15- 20 days and after 30-40 days complete green colour appears in the field. During
this time a light irrigation should be applied in absence of rainfall.

Inter culture: As the crop is planted during monsoon it faces serious weed competition in the
initial stages and upto 60 days is found to be critical period. Generally two weedings one at 20-
25 and another at 40-45 days after planting should be done. Interculture after each harvest is
necessary. In order to get satisfactory results, an integrated method that consists of hand
weeding, application of Weedicides and mulch should be used.

Mulching: The spent material (grass after distillation) should be applied as mulch in between
the two rows @ 3 tons/ha.
Fertilizer application: For poor and medium fertility soil N, P205, K20 @ 200:80:75 kg/ha/year
should be applied. In the first year the organic, P and K fertilizers are mixed into the soil at
final land preparation.

Irrigation: Citronella requires sufficient moisture for good growth and yield of herb. When
there is no rain, irrigation once in 10-15 days will be required. For undulating areas sprinkler
irrigation is suggested. Irrigation increases aldehyde content in oil besides herb yield.

Diseases: Most important disease is leaf blight or Carbularia leaf blight caused
by Carbulariaeragrostidis. This can be controlled by Carbendazim (Bavistin at 1.0g/liter)
followed by Benomyl of Benzimidazole group (Benlate 50 wp) @0.2% at 10 days interval.

Insect-pests: During dry season the crop may be affected by yellowing and crinkling disease
(due to mites). The emerging leaves become wrinkled and pale. It may fail to open and the
part may die. This may be controlled by spraying a mixture of Docofol (Kelthane) @ 2 ml/lit
and Ethion (Tafethion, 50 EC) @ 1 ml/lit along with a wetting agent like Triton AE or Enditron
AE @
0.5 ml/lit.

Harvesting: It is advisable to harvest (a partial harvest) after 3 months to induce tillering. In

the first year only 3 cuts besides the partial harvest can be taken, viz., 5 months after planting
and 3 months after the previous harvest. From second year onwards, 5-6 harvests can be
taken per year at 2 months intervals. Harvesting is done by sickle and cut at 15 cm above the
ground. Cutting close to the ground results into mortality of the plant. Harvesting preferably is
done before 12 O’clock.

Crop cycle: The crop can be maintained economically for about 4 years. Then it is to be pulled
out and plant with rotational crop. After termination of the crop green manuring can be done.

Withering of the fresh herb: After cutting, the herb is allowed to wilt for 12-24 hours to
remove the excess moisture. This wilting allows better packing in the vessel and saving of
steam and fuel. Wilting more than 24 hours results loss of essential oil. Cutting the grass into
shorter length also gives 10-15 % higher recovery. The harvested grass contains dead leaves,
sheaths that should be removed before packing into the vessel.

Distillation of oil: The grass is steam distilled for better recovery. The distillation equipment
consists of a boiler, a distillation vessel, a condenser and two receivers / separators. The
economic capacity of the unit is 1.0 ton/batch. In hilly areas small size (6-8 q) direct-fired field
units are preferred. Preferably the unit should be of stainless still for durability and oil quality.
Growers cultivating smaller areas can use properly designed direct-fired field distillation units.
Distillation is completed within 3 hours under normal pressure starting from the initial
condensation of the oil. Prolong distillation deteriorates oil quality.
Larger percentage of the major components about 80% in the total oil, such as citronellal,
geraniol, citronellol and geranyl acetate is recovered in the first hour of distillation.

Yield: The partially wilted herb yield is in the range of 20-30 t/ha. The average oil recovery is 1
%. Hence the oil yield is about 200-300 kg/ha/year. A crop under average management should
not yield less than 200 kg oil/ha/year.

PALMAROSA GRASS
Botanical name: Cymbopogon martiniivar.motia Family: Graminae
Oil of palmarosa, also known as Rusa or Rusha or Rosha is the essential iii obtained from the
aromatic grass Cymbopogon martiniivar. motia. The oil obtained from the other form viz. C.
martini.var. sofia is known as the ginger grass oil. Motia and sofia grasses are almost identical
and difficult to distinguish when they are in earlier growth stages.
Climate and Soil: Palmarosa is a hardy plant and can grow in varying altitude right from sea
level. It stands well in places receiving rainfall from 75 cm to 150 cm. But it does not
withstand stagnant water. It requires exposed sunlight and does not perform well under shady
situations.
Palmarosa prefers a well-drained soil of neutral to alkaline reaction and can be grown in poor
sandy to heavy-fertile soils of arid tracts, saline soil conditions and also in marginal and sub
marginal lands.
Varieties: IW 31244, RRL (B)- 77 and RRL(B)-71 for commercial cultivation. A high yielding
synthetic variety TRISHNA was developed by poly cross progenies of four elite inbred by CIMAP
Lucknow. This improved cultivar registers 40% more oil yield and its geraniol content is as
high as 93%.
Land preparation: Nursery bed should be prepared out of well pulverised soil and at a raised
level. Leaf mould or farm yard manure should be mixed well with the nursery bed.
Seed rate is 2.5 Kg per hectare. Best time for sowing is from April to September. Seedlings
become ready for transplanting when they are about 15 cm high.
The main field for raising palmarosa should be prepared by ploughing 3-4 times, followed by
forming ridges and furrows at 90 cm apart. The seedlings are transplanted at 60 cm spacing in
the ridges. In Kerala, a spacing of 45 x 30 cm is followed but under Delhi condition, a closer
spacing of 45 x 15 cm is found to be good in producing higher herbage and oil yield. In North it
is recommended as a mixed crop along with Basil to get higher net profit from unit area.
Manures and fertilizers: It respond to application of compost. Under North Eastern condition
of India, a fertilizer dose of 60:40:40 NPK kg/ha is followed while under Kerala condition, NPK
dose of25, 50 and 25 Kg/ha is recommended. Micronutrient like zinc (ZnS04 25 Kg /ha) is
beneficial to increase the oil yield of palmarosa.
Harvesting: If transplanting is done in May/June, the grass comes to first harvest after six
month from transplanting. Harvesting consists of cutting the upper third of the stem along with
the leaves. The right time for harvesting is when the plants just begin to bloom as the leaves
contain higher oil content during the blooming period.
Superior quality of oil with roseousgreen odour is obtained at an early seed setting stage
rather than at full bloom stage when the oil yield is slightly higher.
Yield: The grass yield more oil recovery if dried for nearly one week. The steam distillation
seems to be better than the other type of extraction. Palmarosa yields 15 to 20 tonnes of herbage
per ha in a year with an oil yield of 50-60 Kg per year. The plantation can be maintained for
about 8 to 10 years, but the oil yield starts declining from the fifth year.

VETIVER (KHUS)
Botanical name: Vetiveria zizanioides Family: Poaceae
Vetiver oil is obtained by steam distillation of roots of vetiver (Vetiveriazizanioides).
The
oil is one of the finest oriental perfumes with a persistent fragrance. The oil is used in the
manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumery, agarbathis, soft drinks; pan masala etc.
Demand and Supply of vetiver oil
In India as well as the World Market, the demand for vetiver oil is increasing day by day due to
its unique odour, for which it is used in both flavour and fragrance industries. One more reason
for increase in demand is that this oil cannot be substituted with reconstituted oil and cannot
be made synthetically. It is used for Base-note in flavour and fragrance and the percent usage
varies from 20-50% to 60-70 %.
The vetiver oil from North Indian origin is considered to be the best in the world market.
Improved varieties: KS-1 Gulabi, Dharaini and Kesar.
Soil and Climate: Vetiver grows in any type of soil but a rich and fairly well drained loam is
considered best. The loamy soils, which are loose in texture, are ideal for root growth and
harvesting as well. Vetiver plant also grows on a variety of problematic soils like waterlogged
soils, sandy soils and areas with high water table and flood prone. A luxuriant growth of
healthier root is obtained from plants growing under warm and damp conditions on rich,
temporary inundated, marshy land. The Charlands of The Brahmaputra and its main tributaries
and newly silted land that turned otherwise unfit for most common agricultural crops may be
identified as potential areas for vetiver cultivation. It grows best in areas with warm summer
and well- distributed rainfall.
Propagation: Vetiver can be propagated by tillers and slips. Tillers take longer time for
growing and therefore, slips are the better planting material for propagation. Preferably it is
propagated by slips. Plants are cut at 25-30 cm above ground and dug out for preparation of
slips. The culms are divided into slips with 2-3 tillers. These slips are jabbed into ground like
seedling. Although the growth may be slow initially, the plants develop quickly once roots are
established. The plant responds to fertilizers and irrigation with massive tillering, and each
tiller can be broken off and planted.
Raising of initial nursery: A nursery should be set up preferably on light soil so that plants
can be pulled up easily. For quick multiplication, nursery should be manured liberally by FYM or
Compost @20-25 t/ha. DAP @75 kg/ha may also be applied at the time of planting to
encourage fast tillering the slips in the nursery should be planted at 30 x 30 cm apart.
Land preparation: Vetiver field should be free of perennial weeds and shrubs. After clearing,
the land is deep tilled. With the onset of pre-monsoon shower final land preparation is done.
Field layout and bed formation: For uniform cropping and higher root yield the fields are
laid out into beds of convenient size.
Planting time: With pre-monsoon shower April- August is considered most ideal time for
commercial cultivation. In flood affected areas the crop should be established before
floodwater submerges it. Therefore, it should be planted before 2 months ahead of normal
flood.
Planting: After division into slips the fibrous roots are also removed leaving 5-8 cm from the
base of the root. These are planted in lines at 45 x 30 cm spacing. Flat bed planting followed
by ridging (after 30 days of planting) produces higher roots and essential oil. Planting is done
in holes 5-8 cm deep. The soil around the slips is pressed firmly and leveled. From an average
sized clump about 20-30 healthy slips can be obtained. One-hectare area requires about
75,000 slips when planted at 45 x 30 cm spacing. If planting is done during rain free period,
field should be irrigated immediately after planting.
Manuring and fertilization: In poor soils 40kg each of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
per acre is applied before final ploughing. In second year of crop growth 40 kg nitrogen is top-
dressed after rain in June. In the first year depending on soil fertility and crop growth 20 kg N
may be top-dressed at about 4 months after planting. Depending on availability, the crop may
be given 10-12 t/ac FYM or compost at planting supplemented with urea one month after planting
to stimulate growth.
Intercultural operations: Initial growth of vetiver for first 60-70 days is very slow, hence
inter row space virtually remain vacant allowing infestation and faster growth of kharif weeds
which compete with crop plants for light, moisture and nutrients. 2-3 weedings at an interval
of about a month are needed during the initial period of growth. In the second year one
weeding is done before harvest to facilitate the harvesting and avoid of any root of weeds
getting mixed with roots of the crop.
Use of herbicides: Herbicide Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha (50% a.i) as pre emergence to weed
and before transplanting gives a weed free condition for first 75-90 days, after which the crop
is able to cover the ground surface.
Earthing up Vetiver after shoot cutting: Earthing up after weeding is beneficial to the crop.
Earthing up encourages root growth at the crown due to better rhizospheric environment
provided to the growing plants.
Shoot cutting: The cutting of aerial portion with commencement of winter (November)
increases tillering and consequently gives more roots per plant. Shoot cutting is done twice
during the crop cycle. First shoot cutting is done at 30 cm height in planting year to achieve
regeneration for second year, while second time cutting is done at 15-20 cm height before
harvesting to facilitate digging of roots.
Inter cropping: Vetiver slips are planted in rainy season at a spacing of 45 x 30 cm. The
open space can be used efficiently for raising intercrop without affecting the main crop yield.
Growing of early maturing pulses like green gram, black gram, cluster bean (French bean) in
kharif and toria and corianderin the subsequent rabi season found to improve the productivity
and also give higher net profit per unit time and space. Cowpea, Dhaincha seed can be sown
in the row spaces and incorporate them after 50-60 days of growth as green manure. This will
add organic matter, which ultimately is helpful for better root growth.
Planting on paddy field leaves: Vetiver grows well on the field levees, which can keep them
stabilized. To avoid shading effect the foliage can be trimmed time to time. If planted in July –
August with Sali rice, the root will be ready for harvest in second year Nov-Dec i.e., just after
harvest of second crop.
Precaution: Vetiver by its nature grows best by the riverside. The economic part of the crop is
its dug up roots upto a depth of 30-40 cm. Therefore, under any situation vetiver for its root
production should not be undertaken in areas where soil erosion is a common feature. Though
it can be grown even in erosion prone land with proper control measure, harvesting should be
restricted to the central area of the standing crop, leaving thick, hedge like boundary line
totally undisturbed.
Diseases and pests:
Black scale insect:
The black scale insects rarely move, the young nymphs settle and insert their
mouthparts. They suck the sap of the plant and the growth is checked and vigour is reduced,
ultimately the plant may die. Spraying of metasystox @ 0.04% will be effective to control the
scale insect.
Harvesting: Harvesting is done in between 15-18 months to get fully developed root system
and high quality of oil. Harvesting earlier than 15 months after planting, the immature roots
yield oil of poor quality with green earthy odour. Properly developed somewhat thicker roots,
yields an oil of better quality and its optical rotation and specific gravity are higher, the odour
fuller, richer, more lasting. Oils derived from older roots are usually of darker colour than the
oils distilled from the younger roots. If the roots stay in ground for over two years, the yield of
oil diminishes considerably as the root system tend to become woody and lose in essential oil
content and the oil becomes very viscous with a dark colour but of high quality.
Digging
The stem portion is cut at a height of 15-20 cm and the clumps are uprooted. About 50-60 %
of the roots come away with the clump when dig out by spade or tractor drawn single disc
leaving the rest in the soil.
Washing / Cleaning: The harvested roots contain large quantities of earth sticking to them.
Immediately after harvest, the roots are washed gently in clean running water to remove the
adhering earth taking care so that the finer roots are not lost.
Drying: The cleaned roots are spread on drying grounds. The roots are turned over at regular
intervals until dry. During this process foreign matter if any is removed from the mass. The
cleaned and dried roots are sent to distillery or storage shed where they are allowed to
mature. Drying is done under shade for 1-2 days, which improves the olfactory quality of the
essential
oil. Prolonged drying in the sun reduces the oil yield. Dry roots can be stored in shade for 60-
70 days without loss of oil but quality improves appreciably.
Yield of roots: The age, the soil, climatic conditions and also the strain are important factors
governing the yield of roots. On an average, 30-45 q/ha of dry root is obtained under good
management. At 0.4% average recovery the oil yield of 12-20 kg oil/ha may be obtained.
Distillation: Essential oil is extracted from the roots by steam distillation. Freshly harvested
roots on distillation give higher yield of oil than stored roots; the yield decreases progressively
with the period of storage. The roots are soaked for 18-20 hours in water prior to distillation to
render the root material soft and thereby further facilitate release of oil. Fresh roots when cut
to lengths 2.5 cm – 5 cm increases recovery. As the most valuable quality constituents are
contained in the high boiling fractions, the roots must be distilled for a prolonged period
ranging from 20-24 hours. North Indian varieties yield 0.4 to 0.8 of oil. During distillation two
fractions- lighter and heavier oils are obtained. In the start highly volatile lighter fraction
released first and a considerable amount of which may escape before it gets cooled and
collected in liquid phase. To avoid this loss a piece of marking cloth after cleaning is tied at
delivery outlet in the swollen balloon shape in the receiver keeping it submerged in water. The
lighter fraction that is likely to escape along with the steam/gas or running distillate water
would be trapped in the cloth. As the distillation progress the heavier fraction will get
deposited in the cloth and the lighter will pass through cloth and get collected in the receiver.
At the end of the distillation the cloth is squeezed to get the oil. This piece of cloth is
repeatedly used till tear off. Before thrown off, the cloth may be washed by diethyl ether
(solvent) to get back the adhering oil. This practice helps in increased recovery of oil.
Traditionally copper vessel with S.S condenser is found good for vetiver since the oil react with
free copper turns bluish in colour which fetches more prices in perfumery market. The
traditionally distilled oil which often called “Ruhekhus” done in Kannauj type “DegVopka”
although recovery is comparatively low fetches the highest price in perfumery market.
Quality aspects: Distillation technique plays an important role in oil quality. By adopting the
right steam pressure and by adjusting the post harvest treatment of roots, yield as well as quality
can be improved. There are hundreds of small constituents in vetiver oil. However, the ‘Khusimol’
content in oil, minimum of which should be 14% or more and low in caryophyllene. Besides
extraction procedures the oil quality is governed by varietal selection, harvesting at proper age
(15-18 months) and during dry period only.
Bi-products: Roots left after oil extraction is used for making cartons and many handicrafts
items like Mats, Aasa (for sitting), pen-stand etc. A simple sharbat (syrup) can be prepared by
using water obtained during distillation, which on analysis found to be tasty and best for health
also.
The oil and its Uses: The oil is used extensively in perfume industry and in the manufacture
of scented toiletries as fixative and also as odour contributor in base etc. It also has uses in
the food industry as flavour agent. The essential oil is reddish dark brown when matured and
has a woody, earthy smell that is almost musty. The oil has a strong odour (that may not be to
everyone’s taste) and should be well diluted to avoid it being too overpowering in a blend. Vetiver
oil is used as part of the woody notes for luxury perfumes. The oil of vetiver, patchouli and
sandalwood in combination with jasmine and gardenia complex, is the base of the famous
Crepe de Chine note. In addition to its importance in classical perfumery, vetiver oil is also
used as base for many modern men’s colognes.
Medicinal uses: Therapeutically, vetiver oil has a profoundly relaxing effect on the nervous
system, relieving tension and stress. It can be used to good effect in the treatment of
insomnia. In India, vetiver oil is known as the oil of tranquility. In baths or in massage, vetiver
is beneficial in the treatment of the symptoms of disorders such as arthritis, rheumatism and a
chin, stiff muscles. It is warming and comforting and will help to relieve the tension that is
often associated with chronic pain. Vetiver oil also benefits the circulatory system, stimulating
and warming, especially when used in combination with massage. In skin care, the
antiseptic and slightly
astringent properties of vetiver can be used to good effect in the treatment of oily skin that is
prone to spots

GERANIUM

Botanical name: Pelargonium graveolens Family: Geraniaceae

Varieties: Algerian or Tunisian, Reunion or Bourbon, KKL-1, Sel-8, Hemanti, Bipuli, Kunti

Distribution: India, South Africa, Belgium, Chinna, Congo, Egypt, France, Madagascar,
Morocco, ReunionIslands, Spain, former USSR countries

Uses: Cosmetics, Perfumery

Geranium (Pelargonium graveolensL.Herit.) is one of the important aromatic plants,

yielding an essential oil which is highly priced for its very profound and strong rose-like odour.
The plant is also known as rose geranium. The chief constituent of the oil are geranial and
citronellol. The oil also contains α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene,
limonene, cis-ocimene, trans ocimene, p-cymene, terpinolene, cis-roseoxide, trans-rose oxide,
methone, trans-linalool, iso-menthone, caryophyllene, geranyl acetate, nerol, geranyl formate,
geranayl butyrate and geraniol.

The pure geranium oil is almost a perfume by itself and blends well with all other perfumes. It
is widely used in scenting soaps and for the isolation of rhodinal which forms part of most
high- grade perfumes. India is importing more than 20 t of this oil from other countries to
meet the local demands of the Indian perfumery industries, in addition to an indigenous
production of only about 20 t of oil annually.

Origin and Distribution: Geranium is a native of the Cape Province in South Africa. It is
commercially cultivated in France, Belgium, Spain, Morocco, Madagascar, Egypt, Reunion
Island, Congo, China, India and the former USSR countries. Presently, it is being commercially
cultivated mainly in the Nilgiris and Kodaikanal Hills of Tamil Nadu and in and around Bangalore
in Karnataka in an area of about 2 000 ha.

Varieties

1. Algerian or Tunisian: This type of geranium is slender with flowers of a dark pink colour.
It is being grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. This variety yields 50-60%
more oil with a more delicate odour then that of the Reunion type.

2. Reunion or Bourbon: Grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais, the plant is sturdier with light-
pink flowers and more suitable for wet conditions.

Other varieties: ‘KKL-1’’. ‘Sel-8’, PG-20, POG-7, ‘Hemanti’ ‘Bipuli’ and ‘Kunti’, Kelkar, Ooty, and
IIHR Sel-8 are the other varieties available in this crop.

Soil: Geranium is shallow-rooted crop and, as such, it requires well drained porous soil. The
crop is found to perform well in red lateritic soils with a pH of 5.5-8.0, though a calcium rich
porous soil is the best.

Climate: Geranium can be grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical climates at various
altitudes from 1 000 to 2 200 m.

Propagation: Geranium is easily propagated by cuttings, since there is no seed setting in

geranium, vegetative propagation is must. Terminal cuttings about 20 cm long and consisting of
about 8 nodes are the best suited material for propagation, as they give 80% rooting even
without any treatment.

Recently, its propagation through leaf petioles had also been reported to give a good rooting
percentage (75%), which will help to multiply this plant in larger numbers than the traditional
method of propagation using 20 cm-long cuttings. The CIMAP, Lucknow, has developed a
protocol for large –scale production of geranium cell clones and plants have been obtained
under field conditions with improved oil-yield and quality.

Planting: About 30,000 cuttings are required for planting an area of 1 ha.

Manures and Fertilizers: Prior to transplanting the cuttings, 10 t of good quality FYM, 35 kg
N,35 kg P2O5 and 35 kg K2O/ha are incorporated into the soil in the form of urea, super
phosphate and Muriate of potash. A second dose of nitrogen at 35 kg/ha is applied about 2
months after the first application, Further, nitrogen is given in two equal split doses for each
harvest-the first dose being just after the crop is harvested and the second two months later.
Altogether, 210 kg/ha/yr of N is applied to the crop in six equal doses to cover three harvests.
Application of 30 kg N/ha (15 kg/ha as basal and 15 kg as a foliar spray with 1% urea
solution, 45 and 90 days after basal application) is reported to increase herbage yield and oil
yield by 447% and 140%, respectively, over the control.

In addition, the application of 20 kg/ha of zinc Sulphate and 10 kg/ha of boron has been
reported to increase the herbage yield. Similarly, an application of copper (20 kg/ha) and
molybdenum (30 kg/ha/year) in four split doses after each harvest has been found to increase
the yield by 37%.

Pests and Diseases: The incidence of pest and disease is not severe in the geranium crop.
However, it is found to be affected by wilt disease, caused by the Fusarium species, and
Botrydeplodia theobromae, which are soil borne fungi.

Recently, Alternaria alternate has been reported to cause leaf blight in the Terai region and
Kumaon Hills of Utter Pradesh and Sclerotium rolfsii causes, collar-rot disease and Rhizoctonia
solani causes root-rot and wilt in the Kodaikanal region of Tamil Nadu.

To avoid wilt disease, the following prophylactic measures are recommended.

1. Dip the cuttings in 0.03% Benlate solution at the time of planting in the nursery.
2. Prior to transplanting the rooted cuttings must be again dipped in 0.03% Benlate
solution and then planted.
3. The crop is sprayed with 0.03% Benlate solution about 2 weeks before it is
harvested. Also after the harvest it is repeated, so that the cut-ends are drenched
with the fungicide.

Harvesting: Geranium is harvested 4 months after transplanting, when the leaves begin to
turn light-green and exhibit a change from a lemon-like odour to that of rose. The plant then
puts forth fresh shoots, grows faster, and reaches the next harvesting stage in 4 months.
Thus, a total of 3 harvests can be obtained for 3-6 years. Cultivation under polyhouse
conditions is reported to reduce the harvest time by 21 days.

Yield: The quality and yield of oil will be better if the crop is harvested at the appropriate time
of maturity. For a higher yield, a good plant population in the field is necessary. A minimum of
25,000 plants should be maintained in a hectare in a year which, in turn, may yield 15 kg of oil
on distillation. The recovery of the oil ranges from 0.08 to 0.15%, depending upon the season
of harvest and type of material. Cultivation under polyhouse cover is reported to increase herb
and oil yields up to 53% over the conventional planting of the geranium crop.
Distillation of Oil: The freshly-harvested terminals are used for the distillation of oil. The
plant material is stacked near the stills for about 12 to 24 hours. This results in a slight
fermentation and splitting of the glycosides, which increases the yield of oil. The oil is
extracted by a simple distillation method. The herbage is tightly packed in a still over the
perforated grid and tamped down tightly and the still-head is clamped shut. The steam is
generated in a separate boiler and conveyed to the still. The oil volatilizes and escapes along
with the steam vapours, which is later condensed by passing it through a condenser with
running cold water. The condensed oil is separated from the water by the differential density
method and clarified by filtering it with activated carbon.

DAVANA

Botanical name: Artemisia pallens Wall. Family: Asteraceae

Origin and Distribution: The plant grows wild in the temperate Himalayas. It is common in
the Kashmir Valley, the Simla and Nanital Hills. It is being commercially cultivated in
Karnataka, Maharastra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in an area of about 1000 ha.

Uses: Cosmetics, Flavouring beverages & Csonfectionery

Description of the Plant: Davana is an aromatic, erect herb, about 60 cm tall, with much
divided leaves and small yellow flowers

Soil: The crop is found growing on various types of soils from sandy loam to medium black.
However, a fertile, well-drained, sandy loam soil which is rich in organic matter is ideal.

Climate: Season is an important aspect to be considered when Davana is grown for extracting
essential oil. The oil content in the plants was observed to be maximum, when the crop was
grown during the winter season compared to the other seasons. Thus, when the crop is grown
for the production of oil, it should be planted during the first week of November. A few light
showers with moderate winter conditions and no frost is conducive to the good growth of the
plant. High temperature and heavy rains at the time of flowering have not only been found to
affect the plant growth adversely, but also reduces the oil content and ultimately the oil yield.

Cultivation: Nursery raising: Davana is propagated by seeds. As the seeds lose viability
rapidly, only the seeds from the previous season’s crop should only be used for sowing. About
1.5 kg of seed is required to produce enough seedlings to transplant into an area of one
hectare. Usually, nursery-beds 2 m long and 1 m wide are preferred.

Transplanting: The seedlings will be ready for transplanting in about 6-8 weeks from the date
of sowing. At this stage, the seedlings should be about 10 cm tall. However, generally, plots of
3-4 m x 1.5-2.5 m size are preferred as it facilitates irrigation, weeding and other intercultural
operations.

After the preparation of the plots, the soil is incorporated with 6 t/ha of well decomposed FYM
or compost. The plots are irrigated a day prior to transplanting. The seedlings are then
transplanted at a spacing of 15 cm between rows and 7.5 cm between plants.

Manures and Fertilizers: Davana responds well to the application of manures and fertilizers.
Well-decomposed FYM at the rate of 6 t/ha is incorporated into the soil at the time of land
preparation. Subsequently, a fertilizer dose of 40 kg P and 40 kg K/ha is given at the time of
transplanting. While N is applied at the rate of 120 kg/ha in three equal split doses: the first
dose is given at 10 days after transplanting and the subsequent two doses at 15 days’
intervals thereafter.
Irrigation: After transplanting, the plots are immediately provided with light irrigation. Later,
irrigation is provided daily till the seedlings are well established (10-12 days) and,
subsequently, once in 3-4 days depending on the weather conditions.

Interculture: The field is kept weed-free by regular weeding as and when required. In all,
about 2-3 hand-weedings during the early period of growth will help to keep the weeds down.

Growth Regulator Application: Growth regulators have been used to boost the growth and
yield in many crops. In Davana also, an application of GA at 200 ppm after five weeks of
transplanting has been found to increase the herb and essential oil-yield per unit area.

Insect Pests: No serious attack of insect pests has been reported in Davana. However, some
insect pests like leaf-eating caterpillars, aphids and termites have been observed to after the
crop.

The application of Aldrex to the plots will control the attack of termites, while the spraying of
any systemic insecticide like 0.05% of Monocrotophos or 0.2% of Dimethoate will control the
incidence of aphids and the spraying of contact insecticides like 0.2% Metacid will control leaf-
eating caterpillars.

DISEASES: Damping-off

This disease is caused by fungus belonging to the Rhizoctinia spp. It is usually severe at the
nursery stage, particularly when there is high humidity and cloudy weather conditions,
resulting in the heavy mortality of seedlings. Controlling the irrigation will reduce the incidence
of the disease. Treating the seeds with Emisan @ 0.2% or Ridona MZ at 0.1% before sowing
and then drenching the seed-beds with the above chemicals a week after germination controls
the disease

Harvesting: The crop starts flowering after 110-115 days of sowing, which will be around the
2nd or 3 rd week of February. In order to obtain the maximum essential oil-yield, the plants
should be harvested when about 50% of them have come to the flowering stage.

Distillation: The harvested material, before distillation, is dried under the shade for 2 days. It
is better to distill this immediately rather than to store it. The dried material is steam-distilled
to obtain good quality oil. However, for the estimation of essential oil under laboratory
conditions, particularly of a small sample, the shade-dried material is hydro-distilled.

In the case of hydro-distillation, the material is placed in a glass still and water is added to it,
so that around three-fourths of the material is immersed in water and it is then heated. During
boiling, the water vapours along with the vaporized oil moves into the condenser, gets condensed
and collects in a graduated receive. Based on the amount of oil collected, the oil content of the
material can be determined.

However, for commercial purposes, steam distillation should be used. The distillation
equipment consists of : (i) A Boiler, which produces the stem; (ii) A Distillation Still in which
the material is filled and steam is passed through; (iii)A Condenser, wherein the vaporized oil
gets condensed into a liquid form and (iv) A Receiver, to collect the oil.

The boiler and the distillation still are made of steel. The boiler is connected to the distillation
still by a steel pipe through which the steam passes. A perforated grid (plate) is placed at the
bottom of the still on which the plant material is kept. The distillation still is connected to the
condenser through a pipe. The condenser consists of many metallic pipes mounted inside a
jacket. It is provided with an inlet and an outlet. Water is passed through the gap between the
pipes in order to cool the steam and essential oil vapours into liquid form, which then gets
collected in the steel receiver. The oil, being lighter than water and insoluble, floats on the
surface of the water.
For distillation, the air-dried herbage is chopped into smaller pieces and then charged into the
still. While filling, the material should be tightly packed inside the still, as otherwise steam
channels may be formed during distillation resulting in poor yields. About 5-6 hours are
required to complete the charge.

After decantation of the top, clear layer of oil, the bottom layer which consists of small
quantities of water and oil has to be clarifies. To separate the oil, a saturated solution of
sodium chloride is added to this mixture so that a separated layer of water and oil is formed.
The lower water- layer is drained off with the help of a separating funnel and the upper layer
of oil is collected.

Yield and Oil Content: The yield of fresh herbage, including flower-heads, is around 12-13
t/ha. Though, under laboratory conditions, the oil content in the whole plant after during it in
the shade for 2 days is 0.29%. An average recovery of around 0.2% under large-scale
distillation, yielding 12-13 kg/ha of oil may be considered satisfactory.

When oil is extracted from the whole plant, the flower-heads contribute the major portion of
the oil. The contribution of the leaves and stems towards the percentage of oil content in a
whole plant is very little.
13.7 Role of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition.

Definition: Human nutrition, is process by which substances in food are transformed into
body tissues and provide energy for the full range of physical and mental activities that make
up human life.

Role of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition.

 Fruits, nuts, and vegetables play a significant role in human nutrition, especially as
sources of vitamins (C, A, B6, thiamine, niacin, E), minerals, and dietary fiber. Their
contribution as a group is estimated at 91%of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A,27% of
vitamin B6, 17% of thiamine, and 15% of niacin in the diet.

 Fruits and vegetables also supply 16% of magnesium, 19% of iron, and 9% of the
calories. Legume vegetables, potatoes, and tree nuts (such as almond, filbert, pecan,
pistachio, and walnut) contribute about 5% of the per capita availability of proteins in
the
U.S. diet, and their proteins are of high quality as to their content of essential amino
acids.

 Nuts are a good source of essential fatty acids, fiber, vitamin E, and minerals. Other
important nutrients supplied by fruits and vegetables include folacin, riboflavin, zinc,
calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. Climatic conditions, especially temperature and
light intensity, have a strong effect on the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables.

 Soil type, the rootstock used for fruit trees, mulching, irrigation, fertilization, and other
cultural practices influence the water and nutrient supply to the plant, which can affect
the composition and quality attributes (appearance, texture, taste and aroma) of the
harvested plant parts.

 Maturity at harvest and harvesting method influence the commodity’s quality and
extent of physical injuries. Delays between harvest and consumption or processing can
result in losses of flavor and nutritional quality.

 The magnitude of these losses increases with exposure to temperatures, relative

humidity, and/or concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene outside the
ranges that are optimum for each commodity during the entire postharvest handling
system.

 Furthermore, processing and cooking methods can greatly affect the nutritional value of
fruits and vegetables. Fruits, nuts, and vegetables in the daily diet have been strongly
associated with reduced risk for some forms of cancer, heart disease, stroke, and other
chronic diseases.

 Some components of fruits and vegetables are strong antioxidants and function to
modify the metabolic activation and detoxification/disposition of carcinogens, or even
influence processes that alter the course of the tumor cell.

 Although antioxidant capacity varies greatly among fruits and vegetables it is better to
consume a variety of commodities rather than limiting consumption toa few with the
highest antioxidant capacity. In some countries, consumers are encouraged to eat up to
10 servings of fruits and vegetables per day.

 There is increasing evidence that consumption of whole foods is better than isolated
food components (such as dietary supplement sand nutracenticals). For example,
increased consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables was more effective than
carotenoid supplements in increasing LDL oxidation resistance, lowering DNA damage,
and inducing
 higher repair activity in human volunteers who participated in a study conducted in many
countries.

Examples of the components of fruits and vegetables that have positive effects on human health
and their important sources are shown in Table.

Constituent Sources Impacted human

diseases
Vegetables
Antioxidants cancer,
cataracts, heart
disease, stroke
-
Vitamin C broccoli, cabbage, cantaloupe, citrus fruits,
guava, kiwifruit, leafy greens, pepper,
pineapple, potato, strawberry, tomato

-
Vitamin dark-green vegetables (such as collards,
spinach, and turnip greens), orange
carotenoids
vegetables (such as carrots, pumpkin, and
sweet potato), orange-flesh fruits (such as
apricot, cantaloupe, mango, nectarine,
orange, papaya, peach, persimmon, and
pineapple), tomato
-
Vitamin E nuts (such as almonds, cashew nuts, filberts,
macadamias, pecans, pistachios, and
walnuts)
-
Flavonoids red, blue, and purple fruits (such as, apple,
blackberry, blueberry, cranberry, grape,
nectarine, peach, plum & prune,
pomegranate, raspberry, and strawberry)
Fiber most fresh fruits and vegetables, nuts, diabetes, heart
cooked dry beans and peas disease

Folate dark-green leafy vegetables (such as spinach, birth defects,

mustard greens, and romaine lettuce), cancer, heart
legumes (cooked dry beans and peas, green disease
peas), oranges
Potassium baked potato or sweet potato, banana & hypertension,
plantain, cooked dry beans, cooked stroke
greens, dried fruits (such as apricots and
prunes), winter (orange) squash

Nutritive value of vegetables:

Vegetables are rich source of nutrients, important for human health. They are particularly
important sources of micronutrient, pro-vitamin-A, B6, C and E as well as folic acid, iron and
magnesium. Table given below explains different groups of vegetables according to the
primary type of nutrients they provide:
 Table: Vegetable groups providing different nutrients

Nutrient Vegetables

Carbohydrate White Potato, Sweet Potato, Tapioca, Yam, Colocasia

Protein Beans, Sweet Corn, Peas, Leafy Crucifers

Fat Mature seed of some Cucurbits and Legumes

Pro-vitamin A Green leafy vegetables, Palak, Amaranths, Fenugreek, Drumstick,

Carrot, Pepper

Vitamin C Tomato, Pepper, Melons, Crucifers, Beans, Sprouts

Minerals Crucifers, Most Green leafy vegetables

Iron Legumes, Dark green leafy vegetables

Complex Celery, cabbage, spinach and lettuce

carbohydrates

Folic Acid Spinach and other green leafy vegetables

Vegetables, as protective food: The nutritional value of vegetables as a vital source of

essential minerals and vitamins is given in Table above.
 In addition to these constituents’ vegetables also supply fair amounts of dietary fibers.
Due to their high-water content and fiber (which constitute of high percentage of
complex carbohydrates), leafy vegetables and roots help in digestion and utilization of
the more concentrated food in the human diet. Vegetables containing high amount of
fiber are spinach (6.3%), peas 95.20, broad bean (4.2%) and okra (3.1).
 Vegetables neutralize the acid substances produced in the course of digestion of meat,
cheese and other high-energy foods.
 Dietary fibre in known to be associated with reduced incidence of coronary heart diseases.
The mechanism of its action is attributed to its binding to bile salts and preventing its re
absorption and in reducing cholesterol level in circulation.
 These fibres particularly the gums, pectins when ingested with a diet are reported to
reduce post parandial levels of glucose in blood. These types of dietary fibers are often
recommended for the management of certain types of diabetes. For example, Garlic
extracts lowers the blood glucose level by increasing the release of insulin from
pancreas B cells. Thioglycaocides found in cabbage have a hypoglycemic effect.
 Dietary fiber increases the transit time and reduces the time of release of ingested food
in colon. Low fibre diet is associated with colon cancer and dietary fibre may play a role
in reducing the risk of colon cancer. It is suggested that an intake of 40 g dietary fibre
a day is sufficient.
 Folic acid commonly referred to as folate, found in abundance in spinach (123
mg/100g), other green leafy vegetables (40-80 mg/100g) and beans (144 mg/100g) is
required for the multiplication and maturation of red cells. Its deficiency results in
megaloblastic Anaemia that is often seen in children and pregnant women.
 Recent researches have also associated it with reduced risk of cardio vascular disease.
Earlier studies linked diets high in folic acid with a reduced risk of colon cancer.
  Folic acid lowers homocysteine that has an adverse effect on the lining of arteries.
Scientists opine that if homocysteine is lowered, it will decrease the incidences of heart
attacks and strokes.
 Secondary metabolites of vegetables act as anti-carcinogenic
compounds. Recently, Interest has grown steadily in to develop diet-based chemo
protection, utilizing fruits and vegetables. Vegetables are rich source of such
compounds.

Table below gives brief information about anti carcinogenic secondary metabolites and their
source vegetables:

Table: Vegetables as a source of anti-carcinogenic secondary metabolites

Compounds Active Vegetable source

ingredients

Glucosinolates Indole-3 Cruciferous vegetables viz. Broccoli, Brussels sprout,

cabbage
Carbinol

Organosulphur Diallyl sulfide Onion, Garlic

(allins)
compounds

Carotenoids b-carotene Carrot, Tomato, Pumpkin, Green leafy vegetables

 Green leafy vegetables are rich source of antioxidants, which are now a days, being widely
promoted as agents that act as protectants against various disorders of human health.

Vegetables also have traditionally accepted curative properties:

Vegetables as general medicines:

Besides their role to specific diseases, many of the vegetables have curative properties. The
brief list of such important vegetables along with their properties is given below:

 Vegetables help in checking obesity as these are low in fat and have high proteins,
minerals, vitamins and water.
 Greeks recommended the juice of cabbage as an antidote for eating poisonous
mushrooms.
 Juice of bitter luffa is known to be an effective medicine against jaundice.
 Carrot has therapeutic action in intestinal disorders of infants because of the presence
of compounds of terpene series in essential oil found in this crop.
 It is believed that extracts of carrots seeds prevent pregnancy by inhibiting the
implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus.
 Onion, garlic and other sulfur containing vegetables possess antiseptic properties. There
is a triterpene compound, inotoldiol in garlic, which is reported to inhibit the fungal
growth under in-vitro conditions.
 Sweet potato contains bitter substance known as ipomeamarone. Natives of New
Zealand use this vegetable as antipyretic.
 Pungent extract (capsaicin) of red pepper has been used in curing neurogenic
bladder (Nitti 1994).
 Multi-variant therapeutic role of ginger and turmeric is well documented
  In present scenario, we talk about 'Nutritional security". Vegetables can be very
reasonable source of all kind of nutrients and minerals. Now days the whole world is
converting into vegetarian. It's unfortunate that despite of being a vegetarian country,
per capita availability of our country is very poor. Its need of hour to supplement our
food bowls with vegetable and move towards attaining a healthy nation.

Importance of fruits and vegetables, extent and possible causes of post-harvest losses
 Horticulture plays a significant role in Indian Agriculture.
 It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area.
 India is the second largest producer of both fruits and vegetables in the world (52.85
Mt and 108.20 Mt respectively).
 Fruits and vegetables are of immense significance to man.
 In India, the fruits have been given a place of honour on being offered to God at every
festival and have also been mentioned in our epics like Mahabharata, Ramayana and
writings of Sushrutha and Charaka.
 Being rich source of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres, these constitute
an important part of our daily diet.
 The dietary fibres have several direct and indirect advantages.
 Not only this, fruits and vegetables provide a variety in taste, interest and aesthetic
appeal.
 Their significance in human life is being recognised increasingly in Western societies
with the objective of minimizing the occurrence of the diseases related with an affluent
life style.
 Their lesser recognized benefits relate to their role in kidney functions, prevention of
cancer and cardiac disorders through contribution of ascorbic acid, β-carotene and non-
starch polysaccharides besides the biochemical constituents like phenols, flavonoids and
alkaloids.
 A considerable amount of fruits and vegetables produced in India is lost due to
improper post-harvest operations; as a result, there is a considerable gap between the
gross production and net availability.
 Furthermore, only a small fraction of fruits and vegetables are utilized for processing
(less than 1%) and exported (Fruits – 0.5% and Vegetables – 1.7%) compared to other
countries.
 Post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables are very high (20-40%). About 10-15% fresh
 fruits and vegetables shrivel and decay, lowering their market value and consumer
acceptability.
 Minimizing these losses can increase their supply without bringing additional land under
cultivation.
 Improper handling and storage cause physical damage due to tissue breakdown.
 Mechanical losses include bruising, cracking, cuts, microbial spoilage by fungi and
bacteria, whereas physiological losses include changes in respiration, transpiration,
pigments, organic acids and flavour.