LESSON 1: THE CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTHS,

WEAKNESSES, AND KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?

- Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be
used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and
generalize results to wider populations. Quantitative research is the opposite of
qualitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g.,
text, video, or audio). Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social
sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.
(Bhandari, 2020)

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. OBJECTIVE - Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target

concepts. It is not based on mere intuition and guesses. Data are gathered before
proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem.

2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS - The researchers know in advance

what they are looking for. The research questions are well-defined for which objective
answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are
gathered.

3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS. Standardized instruments guide data

collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and validity of data. Data are normally
gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable
characteristics of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of children,
among others.

4. NUMERICAL DATA. Figures, tables, or graphs showcase summarized data collection to

show trends, relationships, or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables
allow you to see the evidence collected.

5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population
distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how the
characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in determining
the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.

6. REPLICATION. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another

setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of
spurious conclusions.

7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of
computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results.
Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

STRENGTHS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The advantages of quantitative research include the following:
1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new
hypothesis or to disproving it. Because of bigger number of the sample of a population,
the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides numerical
data, it cannot be easily misinterpreted.

2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to
comprehend a huge number of vital characteristics of data.

3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors,
and so is real and unbiased.
 4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically
valid random models, findings can be generalized to the population about which
information is necessary.

5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be

replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings.

6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of
qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible
directions to follow.

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Quantitative research requires many respondents. It is assumed that the larger the
sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.

2. It is costly. Since there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the
expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing
questionnaires.

3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations
are usually ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share
and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research.

4. Much information is difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically

on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.

5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and
inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing
in answering the instrument.

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem.

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,

mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

The following are the various kinds of quantitative research design that a researcher may
employ:

1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN. This allows the researcher to control the

situation. In doing so, it allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes
something to occur?” This kind of research also allows the researcher to identify cause
and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from
treatment effects.

A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. A type of research applies to experimental

design that with least internal validity. One type of pre-experiment, the simple
group, pre-test-post-test design, measures the group two times, before and
after the intervention. Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within
one group, the posttest of the treated groups is compared with that of an
untreated group. Measuring the effect as the difference between groups
marks this as between-subjects design.

B. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this design, the researcher can

collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more
existing measures. Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups,
upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes.

There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these are:

a. Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance failure of
random assignment to equalize the conditions by converting a true
experiment into this kind of design, for purpose of analysis. 12

b. Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures

before and after the experimental intervention. It differs from the
single-group pre-experiment that has only one pretest and one
posttest. Users of this design assume that the time threats such as
history or maturation appear as regular changes in the measures prior
to the intervention.

C. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and group-

related threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more differently
treated groups; and random assignment to these groups. These features
require that the researchers have control over the experimental treatment and
the power to place subjects in groups.

True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to deal
with time-related rival explanations. True experimental design offers the
highest internal validity of all the designs. Quasi-experimental design differs
from true experimental design by the absence of random assignment of
subjects to different conditions. What quasi-experiments have in common
with true experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and
provide data likely to reflect its impact.

D. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. this kind of design, the researcher

observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, and no external variables
are introduced. In this research design, the variables are not deliberately
manipulated nor is the setting controlled.

E. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN’S main purpose is to observe, describe

and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to
serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development.

The types of descriptive design are as follows:

A. SURVEY. It is used to gather information from groups of people by
selecting and studying samples chosen from a population. This is useful
when the objective of the study is to see general picture of the population
under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics,
opinions, and their knowledge about the behavior towards a certain
phenomenon.

B. CORRELATIONAL. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be

to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship between different
 variables or groups of respondents under study. Correlational Research
has three types, these are:
a. Bivariate Correlational Studies – It obtains score from two
variables for each subject, and then uses them to calculate a
correlation coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the two
variables are correlated (variables are selected because they are
believed to be related).
Example: Children of wealthier (variable one), better educated
(variable 2) parents earn higher salaries as adults.

b. Prediction Studies – It uses correlation coefficient to show how

one variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the criterion
variable).
Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to
college?

c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies – All variables in the

study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that
adds together the predictive power of each identified variable.
Example: Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole predictor
of college GPA, what might be other good predictors?

C. EX-POST FACTO or CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE. This kind of research

derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already
occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It
discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs.
Example: What is the Effect of Home Schooling on the Social Skills of
Adolescents?

D. COMPARATIVE. It involves comparing two or more samples of study

subjects on one or more variables, often at a single point of time.
Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct groups based on
selected attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions, and attitudes,
physical or psychological symptoms.
Example: A comparative Study on the Health Problems among Rural and
Urban People in Ilocos Region, Philippines.

E. NORMATIVE. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given

behavior. For example: If you are conducting research on the study habits
of the high school students you are to use the range of score to describe
the level of their study habits. The same true is when you would want to
describe their academic performance.

F. EVALUATIVE. It is a process used to determine what has happened

during a given activity or in an institution. The purpose of evaluation is to
see if a given program is working, an institution is successful according to
the goals set for it, or the original intent was successfully attained. In
other words, in evaluation judgments can be in the forms of social utility,
desirability, or effectiveness of a process.
Example: A test of children in school is used to assess the effectiveness
of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum.

G. METHODOLOGICAL. In this approach, the implementation of a variety of

methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a
scale-matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be
integrated.

LESSON 2: IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ACROSS FIELDS
 People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, to improve or
enhance ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find
answers to questions or solutions to problems in daily life. Research findings can affect people’s
lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules, and regulations, as well as policies, among others.
Widely, quantitative research is often used because of its emphasis on proof rather than
discovery.

1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT

(ABM)
- Research can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and
ensure the development of product is highly targeted towards demand. Businessmen
can also utilize research results to guarantee sufficient distribution of their products
and decide where they need to increase their product distribution. Conducting
research can also help a business determine whether now is the proper time to open
another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small
business decide if a procedure or strategy should be changed to meet the
requirements of the customer base. Research is important for any organization to
remain in the market. The primary function of research in ABM is to correctly
determine its customers and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most
feasible location, deliver quality goods and services, analyze what the competitors
are doing and find ways on how to continuously satisfy the growing and varied needs
of the clients.

2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY

- Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative
research data. It is concerned with exploring connections simultaneously, amidst
cultural differences, alternatives, and identity. In the contemporary academic, socio-
cultural, and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic overtones.
Quantitative research is use in Anthropology in many aspects. Like, true experiments
may use in studying people if you follow certain steps (Bernard, 2004). This is to
investigate the Effects of an intervention in ethnic behavior of a group. In here, you
need at least two groups, called the treatment group and the control group.

3. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION

- Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a communication
phenomenon might generalize to a larger population. For example, researchers can
advance questions like “What Effect do punitive behavioral control statements have
on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated with different stages
in romantic relationships? What communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-
workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009)

4. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE

- Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an alternative
way of medicating an illness. An example is the research done by University of
Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship between mushrooming of fast-
food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention needed to prevent children’s
obesity from reaching serious proportions.

5. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION

- Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly observational
research based on surveys or correlational studies. The designs test interventions
like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment with an experimental
group.

6. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

 - Relationship Questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one
behavior exhibited by people is related to other types of behavior. When quantitative
researchers explore questions of differences or questions of relationships, they do so
to uncover certain patterns of behavior. If the researcher discovers that a certain
relationship exists in sample that she or he has drawn form the population, she/he is
then able to draw generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior.

7. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

- Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems. Suppose a
researcher has invented a technique for improving reading comprehension among
third graders. She/he selects two third grade classes in a school district. One of them
gets the intervention and the other does not. Students are measured before and after
the intervention to see whether their reading scores improve. This design contains
many of the elements of true experiment, but the participants are not assigned
randomly to the treatment and control groups.

LESSON 3: THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it
here. In research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually
exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988).

The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are
among the fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability,
cause and effect, and theory. Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take
more than one value, and values can be words or numbers.

A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an

organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or
organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).

TYPES OF VARIABLES (ALLEN, TITSWORTH, HUNT, 2009)

1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that
can occur within the population. Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this
type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Continuous variables can be
further categorized as:

a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed

range of numbers. It is a measurement where the difference between two values
does have meaning. Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s
net worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your
assets), etc.

b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers when there is absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval
variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that
variable.
 2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable.
This is any variable that has limited number of distinct values, and which cannot be
divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of children in family. Discrete
variable may also categorize into:

a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any

particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more
categories but does not imply ordering of cases.

b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from

greatest to smallest. This variable has two or more categories which can be
ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include education level, income brackets,
etc.

KINDS OF VARIABLES

Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of variables:

1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect

outcomes. They are invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor
variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the conditions that act on
something else to bring about changes.

EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic

performance of UTNHS senior high school students. STUDY HABITS is the
independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of
the students.

2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are
the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is
also called outcome variable.

EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic

performance of UTNHS senior high school students. ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study
habits of the students; if the students change their study habit the academic
performance also change.

3. INTERVENING OR MEDDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the

independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.

EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the
attitude towards payment is negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if
the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be
high.

4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured

in the study because they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use
statistical procedures (e.g., analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They may
be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true
influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.

5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in

a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study.
Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the study has
been completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the relationship
between the independent variables and dependent variable, but they were not or could
not be easily assessed.