WEEK 6

Evaluative statement.
 An evaluative statement is a way of giving a better explanation. To shows the strength and
weaknesses of something through writing.
 It is a statement that states one's sound judgement about something through writing which is
supported by reasons and evidences.
 It presents a value judgment based on a set of criteria.
 In other term. It is the writer’s way of explaining why strength is a strength and why a weakness
is a weakness, based on the evidence gathered.
 An evaluative statement is an objective and tactful way of reacting to a text.

Remember if the following before formulating an evaluative statement:

 You need to read the entire text carefully and critically.
 The statement is about your own judgment of a text content, and properties.
 You may formulate your evaluative statements into 2 ways, such as formulating assertions and
counterclaims.

How are you going to form evaluative statements?

1. Begin with the positives before you point out the negatives. Remember that your evaluative
statement should be factual, substantial, and unbiased. When giving your negative
feedback, it should not sound insulting on the part of the evaluate (one who is evaluated).
2. Keep your feedback concise and precise.
3. Be careful in giving your feedback. Since evaluations pass judgment onto works of authors,
they must be written and expressed with care and much diligence.
4. Suggest a solution/s or suggestion/s on how to improve the written material being
evaluated and provide justification how these will work.

When writing and evolve with the statement, you are explaining why a strength is a strength or an area
for improvement needs improving. The judgment is best developed by:
First looking at all your notes for your subject and ask yourself “How well is these activity being
done”
Use of endnotes to help the reader understand your opinion.
Asking yourself, so what, what impact is this having?
Putting it all together.

ASSERTION AND ITS TYPE

A good critical reader does not only understand the meaning of a reading material, but also logically
evaluates whether the claims of the writer are true or false
 Assertions serve as a primary way for the readers to consider, and possibly agree with the
claims presented by the writer in an expository writing.
 Assertions are declarative sentences that if one speaking about something else. As if is true,
though it may not be.
 It is expressed as an argument. Usually these assertions contain languages that express as
evaluation, such as useful significance, Important insightful detail, up to date, comprehensive,
practical, impressive, and more.
 You would give your opinion or arguments about it.
  Afterwards, you would make an assertion whether you agree or disagree with an issue. Thus,
take a stand and support it with your own reasons.

Four types of assertions, which are classified according to the degree of certainty, they can be judged as
true or false:

ASSERTION OF FACT
 A statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses.
Verified observations, or the results of research.
ASSERTION OF CONVECTION
 It is a way in which something is done similar to tradition and norms, its truthfulness can be
verified on the by reference to historical proceedings laws rules usage, and customs. Something
to note about conventions, is that they may sound factual to therapy in their right from
customs, but because they are socially accepted ways of doing things, they cannot be verified,
objectively by measurements.
ASSERTION OF OPINION
 It is a statement based on facts, but it is difficult to objectively verify, because of the uncertainty
of producing satisfactory proofs of soundness. Opinions result from ambiguities the more
ambiguous statement, the more difficult it is to verify. Thus, they are open to dispute. The
truthfulness of the claim may be true to same but not by others.
ASSERTION OF PREFERENCES
 It's the person choice in which the writer is under no obligation to support, or prove the
truthfulness of the statement. They are subjective, and cannot be objectively proven or logically
attacked.

Formulate counterclaims.
To be an effective critical thinker. It is not enough just to be able to identify claims and assertions, the
ability to analyze an argument is essential to understanding the text more deeply. But understanding the
claim is not the only faucet of the argument. You must also learn how to analyze the counter claims and
evidence provided by the text. Being able to recognize and formulate counter claims in reaction in the
argument is a characteristic of a critical reader.

COUNTERCLAIM
‣ Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim. To rebut means contradict someone’s
statement through a formal argument. They provide a contrasting perspective to the main
argument.
‣ Claims made to refute the previous claim they provide a contrasting perspective to the main
argument.
‣ You must also learn how to analyze the counterclaims and evidence provided by the text.

To be able to locate counterclaims to an argument, remember the following:

Being locate and provide counterclaims to an argument, you show a deep competence and
familiarity with the writers.
It shows that you are examining different perspectives, and not just passively accepting the
writers claim.
It shows that you have thoroughly consider the topic, and are willing to engage different
viewpoints from your own.
Thus, remaining objective. It also helps you clarify what your personal position is on the topic.
FOUR ELEMETS OF ARGUMENT
CLAIM
‣ Is a statement that asserts facts based on one’s understanding about a particular topic or issue.
COUNTERCLAIM
‣ Is just the opposite of claim. It is a statement that contradicts one’s claim and is usually proven
and supported by both reasons and evidences.
REASON
‣ Is the part of an argument where a statement offers an explanation behind a party’s claim.
EVIDENCE
‣ Is the statement that proves the truth of a claim and generally leads to the conclusion of an
argument.

WEEK 5

What is the meaning of the word critical?

 inclined to find fault or to judge with severity, often too readily
 occupied with or skilled in criticism
 involving skillful judgment as to truth, merit, and/or judicial
 Providing textual variants, proposed emendations, etc.

What makes an individual a critical?

1. ‘Being critical involves seeing different sides of an argument and seeking to present a balanced view.’
2. ‘Being critical means finding fault with the arguments, analyses, and interpretations etc. of others.’
3. ‘Being critical involves always supporting your arguments with clear factual evidence.’
4. ‘Being critical means separating facts about how the world is, from values regarding how it should be.
5. ‘Being critical means putting biases, political beliefs, emotions etc. aside in order to come to objective,
rational, evidence-based knowledge.’
6. ‘Quantitative data is objective, whereas qualitative data is subjective.’
7. ‘If you’re being descriptive (e.g. in an assignment), you’re not being critical.’

What is CRITICAL THINKING?

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and
action. Also, critical thinking is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking which attempts to reason at
the highest level of quality in a fair-minded way.

A critical thinker possesses the following characteristics. (Adapted from skillsyouneed.com)

1. Understands the relation of one idea to another;
2. Determines the importance and relevance of ideas and arguments;
3. Recognizes, builds and appraises arguments;
4. Identifies inconsistencies and errors in reasoning;
5. Approaches problems in a consistent and systematic way;
6. Reflects on the justification of his own assumptions, beliefs, and values.
What is CRITICAL READING?
Critical reading involves presenting a reasoned argument that evaluates and analyses what you
have read. Being critical, therefore - in an academic sense - means advancing your
understanding, not dismissing and therefore closing off learning. To read critically is to exercise
your judgement about what you are reading – that is, not taking anything you read at face value.

What are LOGICAL FALLACIES?

‣ Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
‣ Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified
because they lack evidence that supports their claim.
‣ In general, a logical fallacy is a statement that seems to be true until you apply the rules of logic.
Then, you realize that it's not.
‣ Logical fallacies can often be used to mislead people – to trick them into believing something
they otherwise wouldn't.

Arguments and debates are an important part of college and academic discourse. But not every
argument is perfect. Some can be picked apart because they have errors in reasoning and rhetoric. These
are called "logical fallacies," and they're very common. You will hear logical fallacies in the classroom,
during televised debates, and in arguments with your friends. It can even be challenging to avoid using
them yourself. Let's examine the most common logical fallacies, so that you can recognize them and
know how to avoid them if you come across them in your working life.

15 Common Logical Fallacies

I. Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a person rather than his or her opinions or
arguments.
Example: Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies.
‣ In this example, the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested,
much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. Instead, the author attacks the characters of
the individuals in the group.
II. Straw Man: This move oversimplifies an opponent's viewpoint and then attacks that hollow
argument.
Example: People who don't support the proposed state minimum wage increase hate the poor.
‣ In this example, the author attributes the worst possible motive to an opponent's position. In
reality, however, the opposition probably has more complex and sympathetic arguments to
support their point. By not addressing those arguments, the author is not treating the
opposition with respect or refuting their position.
III. Appeal to ignorance is a logical fallacy in which someone argues either for or against something
because there is no contradicting evidence. In other words, it’s based on the mistaken
assumption that a lack of evidence is evidence.
Example: “No one has ever proven that UFOs haven't visited earth yet, so I believe that they have.”
‣ The claim that whatever has not been proven false must be true, and vice versa. This impatience
with ambiguity can be criticized in the phrase: absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.
IV. False dilemmas are usually characterized by “either this or that” language, but can also be
characterized by omissions of choices. Another variety is the false trilemma, which is when
three choices are presented when more exist.
Example: “Vote for me or live through four more years of higher taxes. America: Love it or leave it.”
 ‣ The false dilemma fallacy is a manipulative tool designed to polarize the audience, promoting
one side and demonizing another. It's common in political discourse as a way of strong-arming
the public into supporting controversial legislation or policies.
V. Slippery Slope Fallacy This implies that the end result of today's actions could be something
terrible.
This is a conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of
small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don't
want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to occur either.
Example: "If I give you a raise, then I have to give everyone a raise, and then the company will go
bankrupt.”
‣ In this example, the author is equating giving someone a raise with giving everyone a raise that
may cause bankruptcy, which is not totally the same thing.
VI. Circular Argument This restates the argument rather than actually proving it.
Example: George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively. This argument is circular
because it goes right back to the beginning.
VII. Hasty generalization is one example of a logical fallacy, wherein someone reaches a conclusion
that is not justified logically by objective or sufficient evidence.
Example: Dozens of poor families come to my grandfather for financial help. All poor people depend on
other people for their living.
‣ In this example, we don’t know exactly how many poor families approached the speaker’s
grandfather for financial help. The phrase “dozens of” tells us it’s a big number, but it’s still too
much of a stretch to describe every poor family as always being dependent on others.
VIII. Bandwagon Appeal: This is an appeal that presents what most people, or a group of people
think, in order to persuade one to think the same way. Getting on the bandwagon is one such
instance of an ad popular appeal.
Example: If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever
vehicle they want.
‣ In this example, the author equates being a "true American," a concept that people want to be
associated with, particularly in a time of war, with allowing people to buy any vehicle they want
even though there is no inherent connection between the two.
IX. Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing
arguments rather than addressing them.
Example: The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their
families?
In this example, the author switches the discussion away from the safety of the food and talks instead
about an economic issue, the livelihood of those catching fish. While one issue may affect the other it
does not mean we should ignore possible safety issues because of possible economic consequences to a
few individuals.
X. Tu Quoque occurs when one charges another with hypocrisy or inconsistency in order to avoid
taking the other's position seriously.
-Mother: You should stop smoking. It's harmful to your health.-Daughter: Why should I listen to you?
You started smoking when you were 16!-the daughter commits the tu queue fallacy.
‣ She dismisses her mother's argument because she believes her mother is speaking in a
hypocritical manner. While the mother may indeed be inconsistent, this does not invalidate her
argument."
XI. Causal Fallacy The fallacy of causation is an error in reasoning in which the order of events is
mistaken for causation.
Example: Every day, I eat cereal for breakfast. One time, I had a muffin instead, and there was a major
earthquake in my city. I've eaten cereal ever since.
‣ Explanation: the speaker seems to have the superstitious belief that the earthquake was his or
her fault, because it coincided with the odd occurrence of having eaten a muffin for breakfast,
despite there being no logical connection between these events
XII. Fallacy of Sunk Costs A sunk cost fallacy is when someone continues doing something because
of the effort they already put in it, regardless of whether the additional costs outweigh the
potential benefits. "Sunk cost" is an economic term for any past expenses that can no longer be
recovered.
For example: Imagine that after watching the first six episodes of a TV show, you decide the show isn't
for you. Those six episodes are your "sunk cost."
‣ A sunk cost fallacy would be deciding to finish watching anyway because you've already invested
roughly six hours of your life in it.
XIII. Appeal to authority is the misuse of an authority's opinion to support an argument. While an
authority's opinion can represent evidence and data, it becomes a fallacy if their expertise or
authority is overstated, illegitimate, or irrelevant to the topic.
For Example: "A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best way to start the day
because athlete Michael Jordan says that it is what he eats every day for breakfast.”
XIV. Equivocation happens when a word, phrase, or sentence is used deliberately to confuse,
deceive, or mislead. In other words, saying one thing but meaning another.
When it's poetic or comical, we call this a "play on words."
‣ But when it's done in a political speech, an ethics debate, or an economics report — and it's
designed to make the audience think you're saying something you're not — that's when it
becomes a fallacy.
XV. Appeal to pity relies on provoking your emotions to win an argument rather than factual
evidence. Appealing to pity attempts to pull on an audience's heartstrings, distract them, and
support their point of view.
Someone accused of a crime using a cane or walker to appear more free able in front of a jury is another
example of appeal to pity.
‣ The appearance of disability isn't an argument on the merits of the case, but it's intended to
sway the jury's opinion anyway.

Why is it important to distinguish fallacies and biases in an argument?

 One again, fallacies are mistakes of reasoning, as opposed to making mistakes that are of a
factual nature. In the same vein, biases are persistent and widespread psychological tendencies
that can be detrimental to objectivity and rationality. Being aware of them can help us avoid
their influence. We might also be in a better position to identify and explain other people's
mistakes. Moreover, Fallacies prevent the opportunity for an open, two-way exchange of ideas
that are required for meaningful conversations. Rather, these fallacies distract your readers with
an overload of rhetorical appeals instead of using thorough reasoning. You can use logical
fallacies in both written and verbal communication.
How can knowing about fallacies help you with reasoning and critical thinking?
 Common fallacies involve errors in reasoning. Studying fallacies also provides you with a
foundation for evaluating and critiquing other arguments, and provide an efficient way to
communicate criticisms of someone's reasoning. Learning how the different types of common
fallacies are defined and categorized also means you’re equipped with a convenient way to
critique and describe arguments. Moreover, the ability to discern a valid argument from a false
 one is an important skill. It's a key aspect of critical thinking, and it can help you to avoid falling
prey to fake news.

WEEK 4
A text meaning can be determined based partly on the context in which it was developed.

CONTEXT
There is always an inspiration behind the writing of a text. And often, it leaves clues about the situation
or the reality that serves as the backdrop of the text. This backdrop, the situation. This reality is known
as the context of the text.

Be guided by the following reminders:

1. First, if you're inviting nonfiction, just like academic texts, historical narratives argumentative
essays position papers, and more. You need to stick to the facts, portray reality as it is. To do so,
you must conduct extensive research using scholarly references.
2. Next, when using context, try to represent several perspectives, by citing different sources.
3. If you are writing fiction and aim to introduce your context into it, remember to not make the
team too long or too far from the human and word the reality.

TEXT DEVELOPMENT
There are several ways by which the text developed. The forms of essays, descriptive, narrative
expository and argumentative. Each form has its own way of developing the text, but here are the
essentials that you need to remember:

PURPOSE
• It must have an aim or an objective. You need to know the reason why you are writing the text,
and what you intend to achieve from your readers—to make them laugh, to convince them to
take action, to let them understand something, and to educate them, among others.
AUDIENCE
• Do not forget to know your target audience. Is it for the youth? Is it for adults? Is it for experts?
Is it for novices? Remember that you cannot always resonate to every single person in the
world; you need to focus on a target audience.
• Remember that you cannot always resume to every single person in the world. You need to
focus on a target audience. In this matter, you will be able to adjust the content, your use of
language and your style of presentation.
CONTENT AND MEANING
• Your words need to have substance. Apart from being considerate of your target audience.
What will make them read the word is its content and meaning

INTERTEXT
What is intertextuality?
 It is the interconnection between similar or related works of literature, in terms of language,
images, characters, themes, or subjects, depending on their similarities in language, genre or
discourse that reflects and influences, an audience interpretation of the text.
 Intertextuality, is the relation between texts that are inflicted by means of quotations and
allusion
HYPERTEXT
What is hypertext?
 It is simply a nonlinear way of presenting information rather than the traditional linear process
of reading from beginning to end
 Readers may follow their own path create their own order their own meaning out of the
materials that connect our topics on the screen to related information graphics, videos and
music.
 The information is not simply related to text

How to identify hypertext?

 This information appears as links, and is usually assessed by cleaning and shifting to different
web pages. In the matter of seconds and minutes, the reader can navigate around the internet,
and jump to more information about the topic, which ensures we have more links that open up
the reader to over the horizon of information, or to new directions.

Why are hypertext and intertext important in reading and writing?

• Hypertext is a reading environment that is based on the internet. It is important because it
allows people to shift to different texts as fast as the internet loading speeds allow. On the other
hand, in their personality is important because it helps people understand better by referring to
multiple texts to compare meaning.