Chapter 2: Elements of Grammar

1. Parts of a sentence
- Subject + Predicate
+ Subject: What is being discussed (the theme of a sentence)
+ Predicate: Something new about the subject
→ It is a general characteristic and not a defining feature
→ The S determines concord (the relationship between words which determines whether
they should be singular or plural… and what the form of the verbal group should be)
→ The S is the part of a sentence that changes its position as we go from statement to
question.
- Operator, auxiliary, and predication
Sentence = Subject + auxiliary as operator + predication
This division helps to understand:
+ How interrogative and negative sentences are formed.
+ How certain adjuncts are positioned
+ How certain types of emphasis are achieved.
- Range of operators
+ Verb expression with several auxiliaries: first auxiliary acts as operator.
+ Verb expression with no auxiliary in positive declarative sentence: “do” is used when
operator is required.
+ Verb be and have acting as operator whether it is an auxiliary or not.
- Sentence elements: S, V, C, O, A
+ S, O, A have internal constituents of sentence (= dependent clause)
+ O: - direct object (Od)
- indirect object (Oi)
+ C: - subject complement (Cs)
- object complement (Co)
2. Categories of Verb
- Types of verb corresponding closely to the different types of O and C:
+ Intensive V: V + Cs
+ extensive V: - intransitive (no O, C)
- transitive (with O): - monotransitive (Od)
- ditransitive (Od and Oi)
- complex transitive (O and Co)
- Types of verb corresponding to aspectual contrast of “progressive” and “non-
progressive”
+ Stative (non-progressive)
+ Dynamic (progressive)
3. Categories of Adverbial
+ Time
+ Place
+ Process (progressive aspect)
4. Types of sentence struture (see diagram and examples in 2.10 )
 5. Element realization types
+ Verb element: (always a verb phrase):
 Finite: showing tense, mood, aspect, voice
 Non-finite: showing aspect, voice only
+ S: realised by:
 noun phrase (simplest form: pronoun)
 a clause
+ Cs, Od, Co: realised by same range of structures as S
+ Cs, Co: also realised by adjective phrases
+ Oi realised chiefly by noun phrases and not realised by “that” clauses
+ A: realised by adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, clauses (finite/ non-
finite)
6. Parts of speech
+ Open-class items
 Noun
 Adjective
 Adverb
 Verb
+ Closed-system items
 Article
 Demonstrative
 Pronoun
 Preposition
 Conjunction
 Interjection
+ Stative and dynamic
STATIVE noun ↔ adjective
↕ ↕
DYNAMIC verb ↔ adverb
Notes: Exceptions within the class of verbs: stative Vs
Exceptions in the other directions within the class of nouns and adjectives.
7. Pro-forms
 ‘one’ replaces a noun in a noun phrase
 Pronouns replace noun phrases
 Proforms for place, time, and other adverbials: there, then, so
 ‘so’ replaces – along with the pro-verb ‘do’ – a predication
 The pro-predication is achieved by the operator alone
8. Questions and negation
+ Wh-questions
Pro-form = we know what this item refers to, so I need not state it in full
‘wh’forms = It has not been known what this item refers to and so it needs to be stated
in full
 + Negation and non-assertion
Sentence: - assertion:– possitive and declarative
- non-assertion: - interrogative: - positive
- negative
- negative

Chapter 3: Verbs and Verb Phrase

1. Types of verb
- Lexical
- Auxiliary: - Primary (do, have, be)
- Modal (can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would,
must, ought to, used to, need, dare)
2. Verbal forms and the verb phrase
- 5 forms: base, -s form, past, -ing participle, -ed participle.
(see the table in 3.2)
3. The morphology of lexical verbs
 Regular lexical verbs
+V BASE
+ V-ing -ING PARTICIPLE
+ V-s -s FORM
+ V-ed PAST/-ED PARTICIPLE
- The -ing and -s forms
- The past and the -ed participle
 Further inflectional spelling rules
- Doubling of consonant
- Treatment of -y
- Deletion of -e
 Irregular lexical verbs (7 classes)
 The auxiliaries do, have, be
 The modal auxiliaries
4. Finite and non-finite verb phrases
- finite verb phrases have tense distinction
- finite verb phrases occur as the verb element of a clause. There is person
and number concord between the S and the finite verb
- finite verb phrases have mood
- the non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive, the –ing participle, and
the –ed participle. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one or more such
items.
5. Order in the complex verb phrase
a. MODAL
b. PERFECTIVE
c. PROGRESSIVE
 d. PASSIVE
6. Contrasts expressed in the verb phrase
a. Voice, involves the active-passive relations (this is dealt with in 7.5 and 12.14-32)
b. Questions requiring subject movement involve the use of an auxiliary as operator.
(this topic is dealt with in 7.44-57)
c. Negation makes analogous use of operators (this is dealt with in 7.33-42)
d. Emphasis, which is frequently carried by the operators is treated in 14.35
e. Imperatives are discussed in 7.58-62
7. Tense, aspect and mood
a. Tense and aspect
+ The present and past tenses in relation to the progressive and perfective aspects

Simple Complex
progressive
Present Write am writing present
was writing past
perfective
have writen present perfect
Past Wrote had writen past perfect
perfective progressive
have been writing present perfect
had been writing past perfect
+ The future
b. Mood
+ The subjunctive mood: 3 categories of subjunctive:
 The mandative subjunctive in that-clause has only one form, the base (V).
→ can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when the main verb contains
an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on
→ occurs chiefly in formal style (in less formal contexts should or to-infinitive is
used)
 The formulaic subjunctive: consists of the base (V) but is only used in
clauses in certain expressions which have to be learnt as whole,
 The subjunctive were: hypothetical in meaning; used in conditional and
concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after optative verbs like wish
+ Modal past
+ The uses of the modal auxiliaries: (see 3.48-53)
+ The modal and aspect
When the modal expresses ‘ability’ or ‘permission’ and when shall or will express
‘volition’ → the perfective and progressive aspects are excluded but are used with other
modal meanings (possibility, necessity, prediction).
Chapter 4: Nouns, Pronouns, and the Basic Noun Phrase
1. The concept of the basic noun phrase:
Nouns with articles or other closed-system items that can occur before the noun
head, such as predeterminers like all
2. Proper nouns and common nouns
3. Types of N:
- non-count N
- singular (count) N
- plural (count) N
4. Determiners
A determiner is a word used before a noun to select which instance of the N you are
talking about or to identify it.
With respect to their co-occurrence with the noun classes, there are 6 classes of
determiners:
a. Co-occurring with 3 classes:
‘the’, ‘possessive: my, our…’, ‘whose’, ‘which’, ‘what’, ‘some’, ‘any’ (stressed), ‘no’
b. with plural and non-coun N:
zero article, ‘some’, ‘any’ (unstressed), enough
c. with singular and non-count N:
‘this’, ‘that’ (demonstrative)
d. with plural N: ‘these’, ‘those’
e. with singular N:
‘a(n)’, ‘every’, ‘each’, ‘either’, ‘neither’
f. with non-count N: ‘much’
5. Predeterminers:
a. all, both, half
- singular N: half, all
- plural N: half, all, both
- non-count N: half, all
 Can occur only before articles or demonstratives but since they are
quantifiers, they do not occur with such quantitative determiners as
‘every’, ‘(n)either’, ‘each’, ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘no’, ‘enough’
 Have ‘of’ constructions, which are optional with Ns and obligatory with
personal pronouns
 Can be used pronominally.
 ‘all’ and ‘both’ can occur after the head, either immediately or within the
predication
 ‘both’, ‘either’, ‘neither’ refer to 2 (both is emphatic compared with 2)
 ‘all’ is rare with singular concrete Ns though less rare with contrastive stress
 Before certain singular temporal Ns, esp in adjunct phrases, ‘all’ is used with
zero article
  There is also an adverbial ‘half’ which occurs in familiar emphatic negation
and can precede ‘enough’
b. ‘double’, ‘twice’, ‘three/four… times’
Occur with non-count and plural Ns, and with singular Ns denoting number, amount,
etc…
Three, four, … times and once + a, every, each, per (less commonly) to form
‘distributive’ expressions with a temporal N as head
Fractions (1/3, 2/5 …) can occur with all types of N and have ‘of’ construction.
6. Postdeterminers
+ Numerals: - cardinal numbers
- ordinal numbers
+ Ordinals usually precede cardinal numbers
+ General ordinals (next, last …) may be used freely before or after cardinals according
to the meaning required.
7. Quantifiers
+ with plural count Ns: ‘many’, ‘(a) few’, ‘several’
+ with non-count Ns: ‘much’, ‘(a) little’
+ Phrasal quantifiers
- ‘plenty of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘lots of’ + plural and non-count Ns
- ‘a great deal/good deal of’, ‘a large/small quantity/amount of’ + non-count
Ns
- a great/large/good number of + plural Ns
+ Phrasal quantifiers provide a means of imposing countability on non-count Ns:
a. general partitives

two pieces news

a bit info
of
an item furniture

b. typical partitives

a slice cake
a roast meat
a few loaves of bread
a boul soup
a bottle wine
c. measures

a pint beer
a spoonful of medicine
a pound butter

8. Reference and the articles

 + Reference: - specific
- generic
+ Article: - definite
- indefinite
+ Systems of article usage: two difference systems of article use depending on the
type of reference:
Definite Indefinite
Specific the tiger the ink a tiger some ink
the tigers some tigers
Generic the tiger ink
a tiger
tigers
→ with definite specific reference, the definite article is used for all noun classes.
→ with indefinite specific reference, singular count nouns take the indefinite article
a(n), while non-count and plural count nouns take zero article or unstressed some (any
in non-assertive contexts)
+ Generic reference
- Nationality words and adjectives as head: 2 kinds of adj acting as noun phrase
head with generic reference:
a. plural personal
b. singular non-personal abstract
(See 4.18)
- Non-count and plural count nouns:
→ Used with zero article when having generic reference
→ Postmodification by an ‘of’ phrase requires the definite article with head noun,
which thus has limited generic (partitive) reference.
→ where the reference of head noun is restricted by premodification, zere article is
used.
→ The zero article is also used with other plural nouns that are not unambiguously
generic.
+ Specific referemce
- Definite and indefinite
- Common nouns with zero article
- Article usage with common Ns in intensive relation
+ Unique reference
- Proper Ns: main classes of proper Ns:
 Personal names
 Calendar items (festivals, months and days of the week)
 Geographical names (continents, countries, counties, states, cities, towns,
lakes, mountains …)
 Name + common Ns
9. Number
 + Invariable and variable Ns (see 4.31, Figure 4:1 Number classes)
10. Gender (see 4.58, Figure 4:2 Gender classes)
11. Case
12. Pronouns:
+ features
a. They do not admit determiners
b. They often have an objective case
c. They often have person distinction
d. They often have overt gender contrast
e. Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related
We can broadly distinguish items with specific reference with those with more
indefinite reference (see Figure 4:3 Pronouns and see 4.83-97)
+ Case (subjective, objective, genitive)
+ Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
+ Gender (masculine, feminine, non-personal)
+ Number (singular, plural)
Chapter 5: Adjectives and Adverbs
1. Characteristics of Adjectives
- can be both attributive and predicative
- is attributive only
- is predicative only
- can be premodified by the intensifiier ‘very’
- can take comparative and superlative forms (by means of inflection or by
the addition of the premodifiers ‘more and most’).
2. Adjective phrase: = phrase with an adjective as head
3. Syntactic functions of adjectives
+ Attributive and predicative (major syntactic functions)
- attributive when premodifying nouns (ie appearing between the determiner
and the head of the noun phrase)
- predicative adjectives can be Cs, Co
+ Postpositive (ie they can sometimes follow the iten they modify → regarded as a
reduced relative clause)
- Indefinite pronouns ending in -body, -one, -thing, -where, can be modified
only postpositively.
- Postposition is obligatory for a few adjectives, which have a different sense
when they occur attributively or predicatively
- In several compounds (mostly legal and quasilegal), the adjective is
postposed
- Postposition (in preference to attributive position) is usually for a few a-
adjectives and for ‘absent’, ‘present’, and ‘concerned’, ‘involved’, which
normally do not occur in the relevant sense
 - Some postposed adjectives (esp those ending in ‘able’, ‘ible’) retain basic
meaning in attribute position but convey the implication that what they are
denoting has only a temporary application.
- Postposition is normally not allowed if an adj is alone or premodified by an
intensifier but if the NP is generic and indefinite, coordinated adj or adj
with a clause element added can be postposed, though such constructions
are not frequent.
- Adj with complementation is postpositive but it’s usual to prepose the adj
and postpose the complementation
- If adj is modified by ‘enough’, ‘too’, ‘so’, the modified adj normally cannot
be seperated from its complementation.
+ Head of a noun phrase
- Adj can function as heads of NP → do not reflect for number or the
genitive case; must take a definite determiner; have personal reference;
have generic and plural reference.
- Adj denoting nationalities can be NP heads
- Some adj can function as NP heads when they have abstract reference →
take singular concord; a few are modifiable by adverbs (superlatives).
+ Verbless adjective clause
- Adj can function as a verbless clause → the implied subject is usually the
subject of the sentence
- If the clause contains additional clause constituents, its implied S can be
other than the S of the sentence.
- The implied S of the adj can be the whole of the superordinate clause
- An adverb may replace (with little difference in meaning) an adj
functioning as a verbless clause.
+ Exclamatory adjective sentence
An adj or an adj as head of an adj phrase can be an exclamation
4. Syntactic subclassification of adjectives
a. Attributive only
- Adj that characterize the referent of the noun directly are termed ‘inherent’;
those that do not are termed ‘non-inherent’
- Some non-inherent adj can occur predicatively
+ Intensifying adjectives: (= adj having a hightening or lowering effect on the noun they
modify
emphasizers and amplifiers
two types: emphasizers (having a general hightening effect)
amplifiers (scaling upwards from an assumed norm, denoting the
upper extreme of the scale or a high point on the scale)
+ Limiter adjectives (= adj particularizing the reference of the noun)
+ Adj related to adverbials
- Other adj that are attributive only can be related to adverbials
 - If the adj premodify agentive nouns, the latter suggests a relationship to the
verb base
- Some of these adj have a temporal meaning
+ Denominal adjectives
- some adj derived from nouns are attributive only
b. Predicative only
- most like verbs and adverbs → tend to refer to a conditon rather than to
characterize (most common are those refering to health or lack of health)
- A large group comprises adj that can or must take complementation; many
closely resemble verbs semantically.
5. Semantic sub-classification of adjectives
a. Stative / dynamic
- Adj are characteristically stative, but many- Adj are characteristically
stative, but many can be seen as dynamic (adj that are susceptible to
subjective measurement; adj that can be used with the progressive aspect or
with the imperatives)
b. Gradable / non-gradable
- Most adj are gradable (can be modified by adverbs which convey the
degree of intensity of the adj)
- Gradability includes comparison and other forms of intensification.
- All dynamic adj are gradable
c. Inherent / non-inherent
Most adj are inherent.
6. Semantic sets and adjectival order
Semantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual order of adjectives and
for their co-occurrence
a. intensifying adj
b. postdeterminers, and limiter adj
c. general adjectives susceptible to subjective measure
d. general adjectives susceptible to objective measure, including those
denoting size or shape
e. Adj denoting age
f. Adj denoting colour
g. Denominal adj denoting material, and denoting resemblance to a material
h. Denomial adj denoting provenance or style
7. Characteristics of the adverb
- most common characteristic: morphological (having suffix -y)
- Two types of syntatic function that characterize adverbs, but an adverb
need have only one of those: adverbial and modifier of adjective and adverb
8. Adverb as adverbial
- An adv may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from S, V, O, C
- Three classes of adverbials (adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts) are discussed in
Chapter 8
 9. Adverb as modifier
a. Modifier of adjective
- An adv may modify an adj
- Most commonly, the modifying adv is an intensifier
- Adv as premodifier of adj may also be ‘viewpoint’
b. Modifier of adverb
- An adv may premodify another adv, and function as intensifier
c. Modifier of prepositional phrase
- The few adv that premodify particles in phrasal verbs also premodify
prepositions or prepositional phrases
d. Modifier of determiner, predeterminer, postdeterminer
- Intensifying adv can premodify indefinite pronouns, predeterminers, and
cardinal numerals
e. Modifier of noun phrase
- A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases
10. Adverb as prepositional complement (see the diagram in 5.30)
11. Comparison and intensification
a) 3 degree of comparison
b) Basis of comparison
c) Gradability
d) Unmarked term in ‘how’ questions and measure phrases
e) Inflection of adj for comparison
f) Inflection of adv for comparison
g) Modification of comparatives and superlatives
12. Correspondence between Adj and Adv
13. The Adj and other word-classes
a) Adj and Adv
b) Adj and N
c) Adj and participle
14. The Adv and other word-classes
a) Conjunct and conjunction
b) Reaction signal and initiator
Chapter 6: Preposition and Prepositional Phrases
1. Prepositional Phrase: consisting of a preposition followed by a prepositional
complement (a NP or a wh-clause or V-ing clause)
2. Postposed prep.
3. Simple and complex prep
4. Prep and prepositional adverbs
5. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases: may function as
a) Adjunct
b) Disjunct
c) Conjunct
d) Postmodifier in a NP
 e) Complementation of a verb
f) Complementation of an adj
6. Prepositional meanings: Place
a) Dimension
b) Positive position and direction
c) Negative position and direction
d) Relative position
e) Relative destination
f) Passage
g) Direction
h) Orientation
i) Resultative meaning
j) Pervasive meaning
k) Seven senses of over
l) Verbs containing prepositional meaning
m) Metaphorical or abstract use of place prep.
7. Time
8. Prepositional phrase chiefly as adjunct
9. Prepositional phrase chiefly as postmodifier
10. Prepositional phrase chiefly as disjunct or conjunct
11. Prepositional phrase chiefly as complementation of verb or adjective
12. Modification of prepositional phrases
Chapter 7: The Simple Sentence
1. Clause pattern
a. Simple vs complex sentences
b. Clause types: SVA, SVC, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, SVOO, SV.
(1) S + V(intens) + A place
eg: She is at home
(2) S + V(intens) + Cs
eg: She is beautiful
(3) S + V(monotrans) + Od
eg: She loves him
(4) S + V(complex trans) + Od + A place
eg: She took her son to school
(5) S + V(complex trans) + Od + Co
eg: She made us happy
(6) S + V(ditrans) + Oi + Od
eg: She gave me some money
(7) S + V(intrans)
eg: She smiled

c. Transformational relations
 One way of distinguishing various types is by meas of transformational relations
or relations of grammatical paraphrase.
- SVOd ↔ SVA
- SVOdCo ↔ SVCsA
- SVOdA ↔ SVAA
- SVOO ↔ SVOA
- SV ↔ SVC
- SV ↔ SCA
- SVC ↔ SVA
English prefers to avoid the plain SV pattern where alternatives are available
d. Intensive relationship
e. Multiple class membership of verbs
One V can belong to a number of different classes → can enter into a number of
different clause types
f. Clause elements syntatictically defined
- A subject
+ is normally a NP or a clause with nominal function
+ occurs before the VP in declarative clause; immediately after the operator
in questions
+ has number and person concord, where applicable, with the VP
- An object (direct and indirect)
+ like an S, is a NP or clause with nominal function
+ normally follows the S and the VP
+ by the passive transformation, assumes the status of S
+ An Oi precedes the Od, and is semantically equivalent to a prep phrase
- A complement (S or O)
+ is a NP, an Adj phrase, or a clause with nominally function, having a co-
referential relation with the S (or O)
+ follows the S, VP, and O
- An adverbial
+ is an adverb phrase, advertial clause, NP, or prep. Phrase
+ is generally mobile
+ is generally optional.
g. Clause elements semantically considered
+ Agentive, affected, receipient, attribute

+ Agentive and instrumental S

+ Receipient S
+ Locative, temporal and eventive S
+ Empty ‘it’ S
+ Locative and effected O
+ Affected indirect O
2. Concord
 a) S – V concord
- most important type
- a clause/ a prepositional phrase … as S → singular
- notional concord, and proximity:
+ ‘Notional concord’ is agreement of V with S according to the idea of
number
+ the principle of ‘proximity’ denotes agreement of V with whatever N or
pronoun closely precedes it.
- collective Ns: notionally plural but grammatically singular
+ in BrE: plural
+ in AE: singular
+ if the group is being considered as a single undivided body → singular; if
as a collection of individuals → plural
- coordinated S (S consists of 2 or more NP): distinction has to be made
between appositional and non-appositional coordination
+ non-appositional: (implied reduction of 2 clauses) → plural
+ appositional coordination → singular
- indefinite expressions of amount
b) Concord of person
c) Other types of concord
- S – C concord
- S – O concord
- Pronoun concord
3. The vocative:
- nominal element added to a sentence or clause optionally, denoting the one
or more people to whom it is addressed, and signalling the fact that it is
addressed to them.
- In form, a vocative may be:
(1) a single name with or without a title
(2) the personal pronoun or an indefinite pronoun
(3) standard appellatives, usually N without pre or postmodification: family
relationships, endearment, titles or respect, markers of profession or status
(4) a nominal clause
(5) items under (1), (2), (3) above with the addition of modifiers or
appositive elements of various kinds
4. Negation
- the negation of a simple sentence is accomplished by inserting ‘not’, ‘n’t’
between the operator and the predication
- Abbreviated negation
- non-assertive forms
- negative intensification
- alternative negative elements
- more than one non-assertive form
 - scope of negation
- focus of negation
- negation of auxiliaries
5. Statements, questions, commands, exclamations
Simple sentences may be divided into 4 major syntatic classes, whose use
correlates with different communicative functions:
a) Statements: S is always present and precedes the V
b) Questions: marked by one or more of these 3 criteria:
- the placing of the operator immediately in front of S
- the initial positioning of an interrogative or wh-element
- rising intonation
c) Commands: have no overt grammatical S, and whose V is in imperative
d) Exclamations: have an initial phrase introduced by ‘what’ or ‘how’, without
inversion of S and operator
Notes: 4 adjs can be used for these types: Declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives,
exclamatory.
6. Questions
3 classes of questions: Yes-no questions, Wh-questions, Alternative questions
a) Yes-no questions
- positive orientation
- negative orientation
- tag questions
- declarative questions
- yes-no questions with modal auxiliaries
b) Wh-questions
c) Alternative questions
d) Minor types of questions
7. Commands
a) commands without an S
b) commands with an S
c) commands with ‘let’
d) negative commands
e) persuasive imperatives
8. Exclamations
9. Formulae
10. Aphoristic sentences
11. Block language
Chapter 8: Adjunts, Disjuncts, Conjuncts
1. Units realizing adverbial functions
a) Adverb phrases
b) Noun phrases (less common)
c) Prepositional phrases
d) Finite verb clauses
e) Non-finite verb clauses (-ing participle, -ed participle, infinitive)
f) Verbless clauses
2. Classes of adverbials: Adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts
- If intergrated into the structure of the clause → they are termed adjuncts
- If peripheral to it → they are termed disjuncts and conjuncts
- Conjuncts have a connective functions
- Some items can belong to more than one class
3. Definition of positional terms
a) Initial position (before S)
b) Medial position: M1 (before 1st auxiliary or lexical ‘be’, or between 2
auxiliaries or an auxiliary and lexical ‘be’); M2 (before the lexical V, or in
the case of lexical “be”)
c) Final position (after an intransitive V or after any O or C)
4. Adjuncts
a) Syntatic features of adjuncts
- can come with the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis.
- Can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as ‘only’
- Can be focus of additive adverbials such as ‘also’
- Can be the focus of a cleft sentence
b) Adverb phrases as adjuncts
- can often constitute a comparative construction
- can have premodifying ‘however’ to form the opening of a dependent
adverbial clause
- can have premodifying ‘how’, a proform for intensifiers in questions or
exclamations
- can have premodifying ‘so’ followed by S-operator inversion and a
correlative clause
c) Subclassification of Adjuncts (see figure 8 in 8.6)
d) Relative positions of adjuncts
- where adjuncts cluster in final position, the normal order is:
process – place – time

- 3 other general principles apply to relative order whether within a class or

between classes:
+ the order can be changed to suit the desire for end-focus
+ A clause normally comes after other structure
+ longer adjuncts tend to follow shorter adjuncts
5. Disjuncts
- most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses
- can be divided into 2 main classes: style and attitudinal disjuncts
- style disjuncts: the adverb phrase as style disjunct implies a verb of
speaking of which the S is the ‘I’ of the speaker; normally appears initially
 -attitudinal disjuncts: convey the speaker’s comment on the content of what
he is saying: can generally appear only in declarative clauses
6. Conjuncts
- most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases
- classes of conjuncts:
a) enumerative (see 10.10)
b) reinforcing (10.11)
c) equative (10.11)
d) transitional (10.13)
e) summative (10.14)
f) apposition (10.15)
g) result (10.16)
h) inferential (10.17)
i) reformulatory (10.18)
j) replacive (10.19)
k) antithetic (10.20)
l) concessive (10.21)
m) temporal transition (10.5)
- positions of conjuncts
+ the normal position of conjuncts is initial
+ medial positions are rare, and final positions rarer
- conjuncts as correlatives
- conjunctions for clauses with conjuncts
-
Chapter 11: The Complex Sentence
1. Coordination and subordination
- independent vs dependent clause
- dependent clause may be classified either by structure or function
2. Structural classification of dependent clauses
a) finite, non-finite and verbless clauses
- finite clause: a clause whose V element is a finite verb phrase
- non-finite clause: a clause whose V element is a non-finite verb phrase
- verbless clause: a clause containing no V element (but otherwise generally
analysable in terms of one or more clause elements)
- All clauses (finite, non-finite, or verbless) may themselves have subordinate
clauses which are finite, non-finite, or verbless
b) Finite and non-finite clauses
- the finite clause clauses always contains a S as well as a predicate (except in case
of commands and ellipsis)
- non-finite can be constructed without a S, and usually are.
- 4 classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish 4 classes of non-finite
clause:
+ infinitive with ‘to’: with S vs without S
 + infinitive without ‘to’: with S vs without S
+ ing participle: with S vs without S
+ ed participle: with S vs without S
- Structural deficiencies of non-finite clauses
c) Verbless clauses
- we can usually infer ellipsis of the verb ‘be’
- verbless clauses can also be treated as reductions of non-finite clauses
d) Formal indicators of subordination
- Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions): most important formal indicators of
subordination.
- Simple vs compound subordinators
- Borderline subordinators
- Other indivators of subordination
+ ‘wh’ elements
+ S-operator inversion
+ 2 types of subordinating clause that contain on marker within themselves of
subordinate status: Nominal clauses which may or may not have ‘that’ and comment
clauses.
3. Functional classification of dependent clauses
- may function as S, O, C, A → every Nominal clause may occur in some or all of
these roles
4. Nominal clauses
a) That-clause
- can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, adjectival complement
- cannot occur as prepositional complement or as Co
- ‘that’ is omitted in informal use, leaving a ‘zero’ that-clause when it is O or C.
b) Wh-interrogative clauses
- can occur in the whole range of functions to the that-clause and can act as
prepositional complement
- an infinitive wh-clause can be formed with all wh-words except ‘why’
c) Yes-no interrogative clauses
- formed with ‘if’ or ‘whether’
- the dependent alternative question has if/whether … or
- only ‘whether’ can be directly followed by ‘or not’
- a clause beginning with whether cannot be made negative, except as the second
part of an alternative question
- ‘if’ cannot introduce a subject clause
d) Nominal relative clauses
- can be S, Od, Oi, Cs, Co, appositive, C prep,
- closer to NP status than other nomina clauses → can be paraphrased by a NP
containing a postmodifying relative clause
e) To-infinitive nominal clauses
- can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cprep
 - the S of a to-infinitive clause is normally preceded by ‘for’
- when the clause is an Od, ‘for’ is omitted
f) Nominal ing-clauses (participle clause)
- can be S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cprep, Cadj
g) Bare infinitive and verbless clauses
- The ‘to’ of the infinitive is optionally omitted in a clause which supplies a
predication corresponding to a use of the pro-verb ‘do’
- When the infinitive is initial → ‘to’ has to be omitted
5. Adverbial clauses
a) Clauses of time
b) Clauses of place
c) Clauses of condition and concession
- Clauses of condition
Real vs unreal condition
- Clauses of concession
- Alternative conditional-concessive clauses
- Universal conditional-concessive clauses
d) Clauses of reason or cause
e) Clauses of circumstance
f) Clauses of purpose
g) Clauses of result
h) Clauses of maner and comparison
i) Clauses of proportion and preference
j) Non-finite and verbless clauses
6. Comparative sentences
7. Comment clauses
8. The verb phrase in dependent clauses
a) the present tense with subordinators
b) the modal past
c) perfect aspect with ‘since’, e
d) present subjunctive in conditional clauses
e) putative ‘should’
9. Direct and indirect speech
a) Back-shift and other changes
b) Exception to the distancing rules
c) Indirect statements, questions, exclamations and commands
d) The modal auxiliaries and indirect speech
e) Free indirect speech
f) Transferred negation

Chapter 11: The Complex Sentence

10. Coordination and subordination
- independent vs dependent clause
- dependent clause may be classified either by structure or function
11. Structural classification of dependent clauses
e) finite, non-finite and verbless clauses
- finite clause: a clause whose V element is a finite verb phrase
- non-finite clause: a clause whose V element is a non-finite verb phrase
- verbless clause: a clause containing no V element (but otherwise generally
analysable in terms of one or more clause elements)
- All clauses (finite, non-finite, or verbless) may themselves have subordinate
clauses which are finite, non-finite, or verbless
f) Finite and non-finite clauses
- the finite clause clauses always contains a S as well as a predicate (except in case
of commands and ellipsis)
- non-finite can be constructed without a S, and usually are.
- 4 classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish 4 classes of non-finite
clause:
+ infinitive with ‘to’: with S vs without S
+ infinitive without ‘to’: with S vs without S
+ ing participle: with S vs without S
+ ed participle: with S vs without S
- Structural deficiencies of non-finite clauses
g) Verbless clauses
- we can usually infer ellipsis of the verb ‘be’
- verbless clauses can also be treated as reductions of non-finite clauses
h) Formal indicators of subordination
- Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions): most important formal indicators of
subordination.
- Simple vs compound subordinators
- Borderline subordinators
- Other indivators of subordination
+ ‘wh’ elements
+ S-operator inversion
+ 2 types of subordinating clause that contain on marker within themselves of
subordinate status: Nominal clauses which may or may not have ‘that’ and comment
clauses.
12. Functional classification of dependent clauses
- may function as S, O, C, A→ every Nominal clause may occur in some or all of
these roles
13. Nominal clauses
h) That-clause
- can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, adjectival complement
- cannot occur as prepositional complement or as Co
- ‘that’ is omitted in informal use, leaving a ‘zero’ that-clause when it is O or C.
i) Wh-interrogative clauses
- can occur in the whole range of functions to the that-clause and can act as
prepositional complement
- an infinitive wh-clause can be formed with all wh-words except ‘why’
j) Yes-no interrogative clauses
- formed with ‘if’ or ‘whether’
- the dependent alternative question has if/whether … or
- only ‘whether’ can be directly followed by ‘or not’
- a clause beginning with whether cannot be made negative, except as the second
part of an alternative question
- ‘if’ cannot introduce a subject clause
k) Nominal relative clauses
- can be S, Od, Oi, Cs, Co, appositive, C prep,
- closer to NP status than other nomina clauses → can be paraphrased by a NP
containing a postmodifying relative clause
l) To-infinitive nominal clauses
- can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cprep
- the S of a to-infinitive clause is normally preceded by ‘for’
- when the clause is an Od, ‘for’ is omitted
m) Nominal ing-clauses (participle clause)
- can be S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cprep, Cadj
n) Bare infinitive and verbless clauses
- The ‘to’ of the infinitive is optionally omitted in a clause which supplies a
predication corresponding to a use of the pro-verb ‘do’
- When the infinitive is initial → ‘to’ has to be omitted
14. Adverbial clauses
k) Clauses of time
l) Clauses of place
m) Clauses of condition and concession
- Clauses of condition
Real vs unreal condition
- Clauses of concession
- Alternative conditional-concessive clauses
- Universal conditional-concessive clauses
n) Clauses of reason or cause
o) Clauses of circumstance
p) Clauses of purpose
q) Clauses of result
r) Clauses of maner and comparison
s) Clauses of proportion and preference
t) Non-finite and verbless clauses
15. Comparative sentences
16. Comment clauses
17. The verb phrase in dependent clauses
 f) the present tense with subordinators
g) the modal past
h) perfect aspect with ‘since’, e
i) present subjunctive in conditional clauses
j) putative ‘should’
18. Direct and indirect speech
a) Back-shift and other changes
b) Exception to the distancing rules
c) Indirect statements, questions, exclamations and commands
d) The modal auxiliaries and indirect speech
e) Free indirect speech
f) Transferred negation

Chapter 12: The Verb and its complementation

1. Intransitive phrasal Vs (without Od)
- consisting of a V and a particle
2. Transitive phrasal Vs (with Od)
- Particles can either precede or follow the Od (but personal pronoun cannot precede)
3. Prepositional Vs (V + prep)
- Prep. must precede its complement but allows an inserted adv after the V and a
relative pronoun after the prep.
4. Phrasal-prepositional V (V + 2 particles)
5. Intransitive V
Some Vs are always intransitive (never take an Od)
6. Intensive complementation
a) Copulas
- When a Cs is present → there is intensive complement of the V → the V is a
copula or linking V
- Most popular copula: ‘be’
- Current copulas vs Resulting copulas
b) N and adj phrases as Cs
- ‘be’ – current attribute
- ‘become’ – resulting attribute
c) Predicative adjuncts
- only ‘be’ allows an adverbial as compl. (termed predicative adjuncts); mainly
place adjuncts
- with eventive S, time adjuncts are also common
- other types of predicatve adjuncts: recipient, purpose, cause, means.
d) Complementation of adj phrase as Cs
- Adjcompl. by prep. Phrase
- Adjcompl. by finite clause
- Adjcompl. by ‘to’ infinitive clause
7. Transitive complementation
 a) Noun Phrases (NP) as Od
- Od are typically NP
- Od of an active sentence = S of a passive sent. with S of the active sent. as the
prepositional complementation in ‘by’ phrase (optional)
- ‘by’ phrase is usually obmitted because it is irrelevant or unknown or redundant
in the context.
- when there are reflexive, reciprocal or possessive pronouns in the NP as O → no
passive transformation.
b) Finite clauses as Od
c) Non-finite clauses as Od (see 12.18)
8. Complex transitive complementation
a) Non-finite and verbless clauses with S
b) ‘to’ infinite clauses with S
(factual vs non-factual Vs)
c) Bare infinite clauses with S
d) ‘ing’ participle clauses with S
e) ‘ed’ participle clauses with S
f) Verbless clause with S
9. Ditransitive complementation
a) NP as both Oi and Od
b) Ditransitive prepositional Vs
c) Idiomatic expressions consisting of V + NP + Prep.
d) NP as Oi + finite clause as Od
e) NP as Oi + non-finite as Od

Chapter 13: The Complex Noun Phrase

1. Three components of NP:
- Premodification
- Head
- Postmodification
2. Restrictive vs non-restrictive modification
3. Permanent vs temporary modification
4. Postmodification
a) Explicitness
b) Case in the relative pronoun
- used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun in its clause
- If the pronoun is in a genitive relation → whose is used
- Relative pronoun can show the distinction between ‘who’ and ‘whom’ depending
on its role (S, O or Prep. complement)
c) Relative pronoun and adverbial
- Can be replaced by special adjunct forms for place (where), time (when), cause
(why)
- If ‘how’ is used, an antecedent N can’t be used
 d) Restrictive relative clauses
- Choice of relative pronoun: general pronoun ‘that’ → independent of the personal
or non-personal character of the antecedent and of the function of the pronoun in
the relative clause.
- Quantified heads: the head is made quantitatively indefinite with the predeterminer
‘such’ → ‘as’ is used instead of the relative pronoun ‘that’
e) Non-restrictive relative clauses
Only ‘wh’ items are used
f) Sentential relative clauses
The antecedent is not a noun phrase but a whole clause or sentence or
sequence of sentences.
g) Appositive clauses
5. Postmodification by non-finite clauses
a) ‘ing’ participle clauses
b) ‘ed’ participle clauses
c) infinitive clauses
d) non-restrictive postmodification (can be achieved with non-finite
clauses)
e) appositive postmodification (common by means of infinitive clauses)
6. Postmodification by prepositional phrases
a) Relation to more explicit modifiers
b) The of-genitive
c) Restrictive vs non-restrictive
d) Position and varied relationship
e) Deverbal noun heads
7. Minor types of postmodificaiton
a) adverbial modification
b) the postposed adjective
c) the postposed ‘mode’ qualifier
8. Multiple modification
- A head may have more than one postmodification
- A modification may be applicable to more than on head
- The head of a modifying phrase may itself be modified
9. Ambiguity and constraints on multiple modification
10. Premodification
Types of premodifying item: adj, participle, -s genitive, N, adverbial,
sentence.
a) Premodification by adjectives
b) Premodification by participles:
- ing participles
- ed participles
c) Premodification by genitives
d) Premodification by nouns
 e) Multiple premodification
- with single head
- with multiple head
- with modified modifier
- other complexities in premodification
f) Relative sequence of premodifiers
- Denominal and nominal
- Classes of adj (see Figure 13 in 13.41)
g) Discontinuous modification