English Reading Comprehension Course

Master’s in Political Philosophy and Argumentation

Pereira
Javier Vanegas S.

September, 2021

1
Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira
Instituto de Lenguas Extranjeras—ILEX
Curso: Comprensión de Lectura en Lengua Inglesa
Duración: 30 horas

Sesiones Día de la sesión Hora de sesión Tiempo sesión

Primera Viernes 3 de Septiembre 6 - 10 pm 4 hs
Segunda Sábado 4 de Septiembre 8 am -12 m 4 hs
Tercera Viernes 10 de Septiembre 6 - 10 pm 4 hs
Cuarta Sábado 11 de Septiembre 8 am -12 m 4 hs
Quinta Viernes 17 de Septiembre 6 - 10 pm 4 hs
Sexta Sábado 18 de Septiembre 8 am -12 m 4 hs
Séptima Viernes 24 de Septiembre 6 - 10 pm 4 hs
Octava Sábado 25 de Septiembre 8 am -10 am 2 hs
Total horas 30 hs

My brief biodata

I am a full-time teacher at Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira. I currently work for the

Licenciatura en Bilingüismo con énfasis en inglés Program which belongs to the Fine Arts and
Humanities Faculty. For this Licenciatura Program I have been in charge of courses in English
Pronunciation, Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Intermediate English, Academic Discourse,
Anglophone Civilization, and Teaching Practicum as practicum supervisor and adviser.
As a Graduate Program teacher, I have taught English for Academic Purposes for the following
Programs: Faculty of Medicine—Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Master’s Program; Faculty of Education—Communication Master’s Program and Linguistics
Master’s Program, and for the Faculty of Fine Arts and Humanities—Philosophy Master’s
Program and Literature Master’s Program and the PhD program in Literature.

My contact e-mail: [email protected]

1. Justification
At the international level, for the graduate students at the University, reading books and
documents in a foreign language is part of their regular academic activities. Most of the
information available as sources for research and update information is written mainly in English,
along with all the technological, scientific and academic development information, web sites or
data bases.
In the case of the Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, there are specific language policies in
accordance with the international tendency for preparation in English. Both Normative
Agreements number 55 and number 22 provide the regulation for those graduate students who do

2
not fulfill the proficiency criteria required for them to pursue a 30-hour course focused on reading
and comprehension skills at a A2 level based on the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages.

2. Goal

At the end of the course, the students of the master’s Programs of the UTP, will be able to read
and understand short literary, scientific and technical texts at Level A2 (Basic User, Waystage
level) according to the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFR, 2001) through the
application of reading strategies such as skimming, scanning, identification of paragraph
structures, thru authentic materials related to texts of interest of the students.
[The student(s) at this level] can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to
areas of most immediate relevance (e.g., very basic personal and family information, shopping,
local geography, employment). They also can read and understand texts for general information,
to follow instructions, to get the gist of the content of the passage (s), to localize specific
information and for detailed understanding through the use of key words and simple structure
layout.

3. General Objectives

o The learners of this course must look for autonomy and self-assessment throughout the
course. o They must identify the English language as a sign system different from
Spanish.

o They must establish criteria for the selection of both literary (essay and narrative) and
technical /scientific texts in English to differentiate the levels of complexity of those texts.

3.1 Specific Objectives

o You should identify and apply reading strategies such as skimming and scanning which
will facilitate the comprehension of both literary and technical/scientific texts.

o You should identify and recognize the importance of cognates.

o You should identify and apply reading and comprehension techniques related to the use of
logical connectors, the use of references and paragraph structure.

o You should identify and apply the different verb conjugations (including modal verbs),
commonly used in the literary texts proposed for this course.

o You should identify the sentence order within the proposed texts.

4. Methodology

All the sessions will be worked through the Google suite platform Meet and the materials will be
uploaded onto the educational platform Schoology. Each session should be introduced through
the discussion of vocabulary and as much as possible, grammar aspects concerning the material

3
in progress. Students work in pairs –as long as the synchronous sessions allow that to be
performed—to compare previous knowledge and expertise on the target language. The topics are
introduced prior to the reading of actual texts for a global comprehension of concepts. Then, the
texts are skimmed for general information and then scanned for specific information. The
questions are focused on the contents for better understanding of them. The monolingual
dictionary should be taken for every class session. The materials to be covered throughout the
sessions are included in this program. For every session, simple/not that simple set of questions
should be addressed to assess comprehension. Independent reading is key for the completion of
the contents of the course since for the length of the course and the length of the readings, only
some are to be discussed and solved in the class sessions.

The course will be administered following the protocols of virtual education or online education.
The basic platform to be used throughout the online classes is Google Classroom which allows
multiple participants to interact live in sessions no longer than one hour per video conference
through Google Meet. This means that breaks are to be made not only for pedagogical reasons but
also for technical reasons. Other sources such as Whatsapp might also be used for the purpose of
focal or group interaction. Now, for the purpose of independent work and additional input, the
free educational platform Schoology will also be used both for the uploading of additional
materials (videos and PP presentations) and the submission of tasks. That means all students must
open a free account on the platform. Each session will be administered both synchronically and a
synchronically for the benefit of both teachers and students and obvious pedagogical reasons.

Each session should be introduced through the discussion of vocabulary, grammar and textual
aspects concerning the material to study. Students work in small groups to compare previous
knowledge and expertise on the target language. The topics are introduced prior to the reading of
actual texts for a global comprehension of concepts. Then, the texts are skimmed for general
information and then scanned for specific information. The questions are focused on the contents
for better understanding of them. The monolingual dictionary should be taken for every class
session as a reference for lexical understanding along with synonym/antonym dictionaries openly
and broadly available on the internet. The materials to be covered throughout the sessions are
included in this program. For every session, simple/not that simple set of questions should be
addressed to assess comprehension. Independent reading is key for the completion of the
contents of the course since for the length of the course and the length of the readings, only some
are to be discussed and solved in the class sessions.

5. Contents

Part One: True and False Cognates

Part Two: Skimming and Scanning
Part Three: Noun Clusters and Noun Clauses
Part Four: References: back and forth referential words
Part Five: Logical Connectors
Part Six: Paragraph Structure

6. Evaluation
The students of this course must submit via e-mail or the chosen platform to do so, a written work
in which the main aspects of the course regarding reading and comprehension are to be

4
considered. The students must choose a text on education and arts and identify cognates,
anaphoric references, logical connectors, noun clusters and clauses and provide a summary of the
content of the selected text. This written work is worth 40% of the final grade. At the end of the
sessions, a written online evaluation will be given to assess the whole content. The final test
covers all the contents of the course, and it is worth 60% of the final grade. This test will be
administered on the very last day of classes Saturday September 25th, and the deadline for the
written work submission to the teacher’s mail will be Saturday September 25th at 12 pm. The
final grade—the average of test and written work— will be sent via e-mail to the ILEX office on
Wednesday September 29th.

Nota mínima aprobatoria: 3.5 = 70% de la competencia lectora en lengua inglesa.

TIMETABLE
Sessions will be worked thru Google Meet.
September 3rd
18:00-19:00 19:00- 19:15-20:00 20:00-21:00 21:00-22:00
FRIDAY
19:15
Eliciting info from INTRODUCTION ASSESSMENT PART ONE:
learners. Getting to BREAK /PRESENTATION CRITERIA COGNATES
know previous OF PROGRAM. What is
linguistic PDF or WORD expected from Introduction
experiences/language program through learners to and text
learning experiences MEET. fulfill the reading.
(ESL/EFL). course passing
VOICE AND grade criteria.
IMAGE THROUGH Written work
MEET instructions.
September 4th
8:00-9:00 9:00- 9.15-10:00 10:00-10:45 10:45-11:30 11:30-12:00
SATURDAY
Review of previous 9:15 COGNATES Independent Feedback and Introduction
session BREAK Finish reading revision on to PART
complementary “The film previous task. TWO:
readings and period” parts I SKIMMING
exercises and II AND
SCANNING
September 10th
18:00-19:00 19:00- 19:15-20:00 20:00-21:00 21:00-22:00
FRIDAY
Review of previous 19:15 Skimming and Introduction to Solving
session topics: BREAK scanning: Coffee PART THREE: exercises on
Cognates and cultural landscape. NOUN Noun Clusters
Skimming & Exercise solving CLUSTERS & noun clauses
Scanning. Checking and feedback. AND NOUN through
texts and possible CLAUSES complementary
questions. reading
Jainism
September 11th
8:00-9:00 9:00- 9.15-10:00 10:00-10:45 10:45-11:30 11:30-12:00
SATURDAY
Review of previous 9:15 Introduction to Independent Independent Feedback on
session BREAK PART FOUR: work/group work/group previous
REFERENCES. reading: reading: reading.
Socrates Socrates
contribution to
Philosophy

5
 September 17th
17:00-18:00 18:00- 18:15-19:00 19:00-20:00 20:00-21:00
FRIDAY
Review of previous 18:15 Introduction to All in group Feedback on
topics. BREAK PART FIVE: reading: Plato previous
LOGICAL reading. And
CONNECTORS introduction to
PART SIX:
PARAGRAPH
STRUCTURE
September 18th
8:00-9:00 9:00- 9.15-10:30 10:30-12:00
SATURDAY
Review of previous 9:15 Recognizing the Independent
topics. BREAK topic of a Reading: The
paragraph. Tripartite
Reading. Theory of the
Soul

September 24th
18-20 20:00- 20:30-22:00
FRIDAY
Review on all topics: 20:30 Revision and
Questions and Break feedback on
answers written tasks
September 25th
8:00-10
SATURDAY
written test thru
Schoology

PART ONE: COGNATES

What Are Cognates? Words from two different languages are called “cognates” when they have a
common etymology and are similar or even identical. This means that English and Spanish words
that share spelling and pronunciation and share a similar meaning are true cognates. Linguists tell
us that 30-40% of all English words have a word in Spanish that is closely related. Therefore,
there are many English and Spanish words that are cognates. Here are some easy examples:
family and familia, center and centro, class and clase. Cognates are without doubt great bridges
for learners of a second or foreign language. This means that Spanish speakers may achieve a
large English vocabulary through the use of cognates, and English speakers may do the same
when they explore the uses of the Spanish language.
Some English words can be confusing since their meanings are apparently transparent due to
their similarities to Spanish. But they do not mean what they might suggest. They are false
cognates now that their meanings can be deceptive.

Cognate words are those that have similar form and meaning in two languages. English and
Spanish share many cognate words, because they come from an original language (Greek and
Latin). Some of these words are identical in spelling (true cognates), others have a very similar
spelling (partial cognates). False cognates have similar spellings but the meaning in both languages
is very different in many cases. Cognate words are very helpful to facilitate the general
comprehension of any text.

6
Here is a list of words that look like Spanish words but do not mean what they suggest:
Word in English Looks like the word in Spanish It means in Spanish

actually
assist
attend
bizarre
carpet
choke
deception
embarrassed
exit
idiom
molest
constipation
fabric
soap
realize
pie
record
rope
delight
contest
large
envy
preservative

7
Examples of common cognates in English and Spanish.

More examples of true cognates include expansion, digital, individual, natural, area,
comfortable, sector, cultural, gas, actor, modular, radio, gradual, virus.
Examples of partial cognates include university, education, society, graduate, pandemic,
medicine, controversy, positive, beneficial, expert, attitude, examination.

NOTICE that cognates can have any grammatical form: they may be nouns, adjectives, verbs
or adverbs. So, complete phrases can be cognates. For example: university educational
program/completely comprehensive examination.

Also, many names of professions, names of subject matters, geometrical figures, etc. are
cognate words in English and Spanish. Some examples are engineer, artist, doctor, mechanic,
professor/mathematics, algebra, geometry, geography, history, music, art/triangle, angle,
pentagon, rectangle.

8
How many True Cognates and Partial Cognates can you find in the text?

In the area of philosophy, there are many terms that are similar in both English and Spanish
(cognate words). Example:
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
The very question sounds philosophical, doesn’t it? But what exactly does that mean?
What is philosophy? The word philosophy means “love of wisdom.” Indeed, it is a love of
wisdom that guides philosophers to explore the fundamental questions about who we are and
why we’re here. On the surface, philosophy is a social science. But as you read philosophy
books, you’ll discover that it is so much more than that. Philosophy touches on every subject
you could possibly think of. It’s not just a bunch of old Greek guys asking each other
questions over and over again (though it has its fair share of that as well). Philosophy has very
real applications; from the ethical questions raised in government policy to the logic forms
required in computer programming, everything has its roots in philosophy.
Through philosophy, we are able to explore concepts like the meaning of life, knowledge,
morality, reality, the existence of God, consciousness, politics, religion, economics,
art, linguistics—philosophy has no bounds!
In a very broad sense, there are six major themes philosophy touches on:
1. Metaphysics: The study of the universe and reality
2. Logic: How to create a valid argument
3. Epistemology: The study of knowledge and how we acquire knowledge
4. Aesthetics: The study of art and beauty
5. Politics: The study of political rights, government, and the role of citizens
6. Ethics: The study of morality and how one should live his life

9
PRACTICE: Read the following sentences and figure out a possible meaning for the highlighted
word.

1. I have an apology to make to you. I’m afraid I opened your letter by mistake.
2. She’s very adept at working with multimedia.
3. The soldiers were out of town in their respective billets.
4. This is the story of the ancient kingdoms of Mexico.
5. Her contention is that exercise is more important than diet, if you want to lose weight.
6. The train accident was terrible, but there were no casualties.
7. Why are you so morose these days?
8. He got the money legally without resort to violence.
9. The university library opened again.
10. Are you confident that enough people will come to the meeting?
11. After the scandal, his reputation had to be salvaged.
12. I didn’t actually see her; I just heard her voice.
13. Traffic diversion is considerably high because of the constructions in the highway.
14. Her happiness was apparent after she passed the test.
15. This athlete will be the eventual winner of the competition.
16. These remote islands are inhabited only by birds.
17. He saw Mary arrived and make a quick exit.
18. Who is the mayor of that small town?
19. She was dressing cotton fabric.
20. A decision was finally made after a heated argument.
21. Latin American countries need a common foreign policy.
22. How was the assistance after the accident?
23. The evidence he gave in court was a complete fabrication.
24. I didn’t write my signature because I didn’t agree with the terms of the contract.
25. The meeting is on Friday, and I hope everybody will attend.
26. This university has excellent language learning facilities.
27. Don’t you realize that wearing the face masks will protect you against the virus?
28. To be candid with you, I think you made a terrible mistake.
29. She felt embarrassed about undressing in front of the doctor.
30. Under this pandemic, it is very difficult to pay all the utility bills.
31. The professor gave an excellent lecture about multimedia topics.
32. If you’re going into teaching, energy is a necessary commodity.

10
Notice that some words can be false cognates in some cases, but true cognates in other
contexts. For example:
Even at the age of 100, she has all her faculties.
This Friday we’ll have a faculty meeting at 3 o’clock.
To get the job you first need to complete this application.
Try to finish the work in a spreadsheet application.
James may be very good at his job but lacks application.
Since I got this job, I live in relative comfort.
Do you have any relative in the United States?

FALSE COGNATES IN CONTEXT

Find 13 false cognates in the text. Then substitute them by the correct word.

Let me tell you a little about my story. Since I was a child, I pretend to be a novel actress on
television. Last week, my mom, my dad, my sister and I were going to visit some parents on
the countryside and after driving for some time, my dad decided to stop in a little shop near the
road so we could eat and relax for a while. In the shop, there was a small library, so I decided
to buy some books and magazines. When I was paying, I saw my favorite actor beside me!! I
couldn’t believe my eyes. He smiled at me and then he told me about my dream. He told me
that he had always dreamed about becoming a physician, since the loved physics and math, but
he eventually found his way on television. I was so moved that I started crying. … I am a very
sensible person, you know. But he was very comprehensive and told me he would try to help
me. Everything was so exquisite, but after some time I got a part on a novel. I realized my
dream!! Actually, I play a young girl who works in a very big fabric. I am very happy, and I
have a lot of exit being what I always wanted to be: an actress!!

11
PART TWO: SKIMMING AND SCANNING

Scanning is very high-speed reading. When you scan, you have a question in mind. You do not
read every word, only the words that answer your question. Scanning is a technique you often use
when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. In most cases, you know what you
are looking for, so you are concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves
moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words or phrases. Scanning is also
used when you first find are source to determine whether it will answer your questions. When
scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps or the words:
first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style
or color. Sometimes the author will put key idea in the margin.
Skimming is high speed reading that can save you lots of time. You skim to get the general sense
of a passage or a book.

How do you skim?

You should read only the words that will help you get the sense of the text. Read the first
sentences or paragraph quite carefully. The beginning often contains general information about
the rest of the text. If the text is long, you might also read the second paragraph. Sometimes the
first paragraph is only an introduction, and the second paragraph brings about the main idea. You
should usually read the last paragraph more carefully.

Read the following text quickly and answer the questions.

1. How many sites make up the coffee cultural landscape of Colombia?

2. What aspects are part of the intangible heritage of the coffee cultural landscape?
When did the arrival of the settlers occur?

Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia

An exceptional example of a sustainable and productive cultural landscape that is unique and
representative of a tradition that is a strong symbol for coffee growing areas worldwide -
encompasses six farming landscapes, which include 18 urban centres on the foothills of the
western and central ranges of the Cordillera de los Andes in the west of the country. It reflects a
centennial tradition of coffee growing in small plots in the high forest and the way farmers have
adapted cultivation to difficult mountain conditions. The urban areas, mainly situated on the
relatively flat tops of hills above sloping coffee fields, are characterized by the architecture of the

12
Antioquian colonization with Spanish influence. Building materials were, and remain in some
areas, cob and pleated cane for the walls with clay tiles for the roofs.

The Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia (CCLC) is a continuing productive landscape

consisting of a series of six sites, which integrate eighteen urban settlements. The property
illustrates natural, economic, and cultural features, combined in a mountainous area with
collaboratively farmed coffee plantations, some of these in clearings of high forest.

The CCLC is the result of the adaptation process of Antioquian settlers, who arrived in the 19th
century, a process which persists to this day and has created an economy and culture deeply
rooted in the coffee production tradition. Coffee farms are located on steep mountains ranges
with vertiginous slopes of over 25% (55 degrees), characteristic to the challenging coffee terrain.
These unusual geographic features also affect the small orthogonal plot layouts, and influence the
architectural typology, lifestyle and land-use techniques of the cafeteros (coffee farmers). The
distinctive way of life of the cafeteros is based on legacies that have been passed down from
generation to generation and is linked to their traditional landownership and the distinctive small
farm production system.

The typical architecture in the urban settlements is a fusion between the Spanish cultural patterns
and the indigenous culture of the region adapted as well to the coffee growing process, through
for example their sliding roofs. Houses function as both dwelling units and centers of economic
activity, with walls built in the traditional, more flexible and dynamic ‘bahareque’ constructive
system, and covered by a layer of bamboo well known for its resistance and malleability. Over
fifty percent of the walls are still built using this traditional method.

Authenticity

The Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia is an authentic reflection of a centenary process of

man’s adaptation to challenging geographical and climatic conditions of this area, known as the E
je Cafetero. The CCLC contains very few contemporary incongruous additions to its traditional
architectural and landscape patterns, and no substantial modifications to the small towns located
in the property as well as in the buffer zone. Aspects such as traditions, language and other forms
of intangible heritage, have been preserved, mostly by owners and the local community, who
have a high sense of social appropriation of their cultural heritage.
Taken from:
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1121

13
PART THREE: NOUN CLUSTERS AND NOUN CLAUSES

The meaning starts with the noun; therefore, it makes sense to present the noun first, then the
sentence elements in the "noun cluster”, then the verb, the adverb, and the remaining dependent
sentence elements that represents "a logic structure".

Since the verb is the most difficult sentence element, it requires all knowledge about grammatical
categories of "person", "case", "number", and "gender"--which are best defined for nouns and
pronouns.
We do not change the meaning to accommodate grammatical form; we use the appropriate
grammatical form which explains the meaning best.

Noun Clusters
1. Modifier (number, determiner) +Headword
Examples: many problems, five programs, a thousand books.
2. Modifier (article, adjective, noun) +Headword
Example: word processing, these desktops, fuzzy logics.

Preposition Group (P-Group) o It is used as modifier for the headword that is preceding it.
o Headword + P-Group (prep+ noun cluster) Examples:
1. The construction of the tall building.
2. The relationship of symbols and sounds.
3. Their interest in modern arts.

o Noun clusters usually begin with "a," "an," or "the" followed by a noun and
its cluster of modifying words.
o They appear, usually, just before or just after a noun, which they are
renaming.
o They are closely related to relative clauses, but they do not have relative
pronouns like "who" or "which" at the beginning, and they do not have verbs.

The functions of adjectives:

o To describe something, we usually use descriptiveadjective
o The followings are the words which can be used to describe or modify
nouns, they canbe classified as thefollowing:
● Opinion/quality : Good, clever,
attractive, beautiful etc.
● Size : Small, big, short,etc.
● Age/temperature : New, old, ancient,
modern etc.

14
 ● Shape : Round, square,
cubical etc.
● Color : Red, yellow, Brown
etc.
● Original : Japanese, French,
USA,etc.
● Material : Golden, metal, plastic
etc.
● Purpose :Scientific.

If there are more than one adjective to describe something, we usually use correctly order as
follows.

Size/ Age/
Determiner Option Shape Color Origin Material Purpose Noun
length heat
Long New Clothes
Good Short Old Round Red Cotton Book
A/an Japanese Scientific
Nice Hot Square Blue Iron
The French Literary
Useful Modern Cubical White Metal
Ancient

Find noun clusters, underline the headword.

1. That job demands lots of administration abilities.
2. There is a physical line division between the sculpture and the viewer.
3. Global warfare tactics are performed everyday throughout the world.
4. His low birthright status maintains him apart from the rest of society.
5. Printing is the final stage in creating a document.

Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause or
phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a
preposition, answering the questions “who (m)?” or “what?”.

15
Words that introduce noun clauses:

How What Where Which Whoever

If Whatever Whichever Whoever Whomever
That When Whether Who, which Why

Noun clauses with Wh-words are indirect questions. They have statement word
order, even when they occur within questions. [ Wh + subject + verb ]
Examples:
I don’t know what he is doing.
I wonder how he feels today.
Where I put my book is a mystery.

Noun clauses can be used as follows:

Function Noun or Pronoun Noun Clause

Subject His speech was clear. What he said was
clear.
Direct object I don’t know his contact I don’t know how
number. he can be
reached.
Indirect object Give her the message. Give whoever
answers the
message.
Object of a preposition I sent the notice to her. I sent the notice
to whoever was

interested.
Predicate/complement noun That is my plan. This is what I
plan to do.

16
 Complete the sentences by changing the questions to noun clauses.
1. Who is she? I don’t know who she is.
2. Who are they? I don’t know who they are.
3. What is that? Do you know
4. What are those? I don’t know
5. Whose book is that? I don’t know
6. Whose books are those? I don’t know
7. What is a wrench? Do you know
8. Who is that woman? I wonder
9. Whose house is that? I wonder
10. What is a clause? Don’t you know
11. What is in that drawer? I don’t know
12. What is on TV tonight? I wonder
13. Whose glasses are those? Could you tell me
14. Who am I? He doesn’t know
15. What’s at the end of the rainbow? The little girl wants to know

17
PART FOUR: ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC REFERENCES

Anaphora, in its primary instances, is the establishment of a referential dependency of two (or
more) expressions.
The pronoun him in the example below is one such instance of anaphora:

Example: Mark felt that there was someone watching him.

On the understanding that him refers to Mark , the pronoun is the anaphor and the expression
Mark is the antecedent. Both expressions refer to the same individual. The relationship between
these expressions is not an equal one, however, since the reference of the pronoun is dependent
upon the reference of its antecedent, whereas the reference of the antecedent is established by
virtue of its meaning alone. The term "co-reference" is often used to describe this referential
connection between anaphor and antecedent. But anaphor-antecedent relations must be
distinguished from the phenomenon of accidental co-reference. This occurs when two
independently referring expressions happen to refer to the same individual. So, for instance, in the
following example the two italicized expressions will be co- referential, "accidentally", just in
case the president of the company is also the company's best employee:

Example: The president of the company rewarded the best employee.

This requires an understanding where the company has a self-rewarding president, but there is no
anaphoric connection established between the expressions. Thus, anaphora is a matter of
coreference, and something more.
Anaphor-antecedent relations

Anaphors depend upon their antecedents to determine their referential content. One reflection of
this referential dependency is that in many instances an anaphor cannot be interpreted as
coreferential with another Noun Phrase. For instance, in the following examples, the pronouns
cannot be construed as non- accidentally having the same reference as the italicized Noun Phrases.

Bob was nominated by him. (him ≠ Bob)

She hoped that Mary would win the contest. (She ≠ Mary)

ThisisbecauseananaphorcannotreceiveitsreferencefromanotherNounPhraseifthatNounPhrasedoes
not have an appropriate syntactically defined relationship to the anaphor. This relationship is not
simply one of linear precedence, as in many instances an anaphor may precede its antecedent (a
phenomenon which is occasionally called cataphora, though more commonly backward
anaphora ).

Near her, Jill saw a snake.

If he wins the race today, Bret will be a hero.
18
One class of pronouns that has also received extensive attention is that of reflexive
pronouns, exemplified below:

Possessive Possessive
Pronouns Reflexive Objective
Adjectives Nouns
I Myself My Me Mine
You Yourself Your You Yours
He Himself His Him His
She Herself Her Her Hers
It Itself Its It It
We Ourselves Our Us Ours
They Themselves Their Them Theirs

We found ourselves with too much to do.

The professor taught herself French.

These differ from the other personal pronouns in important respects. Primarily, the
syntactic relation to their antecedents are much more limited. In general, reflexive pronouns
may only have antecedents within the same clause, though the precise conditions remain a
topic of detailed investigation. In the following examples, the reflexive pronoun may not be
construed as coreferential with the italicized Noun Phrases: We thought that [Jim liked
ourselves]

The professor remembered when [she herself lived in Paris]

As there is no appropriate antecedent for the reflexive pronoun within the same clause in
these instances, the sentences are not grammatical.

Pronouns not only may find their reference by identifying an antecedent and using the
reference of the antecedent as its own value, but they may function as bound
variables as well. In such instances, the "reference" of the pronoun is not determined by the
reference of its antecedent NP, but rather by the assignment of values to variables that is
determined by the quantifier, as in first-order logic. A representation of a sentence such as
the following with Every man construed as the antecedent of he would be as indicated:

Every man thinks that [he deserves a raise]

19
 "x [man(x) Æ x thinks that [x deserves a raise]]

Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for
its meaning. It can be compared with Cataphoric reference, which means a word refers
to ideas later in the text.
Example
‘I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.'
´She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no need to repeat her name.

Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the text and you
need to look forward to understanding. It can be compared with anaphoric reference,
which means a word refers back to another word for its meaning.
Example
'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open'.

Matching. What referential phrase matches the previous phrase?

a) As she entered the building 1) Jim fell over

b) When he was running upstairs 2) the woman saw a huge crowd

Identifying References-Anaphora and Cataphora

SOCRATES (469–399 B.C.)

The game-changer
Socrates was born in Athens, Greece, around 469 b.c. and died in 399 b.c. Whereas
pre-Socratic philosophers examined the natural world, Socrates placed emphasis on the
human experience. He focused on individual morality, questioned what made a good life,
and discussed social and political questions. His work and his ideas became the
foundation of Western philosophy. While Socrates is widely regarded as one of the wisest

20
men to have ever lived, he never wrote down any of his thoughts, and all that we know
about him is based on the written works of his students and contemporaries (mainly the
works of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes).
Because everything that we know about Socrates is based on accounts from others
(which were often fictionalized) and these accounts differ, we do not actually know much
about him or his teachings. This is known as the “Socratic problem.” From the texts of
others, we are able to gather that he was the son of a stone mason and a midwife; he most
likely had a basic Greek education; he was not aesthetically good-looking (during a time
when external beauty was very important); he served in the military during the
Peloponnesian War; he had three sons with a much younger woman; and he lived in
poverty. He might have worked as a stone mason before turning to philosophy.
The one detail that has been well documented, however, is Socrates’ death. While
Socrates was alive, the state of Athens began to decline. Having embarrassingly lost to
Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, Athens had an identity crisis of sorts and became fixated
on physical beauty, ideas of wealth, and romanticizing the past. Because Socrates was an
outspoken critic of this way of life, he grew to have many enemies. In 399 b.c., Socrates
was arrested and brought to trial with charges of being unreligious and corrupting the
city’s youth. Socrates was found guilty and was sentenced to death by poisonous drink.
Rather than flee into exile (which he had the chance to do), Socrates drank the poison
without any hesitation.
SOCRATES’ CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY
A quote often attributed to Socrates is, “The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates
believed that in order for a person to be wise, that individual must be able to understand
himself. To Socrates, an individual’s actions were directly related to his intelligence and
ignorance. He believed people should develop their self, rather than concentrate on
material objects, and he sought to understand the difference between acting good and
being good. It was in the new and unique way that he approached knowledge,
consciousness, and morality that Socrates would forever change philosophy.
The Socratic Method
Socrates is perhaps most famous for his Socratic method. First described in Plato’s
Socratic Dialogues, Socrates and a pupil would have a discussion on a particular issue, and

21
through a series of questions, Socrates would set out to discover the driving force behind
how that individual’s beliefs and sentiments were shaped and in so doing, get closer to the
truth. By continually asking questions, Socrates was able to expose contradictions in the
way an individual thought, which allowed him to come to a solid conclusion.
Socrates used the elenchus, a method in which he would refute the claims of the other
person. Here are the steps of the elenchus:
1. An individual would assert a statement to Socrates, which Socrates would then
refute. Or, Socrates might ask the other person a question, such as, “What is
courage?”
2. Once the other person provides his answer, Socrates would think of a scenario
where his answer was not the case, asking him to assume his original statement
was false. For example, if the other person describes courage as “endurance of the
soul,” Socrates might refute this claim by saying that “Courage is a fine thing,” while
“Ignorant endurance is not a fine thing.”
3. The other person would agree with this claim, and Socrates would then change the
statement to include the exception to the rule.
4. Socrates proves that the individual’s statement is false and that the negation is in
fact true. As the other person continues to alter his answer, Socrates continues
refuting, and through this, the individual’s answer gets closer to the actual truth.}

The Socratic Method Today

The Socratic method is still widely used to this day, most notably in law schools
throughout the United States. First, a student will be asked to summarize a judge’s
argument. Then, the student will be asked if he agrees with the judge’s argument. The
professor will then act as devil’s advocate by asking a series of questions to make the
student defend his decision.
By using the Socratic method, students are able to start thinking critically and using
logic and reasoning to create their arguments, while also finding and patching up holes in
their positions.

22
PART FIVE: LOGICAL CONNECTORS

Connectors are the words which combine two words, phrases, and sentences together. They have
the same meaning of a conjunction but differ in their function.
Difference between conjunction and connectors:
1. Conjunctions are used to connect a noun with another noun; two independent clauses;
different sentences; a group of words.
2. Connectors are used to connect a large group of words; phrases; sentences.

For example: Monica and Angela are friends. Here "and" connects two nouns. It is a conjunction.

I broke my leg. However, I still feel great. Here "however' connects two groups of words,
which relate to each other. Given below is the list of most commonly used sentence
connectors in English with examples:

Connectors Examples

So I’ve finished my tea; so has he.

Yet Murder has no tongue. Yet it will speak.

However At first he refused to go. Later, however, he decided to go.

Too He is an idler. He is a gambler, too.

Equally I admitted my error. Equally, the other driver made a mistake.

The superintendent was suspended for impudence. Further, there

Further
was a charge of corruption against him.
I wonder why you want to marry Maria. She is vain; she is
Moreover
obstinate. Moreover, she is not so rich as you think her to be.
Therefore A is equal to B. B is equal to C. Therefore, A is equal to C.
As well. There are three houses. I have purchased two already. I’ll buy the
third one as well.
Neither The kittens have not been fed; neither has been the puppy.

Nor She can’t do it; nor can I, nor can you, nor can anybody.

In any case He may apologize or not. In any case, I am not going to re-employ
him.
On the contrary You say he is my friend. On the contrary, he gave evidence against
me in the court.
On the one hand he claims to be my friend; on the other hand he is
On the other hand
always running me down.

23
Identify the logical connectors and its category in the following passage on Plato.
PLATO (429–347 B.C.)
One of the founders of Western philosophy
Plato was born in Athens, Greece, around 429 b.c. to parents who were members of the
Greek aristocracy. Because of his social class, Plato was taught by many distinguished
educators. However, no individual would have as great an impact on him as Socrates and
his ability to debate and create a dialogue. In fact, the written works of Plato are where
much of the information we know about Socrates comes from.
While he was expected by his family to pursue a career in politics, two events would lead
Plato away from this lifestyle: the Peloponnesian War (in which, upon Sparta’s victory,
several of Plato’s relatives were part of a dictatorship, but were removed for being corrupt)
and the execution of Socrates in 399 b.c. by the new Athenian government.
Plato then turned toward philosophy and began writing and traveling. He studied under
Pythagoras in Sicily and, upon returning to Athens, founded the Academy, a school where
he and other likeminded individuals taught and discussed philosophy and mathematics.
Among Plato’s students was Aristotle.

PLATO’S PHILOSOPHY THROUGH WRITTEN CONVERSATIONS

Like Socrates, Plato believed philosophy was a process of continuous questioning and
dialogues, and his writing appeared in this format.

Two of the most interesting things about these dialogues are that Plato’s own opinions
on the subject matters he wrote about were never explicitly stated (though with in-depth
research, one might be able to infer his stance) and that he was never a character in his
writing. Plato wanted readers to have the ability to form their own opinions on the subjects
and not be told how to think (this also proves how skillful a writer he was). For this
reason, many of his dialogues do not reach a concise conclusion. Those that do, however,
allow for possible counterarguments and doubts.
Plato’s dialogues dealt with a variety of subject matters, including things such as art,
theater, ethics, immortality, the mind, and metaphysics.
There are at least thirty-six dialogues written by Plato, as well as thirteen letters (though
historians dispute the letters’ authenticity).
THE THEORY OF FORMS

24
One of the most important concepts Plato developed was his theory of Forms. Plato states
that reality exists on two specific levels:

1.The visible world that is made up of sights and sounds

2.The intelligible world (the world of Forms) that gives the visible world its being

For example, when a person sees a beautiful painting, that person has the ability to

identify beauty because he has an abstract concept of what beauty is. Therefore, beautiful
things are seen as beautiful because they are a part of the Form of beauty. While things in
the visible world can change and lose their beauty, the Form of beauty is eternal, never
changes, and cannot be seen.
Plato believed that concepts like beauty, courage, goodness, temperance, and justice
exist in an entire world of Forms, outside of space and time, unaffected by what happens
in the visible world.
While the idea of Forms appears in many of Plato’s dialogues, Plato’s concept of Forms
differs from text to text, and sometimes these differences are never completely explained.
Through Plato’s theory of Forms, Plato incorporates abstract thought as a means to
achieve a greater knowledge.

25
PART SIX: PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

What is a paragraph?

Here are two groups of sentences that look like a paragraph. Read both of them carefully. Are they
both paragraphs?

Example(a):Science may be broadly defined as the development and systemization of positive

knowledge about the physical universe. The history of science, then, is the description and
explanation of the development of that knowledge. Science is generally viewed as a cumulative
and progressive activity by its nature. Such views, however, have profound philosophical
implications, and in fact the effort to define the nature of science is in itself part of the history of
philosophy. Question: Is this a paragraph?

Example (b): Philosophers of the late renaissance were optimistic about humanity's ability to
understand and control the natural world. The English philosopher Francis Bacon whose New
Organon in 1620 also believed that there was a rigorous 'organ' or method for making scientific
discoveries, but his history of method was quite different from that of Descartes. A science such as
physic should be based on first principles comparable to the axiom of geometry, which were
discovered and validated through the systematic analysis of intuitive ideas. Question: Is this a
paragraph? What is the difference between example (a) and example (b)?

A paragraph is a group of sentences that are all about the same thing. That is, they all have the
same topic.
Example (a) is a paragraph because all the sentences are about the definition and the history of
science. Example (b) is not a paragraph because all sentences are about several ideas on science,
philosopher and principle of science together, the sentences make no sense.

Recognizing the topic of a paragraph.

When you read a paragraph, you would always ask yourself. 'What is this about?' That question
will lead you to the topic of the paragraph.

26
 Example (a): Philosophers of the late Renaissance were optimistic about humanity's
ability to understand and control the natural world. During the17thcentury-the era of
Galileo, William Harvey, Isaac Newton, and Robert Boyle-scientists and philosophers
alike were convinced that with help of the newly discovered scientific method modern
scientists would quickly surpass the achievements of their Greek and medieval
predecessors. Disagreement existed, however, as to the details of the correct scientific
method. English for Electrical Engineering 2 Question: Is this a paragraph? If the answer
is yes, what is the topic?

Example (b): What is this paragraph about? An objection to the rationalist approach to

science is that people's intuitions about fundamental scientific propositions do not always
agree. Furthermore, especially in the social sciences, trying to base scientific principles on
introspection, is called rationalism (from the Latin ratio, "reason").

Read the following paragraphs about Plato and identify the main elements of a paragraph: main
idea and supporting ideas. Underline the main idea and put in brackets the supporting ideas.

THE TRIPARTITE THEORY OF THE SOUL

In The Republic and another well-known dialogue, Phaedrus, Plato discusses his
understanding of rationality and the soul. The soul, according to Plato, can be broken
down into three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite.
1.Reason: This is the part of the soul responsible for thinking and understanding
when something is true versus false, real versus not apparent, and making rational
decisions.
2.Spirit: This is the part of the soul responsible for all desires that want victory and
honor. If an individual has a just soul, the spirit should enforce reason so that
reason leads. Frustration of the spirit will lead to feelings of anger and feeling
mistreated.
3.Appetite: This is the part of the soul where very basic cravings and desires come
from. For example, things like thirst and hunger can be found in this part of the
soul. However, the appetite also features unnecessary and unlawful urges, like
overeating or sexual excess.
To explain these different parts of the soul, Plato first looked at three different classes in

27
a just society: Guardian, Auxiliary, and Laborers. According to Plato, reason should rule an
individual’s decisions: spirit should aid reason; and appetite should obey. By maintaining
the relationship among these three parts in the correct way, an individual will achieve
individual justice.
Similarly, Plato believed that in a perfect society, reason would be represented by a
Guardian class (rulers who led based on philosophy, which society would wholeheartedly
follow); spirit would be represented by the Auxiliary class (soldiers who would force the
rest of society to obey the Guardian class); and appetite would be represented by the
Laborers, the workers and merchants of society.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
Plato placed great emphasis on the role of education and believed it to be one of the most
important pieces in creating a healthy state. Plato saw the vulnerability of a child’s mind
and understood how easily it could be molded. He believed children should be taught
early on to always seek wisdom and to live a virtuous life. Plato even went so far as to
create detailed directions on what exercises a pregnant woman could perform so that she
would have a healthy fetus and what types of art and exercise children should immerse
themselves in. To Plato, who considered the Athenian people to be corrupt, easily
seduced, and gullible to rhetoric, education was essential to having a just society.

28
ADDITIONAL READING AND COMPREHENSION TEXT

Jainism
We have all heard of the six biggest religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism
and Sikhism. However, there are hundreds of lesser-known belief-systems around the world. The
ancient religion of Jainism is one of them. Jainism wasn’t started by just one person. Its
teachings have been shared over the centuries by a ‘Tirthankara’. The word ‘Tirthankara’
translates as ‘a teacher who shows the way’.
Jains believe that Tirthankaras have achieved the greatest spiritual level of existence and can
therefore show people how to obtain this for themselves. In the era which Jains call the 'present
era’, there have been twenty-four Thirthankaras. There are two sects of Jains. One is the
Digambara sect and the other is the Svetambara sect. Each sect agrees about the basics of
Jainism, but they disagree about other things. One thing they disagree about is the spiritual status
of women. Svetambara Jains say that Tirthankaras can be male or female. They say that Malli (an
important Tirthankara) was a princess. However, Digambara Jains believe that females can't be
Tirthankaras. They say that Malli was male. Jains believe that animals, plants and human beings,
all have living souls. They believe each of these souls is equal and that we should treat them with

29
compassion, love and respect. Because of this belief, Jains are strict vegetarians. They try not to
harm animals, including insects. Jains see vegetarianism as a way for a peaceful existence, non-
violence and cooperation.
The most important rule in Jainism is non-violence. Nonviolence is one of the Five Mahavratas
(the five great vows) of Jainism. The other Mahavratas are: non-attachment to belongings,
honesty, not stealing, and sexual restraint (with celibacy as the ideal).
A man called Mahavira taught the Five Mahavratas. Mahavira is an extremely important person
in Jainism, although he is not the religion’s founder. He was the most recent of the twenty-
four Tirthankaras and he helped make Jainism what it is today.
Jains believe that nothing in the universe is ever destroyed or created. Instead, it simply changes
from one form to another. Jains believe that the universe has always existed and that it will
continue to exist forever. Just like modern scientists, Jains believe that the universe is regulated
by cosmic laws. They also think it has its own energy processes, which renew it and help it to
work properly.
Jains do not believe that any sort of god created the universe. However, they venerate ‘liberated
souls’. Liberated souls are souls who have escaped the cycle of rebirth and who are now free.
Jains worship these souls as an example of perfection and something which they can try and
follow in their own lives.
Presently, Jainism is a minority religion with about four million followers in India.
However, despite their small numbers, Jains have shaped and contributed significantly to Indian
society with their political ideals and good actions. Jains also have an ancient literary tradition
and are the religious community with the highest degree of literacy in India.

Glossary
achieved - ‘to achieve’, to reach or attain a desired objective, level, or result, e.g. "he achieved
his ambition to become a journalist".
sects - a sect is a group of people with somewhat different religious beliefs.
compassion - sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others: "the vic
tims should be treated with
significantly - in an important way.

30
 have in common – to share the same idea, belief, hobby, quality etc.
according to - based on what is said or stated bycompassion".
cooperation - working together, from the verb ‘to cooperate’.
vows - a vow is a promise.
belongings - things you own.
restraint - the action of keeping someone or something under control.
celibacy - this word has two meanings. 1. Never having sex. 2. Being unmarried.
founder - the person who starts an organisation or company.
regulated - ‘to regulate’, to control or supervise.
venerate -‘to venerate’, to treat with great respect.
intrinsically - by its very nature, e.g. “tigers are intrinsically dangerous”.

Questions about the text

1. What is the most important belief of Jains?
2. Why do Jains not eat meat?
3. What is one of the differences between the Digambara and Svetambara sects?
4. Who helped make Jainism what it is today?
5. Which belief do Jains have in common with scientists?
6. How have Jains changed Indian society?
7. What are the five great vows of Jainsim?
8. Who was the founder of Jainism?
9. According to the text, was Malli male or female?
10. True or false? – Most Jains cannot read.

Enjoy the course!

31