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Lesson 15 Manifest Destiny and The Growing Nation
Lesson 15 Manifest Destiny and The Growing Nation
In this unit, you will learn about the growth of the United States from
about 1800 to the early 1850s. In 1800, the United States was bordered
by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Mississippi River to the west.
Farther west lay regions claimed by Great Britain, Russia, France, and
Spain. By the 1850s, the United States had acquired these lands, more
than doubling its size, and extended its western border to the Pacific
Ocean. The map, U.S. Territorial Acquisitions, 1803-1853, shows the
steps by which the nation's growth took place.
Several weeks on the trail will bring you to an even greater obstacle—
the ranges of the rugged Rocky Mountains. Here your progress will slow
from 20 miles per day to 20 or so miles per week. Timing is everything
on this part of your journey. The high mountain passes are open for
only a short time each year. If you reach the mountains too late in the
year, you may end up trapped by snow—which will likely mean your
More than 150 years ago, the phrase manifest destiny inspired great
hopes and dreams among many Americans. It led to a war with Mexico.
And it changed the map of the United States.
The fact that Great Britain claimed part of this land—a huge area
known as Oregon—made no difference to O'Sullivan. After all, the
United States had stood up to Great Britain in the War of 1812.
When Americans began their “great experiment” in 1776, the idea that
the United States might one day spread across the continent seemed
like a dream. By 1848, however, the dream was a reality. In this
chapter, you will learn how the United States tripled its size in a little
more than a single lifetime.
Manifest destiny took many forms. The United States expanded through
treaties, settlement, and war. As you read, think about how each new
area was acquired and whether the decisions that led to U.S. expansion
across North America were justifiable.
The nation's first opportunity for expansion during the early 1800s
involved the vast territory to the west of the Mississippi River, then
known as Louisiana. The United States wanted possession of the port
city of New Orleans, near the mouth of the Mississippi River. By 1800,
thousands of farmers were settling land to the west of the Appalachian
Mountains. To get their crops to market, they floated them down the
Mississippi to New Orleans. There the crops were shipped to Europe or
to cities on the East Coast.
The farmers depended on being able to move their crops freely along
the Mississippi. “The Mississippi,” wrote James Madison, “is to them
everything. It is the Hudson, the Delaware, the Potomac, and all the
navigable rivers of the Atlantic States formed into one stream.”
In addition, France and Great Britain were on the brink of war. Napoleon
knew that he might lose Louisiana to the British. Rather than lose
Louisiana, it made sense to sell it to the United States.
It didn't take long for Monroe to agree. On April 30, 1803, he signed a
treaty giving Louisiana to the United States in exchange for $15 million.
Said the French foreign minister, “You have made a noble bargain for
yourselves, and I suppose you will make the most of it.”
Still, not everyone approved. Some people worried that such a large
country would be impossible to govern. Politicians in the East fretted
that they would lose power. Sooner or later, they warned, Louisiana
would be carved into enough new states to outvote the eastern states
in Congress.
Others objected to the $15 million price tag. “We are to give money of
which we have too little,” wrote a Boston critic, “for land of which we
already have too much.”
Late in 1803, the Senate voted to ratify the Louisiana Purchase treaty.
Frontier farmers welcomed the news. “You have secured to us the free
Over the next few years, Spain's control of Florida weakened. The
Spanish government could do nothing to stop the raids on farms in
Georgia by Seminoles and ex-slaves.
Despite his orders, Jackson marched into Florida with a force of 1,700
troops. Over the next few weeks, he captured Spanish military posts
and arrested, tried, and executed two British subjects for stirring up
Indian attacks. He also replaced the Spanish governor with an
American. Spain demanded that Jackson be called back to Washington
and punished for his illegal invasion.
Equally fearful of war, Spain decided to get out. In 1819, the Spanish
government agreed to yield Florida to the United States. In exchange,
the United States agreed to pay off $5 million in settlers' claims against
Spain. The United States also agreed to honor Spain's longtime claim to
Texas.
Not all Americans were happy about leaving Spain in charge of Texas.
One newspaper declared Texas was “worth ten Floridas.” Even so, the
Senate ratified the Florida treaty two days after it was signed.
There was a reason many Americans felt that Texas was so valuable.
Much of this region was well suited for growing cotton, the South's most
valuable cash crop. Many southerners hoped that one day Texas would
become part of the United States.
The Tejanos had their own complaints. They were unhappy that many
American settlers had come to Texas without Mexico's permission.
Worse, most of these new immigrants showed little respect for Mexican
culture and had no intention of becoming citizens.
The Alamo In late February 1836, a large part of Santa Anna's army
reached San Antonio, Texas. About 180 Texan volunteers, including
eight Tejanos, defended the town. The Texans had taken over an old
mission known as the Alamo. Among them was Davy Crockett, the
famous frontiersman and former congressman from Tennessee. Sharing
command with William Travis was James Bowie, a wellknown Texas
“freedom fighter.”
Slowly, Santa Anna's troops began surrounding the Alamo. The Texans
were vastly outnumbered, but only one man fled.
For 12 days, the Mexicans pounded the Alamo with cannonballs. Then,
at the first light of dawn on March 6, Santa Anna gave the order to
storm the fort. Desperately, the Texans tried to fight off the attackers
with rifle fire.
For 90 minutes, the battle raged. Then it was all over. By day's end,
every one of the Alamo's defenders was dead. By Santa Anna's order,
those who had survived the battle were executed on the spot.
Santa Anna described the fight for the Alamo as “but a small affair.” But
his decision to kill every man at the Alamo filled Texans with rage.
Despite their wishes, Texas remained independent for ten years. People
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in the United States were divided over whether to annex Texas.
Southerners were eager to add another slave state. Northerners who
opposed slavery wanted to keep Texas out. Others feared that
annexation would lead to war with Mexico.
Far to the northwest of Texas lay Oregon Country. This enormous, tree-
covered wilderness stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. To the north, Oregon was bounded by Alaska, which belonged to
Russia. To the south, it was bordered by Spanish California and New
Mexico.
That left Great Britain and the United States. For the time being, the
two nations agreed to a peaceful “joint occupation” of Oregon.
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Discovering Oregon The United States' claim to Oregon was based on
the Lewis and Clark expedition. Between 1804 and 1806, Meriwether
Lewis and William Clark had led a small band of explorers to the
Oregon coast.
Lewis thought that many more Americans would follow the path blazed
by the expedition. “In the course of 10 or 12 Years,” he predicted in
1806, “a tour across the Continent by this rout [route] will be
undertaken with as little concern as a voyage across the Atlantic.”
That was wishful thinking. The route that Lewis and Clark had followed
was far too rugged for ordinary travelers. There had to be a better way.
In 1824, a young fur trapper named Jedediah Smith found that better
way. Smith discovered a passage through the Rocky Mountains called
South Pass. Unlike the high, steep passes used by Lewis and Clark,
South Pass was low and flat enough for wagons to use in crossing the
Rockies. Now the way was open for settlers to seek their fortunes in
Oregon.
Reports like these inspired other settlers who were looking for a fresh
start. In 1843, about 1,000 pioneers packed their belongings into
covered wagons and headed for Oregon. A year later, nearly twice as
many people made the long journey across the plains and mountains.
“The Oregon Fever has broke out,” reported one observer, “and is now
raging.”
All of Oregon or Half? Along with Texas, “Oregon fever” also played a
role in the 1844 presidential campaign. Polk won the election with such
stirring slogans as “All of Oregon or none!” and “Fifty-four forty or
fight!” Polk promised he would not rest until the United States had
annexed all of Oregon Country.
But Polk didn't want Oregon enough to risk starting a war with Great
Britain. Instead, he agreed to a compromise treaty that divided Oregon
roughly in half at the 49th parallel. That line now marks the western
border between the United States and Canada.
The Senate debate over the Oregon treaty was fierce. Senators from
the South and the East strongly favored the treaty. They saw no reason
to go to war over “worse than useless territory on the coast of the
Pacific.” Senators from the West opposed the treaty. They wanted to
hold out for all of Oregon. On June 18, 1846, the Senate ratified the
compromise treaty by a vote of 41 to 14.
Polk got neither “fifty-four forty” nor a fight. What he got was a
diplomatic settlement that both the United States and Great Britain
could accept without spilling a drop of blood.
You might think that Texas and Oregon were quite enough new
territory for any president. But not for Polk. This humorless,
hardworking president had one great goal. He wanted to expand the
Polk's gaze fell next on the huge areas known as California and New
Mexico. He was determined to have them both—by purchase if
possible, by force if necessary.
On April 25, 1846, Mexican soldiers fired on U.S. troops who were
patrolling along the Rio Grande. Sixteen Americans were killed or
wounded. This was just the excuse for war that Polk had been waiting
for. Mexico, he charged, “has invaded our territory and shed American
blood upon American soil.” Two days after Polk's speech, Congress
declared war on Mexico. The Mexican-American War had begun.
The Fall of New Mexico and California A few months later, General
Stephen Kearny led the Army of the West out of Kansas. His orders
were to occupy New Mexico and then continue west to California.
In February 1847, the two forces met near a ranch called Buena Vista
(BWEY-nuh VIS-tuh). After two days of hard fighting, Santa Anna
reported that “both armies have been cut to pieces.” Rather than lose
his remaining forces, Santa Anna retreated south. The war in northern
Mexico was over.
Outside the capital, the Americans met fierce resistance at the castle of
Chapultepec (chuh-PUHL-tuh-PEK). About 1,000 Mexican soldiers and
100 young military cadets fought bravely to defend the fortress. Six of
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the cadets chose to die fighting rather than surrender. To this day, the
boys who died that day are honored in Mexico as the Niños Héroes
(NEEN-yos EHR-oh-ace), the boy heroes.
Under this agreement, Mexico gave up half of all its territory. In return,
the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. It also promised to
protect the 80,000 to 100,000 Mexicans living in Texas and in the
Mexican Cession. Most of these promises, however, were not kept.
Other senators opposed the treaty because they wanted even more
land. They wanted the Mexican Cession to include a large part of
northern Mexico as well. To most senators, however, the Mexican
Cession was a manifest destiny dream come true. The Senate ratified
the treaty by a vote of 38 to 14.
The Gadsden Purchase A few years later, the United States acquired
still more land from Mexico. In 1853, James Gadsden arranged the
purchase of a strip of land just south of the Mexican Cession for $10
million. Railroad builders wanted this land because it was relatively flat
and could serve as a good railroad route. The acquisition of this land,
known as the Gadsden Purchase, created the present-day border of the
southwestern United States with Mexico.
Most Americans were pleased with the new outlines of their country.
Still, not everyone rejoiced in this expansion. Until the Mexican-
American War, many people had believed that the United States was
too good a nation to bully or invade its weaker neighbors. Now they
knew that such behavior was the dark side of manifest destiny.
The Louisiana Purchase In 1803, the United States added the vast
territory known as Louisiana. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the
nation's land area.
Florida A treaty with Spain added Florida to the United States in 1819.
War with Mexico In 1846, the United States went to war with Mexico
in the Mexican- American War. In an 1848 treaty with Mexico, the
United States acquired the present-day states of California, Nevada,
Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, as well as parts of Colorado and
Wyoming. Five years later, the Gadsden Purchase completed the
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outline of the continental United States.
“Calling all adventurers!” the signs might have said. “It's 1821,
and the Santa Fe Trail is open for business.” And business it
was. Traders loaded their wagons in Missouri and crossed
plains, deserts, and mountains to sell their goods in Mexico.
The action lasted about 60 years before the railroads came. But
in its brief history, the Santa Fe Trail became the stuff of
legend.
Susan's husband Samuel was 27 years older than his bride. He had
been traveling and trading on the Santa Fe Trail for nearly 20 years.
The couple's honeymoon trip was also a business trip: Samuel was
overseeing 14 wagonloads of American goods. He planned to sell his
cargo in Mexico, at the towns of Santa Fe and Chihuahua.
Over the years, Samuel Magoffin had made a fortune on the Santa Fe
Trail. Like other businessmen of his day, he had seen possibility in
trading with Mexico. In search of profit, these entrepreneurs had
charted a course from the western edges of what was then the United
States to the lands beyond. And when Santa Fe became part of the
United States in 1848, after the Mexican War, the booming business did
not stop.
The trips were risky. Dust storms, illness, possible attacks by hostile
Indians, and lack of water all threatened their efforts. But for nearly 60
years, men like Samuel Magoffin took those risks. In the process, they
helped expand the United States' southwestern border. Fortunately for
historians, people like Susan Magoffin kept detailed journals of their
experiences. Their accounts bring to life a time of adventure on the
American frontier.
In the 1800s, several trails left the United States heading west. Settlers,
farmers, ranchers, and miners took the Oregon Trail toward new lives in
the Pacific Northwest. Families traveled along what became known as
the Mormon Trail, looking for religious freedom in the desert. And
across the California Trail, prospectors and others marched toward
what they hoped would be great wealth.
The Santa Fe Trail was different. Its main purpose was trade. Political
events made that trade possible. In 1821, Mexico won its independence
from Spain. Spain had prohibited trade with the United States, but
Mexico welcomed it. With the door open, American businessmen like
Samuel Magoffin and his brother James headed west.
The Santa Fe Trail began in Missouri and spanned 900 miles across
North America. Traders braved bad weather, hostile Indians, dangerous
animals, and lack of water. They were in search of profits, and they
found them. In 1822, trade on the trail totaled $15,000. By 1860, it had
reached $3.5 million. When the railroad ended trade on the Santa Fe
Trail in 1880, as many as 6,000 wagons were using the trail every year.
On the trail, Susan Magoffin appreciated being free from the strict rules
of society. In her diary, she wrote,
When Samuel Magoffin set off to Santa Fe with his young wife, he was
determined that she travel in comfort. So, he hired servants and
outfitted carriages to make his first home with Susan as nice as
possible. The Magoffins slept in a tent, but not in sleeping bags on the
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ground. No, they slept in a bed that the servants put up every night.
There were sheets on the mattress, plus blankets, pillows, and
mosquito netting. Tables, cabinets, and carpets added to the luxury.
Their meals were often equally elegant. Susan and Samuel brought
chickens with them so that they could have fresh eggs. They also ate
ham, fresh buffalo, and sometimes even one of the chickens. They
might top off a good meal with gooseberry tarts. “It is the life of a
wandering princess, mine,” Susan wrote in her journal.
During the days, Susan wrote, sewed, studied Spanish, and knit. When
she wanted flowers but didn't want to climb out of her carriage,
“servants riding on mules pick them for me.” Her devoted greyhound,
Ring, kept her company. Ring also helped her feel protected by barking
at the wolves and coyotes. “I felt safe with this trusty soldier near me,”
she wrote.
But life on the trail wasn't all luxury, even for wealthy travelers like
Susan and Samuel Magoffin. Difficulties abounded. Dust storms and
prairie fires plagued travelers. Rattlesnakes frightened them. And then,
there were the mosquitoes. “Millions upon millions are swarming upon
me,” Susan wrote, “and their knocking against the carriage reminded
me of a hard rain.”
Susan didn't encounter any Indians at Pawnee Rock, but she did have a
terrible accident as the caravan moved on. The wagon she was riding in
went over the edge of a river bank. She described what happened.
That wasn't quite true. Susan was knocked unconscious during the
crash. Pregnant at the time, she lost the baby due to the accident.
Over the next 10 years, Susan and Samuel Magoffin had three children.
Eventually, the family settled in St. Louis, where Susan Magoffin died in
1855. She was only 29 years old.