UCSP Official Modules For FINALS Doc1

UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLITICS
UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE
SOCIETY AND
POLITICS
MODULES FOR FINALS
S.Y. 2020-2021
pg. 1
Table of Contents
Unit 2: Humans and Institutions ………………………………………………...…3
Kinship…………………………………………………………………………...…4
Political and leadership structure……………………………………………….....12
Economic Organization…………………………………………………………...19
Social and Political Stratifications…………………………………………….…..26
Education……………………………………………………………………….....35
References……………………………………………………………………...…36
pg. 2
UNIT 2:
HUMANS AND
INSTITUTIONS
What are the elements of human behavior and culture in groups? This unit
presents modules that address various institutions I which human create and
recreate their identities.
From the smallest human institution-the family-to the largest and most
complex economic organization, this unit will lead you to understand how humans
interact with one another within social organizations.
Module 5 centers on the discussion of the family and its structure. Here you
will be able to discuss the family’s crucial role in the social development of
humans, being primary institution that person gets in contact with. Module 6 and 7
present a wider and more structured interactions among humans and how their
actions are governed and categorized according to the existing norms of the group
they belong to. These two modules will teach you how to distinguish different
forms of political and economic organizations within and across societies. Module
8 presents the concept of Social Stratifiction that is commonly experienced in
highly structured societies. Module 9 relate the impact of educational system to the
human social experience.
The flow of the discussion in this unit aims to lead you to understanding of
the human condition as predicted by social institutions. As you learn of the various
sources of your enculturation, you will have to continuously remember this
question: To what extent have I been influenced by these institutions?
pg. 3
Module 5:
Kinship
What I Need to Learn
At the end of this module, I can:
1. Trace kinship ties and social networks.
2. Compare different types of kinship based o lineage.
3. Discuss the functions of family and marriage.
4. Identify the different types of families based on the number of spouses and residential
patterns.
What is in
Kinship refers to the “web of social relationships” that humans form as part of a family,
which is the smallest unit of society. Ferraro and Andreatta (2010) defined family as “a social
and economic unit that consists of one or more parents and their children.” There are several
points that you can learn from this definition.
1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group of individuals a family is their
dependency on one another with regard to their social and economic activities. This implies that
the family acts as the primary support group for its members as they participate in the social
process within a society. For this reason, an individual is often disposed to consult with family
members during social and economic crises.
2. A family can have one or more parents. In society that you grow up on, a family usually
consists of two parents-father and a mother. However, this is not the norm for other societies
who would have one parent, a mother or a father, or multiple parents due to multiple marriages.
3. A family can have parents who are not married. Although the marriage of parents is
important in religious countries such as the Philippines, it is not a prerequisite in other societies.
Hence, as long as individuals are socially and economically interdependent, they can be
considered a family. This puts into perspective the concept of common law marriage, which is an
informal union of at least two individuals who present themselves as a couple. In popular
context, this is also referred to as cohabitating couples or domestic partners.
4. A family can have parents with same gender. Although same sec marriage is illegal in
most countries including the Philippines, some societies allow for the marriage of individuals
with the same sex. The United States now allows same sex marriages, which create families with
either both female or both males.
5.A family should have at least one child. One of the most crucial elements of a family is the
existence of children. Without a child, a couple remains to be a couple and not a family.
The two primary purposes of a family are;
pg. 4
• to orient the individual of the norms of the society and

• to provide physical support as the individual matures. This is seen in the two types of
nuclear families.
What is it
Activity #1:
Answer the following questions
1. In your own perspective what is the value of kinship?
- In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the
lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are
often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox states that "the study of kinship is the study of what
man does with these basic facts of life mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization,
siblingship etc." Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are "working with the same
raw material as exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to
serve social ends.
2. Explain the role of your family in molding you as a significant part of your community
and how your relationship to them affected your behavior as a human being.
- You play an important role in shaping your adolescent's behavior. Parents' and teenagers'
morals, future aspirations, and self-control are typically quite similar. Talking encourages
family togetherness and increases the likelihood teens will share parents' values.
3. Explain why family is a fundamental part of a society?
- As basic and essential building blocks of societies, families have a crucial role in social
development. Families provide material and non-material care and support to its members,
from children to older persons or those suffering from illness, sheltering them from hardship
to the maximum possible extent.
What’s neW
Kinship by Blood
One factor that allows and individual to identify another individual as a family member is
through consanguinity, popularly called a blood relative. This type of kinship links individuals
based on their genetic relationship (i.e., their bloodline). This is referred to as a descent or the
socially accepted connection between an ancestor and its succeeding generation.
Kinship connections are perceived to be of great importance in some societies. Due to this,
descent rules are created and followed. In anthropology, there are four main descent rules that are
recognized.
Unilineal Descent
This allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex group only-either the male or
the female. There are two types of unilineal descent: matrilineal and patrilineal. Matrilineal
descent leads an individual to trace kinship relations through the female’s line. This implies that
the surname and inheritances of a family are passed on from one female to the other.
In patrilineal descent, an individual trace his or her kinship through the male’s line only. This
promotes a passing down of name and inheritance to the male offspring only, while allowing the
female offspring to be part of another family through marriage. This is also referred to as agnatic
pg. 5
descent. A lot of societies in Asia are patrilineal. The most popular are the Chinese who are
highly patrilineal, enforcing a strict kinship relation traced through the male’s line.
An expansion of unilineal descent groups creates a kinship group called the clan. This type of
kinship is observed among groups of people who believe that they have unilineal relations based
on a common ancestor. The primary difference between a clan and the earlier unilineal descent
groups is that individuals from the former cannot specify their actual relations.
The final type of unilineal descent group is called moiety. Although similar with phratries in
having multiple clans within it, a moiety differs from a phratry in its function of creating a
sustainable systematic balance within a society. A society can be divided into two distinct
moieties that perform reciprocal responsibilities with one another. This characteristic ensures
equality of access to economic and political values. The Kariera of the Australian aborigines
practices a kinship system that allows for the intermarriage between moieties, ensuring a stronger
bond between the two groups.
What’s more:
Activity #2:
Instruction: Watch the movie Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, after watching the clip, write a
250 words reaction paper to the statements made by the mother of Snowflower bid her goodbye.
The patrilineal orientation of families in traditional Chins produced several practices. One of
which is featured in the movie Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Follow the link below and
watch a clip from the movie wherein the main character Snowflower, is being escorted out of her
parents’ home.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zd1RFo2oLzo
Bilateral Descent
Unlike the unilineal descent that tends to focus on one line of a kinship, bilateral descent allows
an individual to trace kinship ties on both sides of the family. This means that an individual can
recognize both his or her parents’ relatives as his or her own relatives. In this type of kinship,
everyone knows how he or she is connected to everyone. This provides a limit on the extent by
which kinship ties can be recognized. Hence, unlike in a unilineal descent that can trace relations
to several generations from the points person (Ego), bilateral descent can only trace Ego’s
immediate family.
In some cases, ties with the nuclear family can be extended to family members of the spouses.
This kinship grouping is called kindred. As this type of group is often united by a common
relative, it risks of dissolution when connections to the common relative is lost. For example, if a
spouse dies, the connection between the living spouse and the deceased family may be served,
which results in dissolution when connections of the kindred group. Most families in the
Philippines practice bilateral descent grouping. Figure 8.9 presents the kinship ties of Ego to her
family and that and that her husband’s.
pg. 6
Kinship by Marriage
Marriage is defined as the “socially or ritually recognized union or legal contact between
spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children,
and between them and their in-laws” (Haviland et al., 2011). It is believed that all societies have
a form of marriage that makes it a cultural universal.
Patrifocal and Matrifocal Family

This type of family is focused on one parent: a father (patrifocal) or a mother (matrifocal). This
type of family is often associated with the terms patriarchal, the rule of the father, and
matriarchal, the rule of the mother. It does not solely imply that there is only one paren. In some
situations, one parent is deemed more important that the other due to the economic or political
positions he or she holds in the family and in society.
Monogamous Family
This type of a family consists of a single couple and their child or children. This is also referred
to as the nuclear family. Most societies in the world have this type of family. Serial monogamy
occurs in societies where remarriage is allowed after a diverse or death of the other spouse.
Polygamous Family
This type of family consists of several parents and their children. There are two types of
polygamy: polyandry and polygyny. Polyandry is a marriage pattern where in a woman is
allowed to marry several men. In Tibet, women are allowed to marry several husbands who are at
times brothers. This practice called fraternal polyandry. The primary reason for allowing this
practice is the need to preserve land ownership through generations. If brothers are to marry
different women, they will need to divide the land, which would have detrimental effects on the
entire family that is based on agriculture.
Polygyny is a marriage practice that allows a man to marry several women. Most Islamic
societies allow this practice. In some cases, these women are sisters, making it a sororal
polygyny. This is sometimes preferred to facilitate a less competitive environment in the home, as
sisters would normally be more supportive as co-wives than women coming from different
families. Extended Family
This type of family has several married couples and their children living one household. This
can consist of the married parents and their married children living in one house. Filipinos and
other Asian societies are known to practice extended family arrangements as a form of securing
care for the elderly members of family.
In some cases, rituals allow for the inclusion of individuals into a family. The compadrazgo
system that is popular in Spanish-influenced regions of the world is an example of this. In this
situation, individuals not originally part of the family are made extended family members by
being godparents of a child of one of the actual family members. In the Philippines, this is
practiced in our concept of having ninong and ninang for occasions such as baptism,
confirmation, and marriage.
Reconstituted Family
Though not part of the traditional categories of families, reconstituted families are a growing
percentage of household classification in countries allowing divorce and legal separations. Such
pg. 7
families consist of spouses and children whom the spouses may have had prior to their marriage
or union.
In this type of family, the current spouses were previously married and had children.
Upon the dissolution of their previous marriages, these individuals remarried and created new
family by bringing in their children from their past marriages and often birthing their own.
Concepts such as stepmothers, half-brothers, and stepsisters are all part of the existence of
reconstituted families.
Post marital Residency Rules

One of the biggest questions that newlyweds have to answer is where to live and build a
family after marriage. Every society has its own rules and traditions on post-martial residency.
Anthropology has identified seven major residency patterns: patrilocal, matrilocal, avunculocal,
neolocal, natalocal, matrifocal, and ambilocal. Patrilocal Residence Upon marriage, the
woman is expected to transfer to the residence of her husband’s father. Her children will be
raised by her husband’s family and be integrated to their lineage, allowing for the creation of a
patrilineal descent. Virilocal residence is a subset of this practice that focuses only on the transfer
of the woman from her parents’ residence to that of her husband’s without consideration for the
creation of a patrilineage.
Matrilocal Residence
Upon marriage, the man is expected to take residence with his wife’s mother’s area, where they
are expected to raise their children and integrate them to the maternal line, creating a matrilineal
descent. Uxorilocal residence is a less complex rule that merely requires the husband to move in
to his wife’s mother’s household without consideration for creation of a matrilineage.
Neolocal Residence
This is an arrangement that requires both spouses to leave their households and create their own
at times even in a different locality. This supports the creation of nuclear households and is
commonly experienced in developed and industrialized societies. A nuclear family essentially
consists of a parent and a child.
Avunculocal Residence
This is a complex residency pattern as it requires two residence transfers. Upon marriage the
couple practices a form of virilocality and raises their children in the household of the husband’s
father. However, upon reaching adulthood, these children will have to be relocated with their
mother’s brother and live with him and his household which may consist of his wife and young
children and the other adult male offspring of his sisters. This practice allows for the creation of
a patrilineage,
Natalocal Residence
This arrangement allows both spouses to remain with their own households after
marriage. The couple will have to arrange for meetings as the two are not living under one
household. Their children are allowed to choose which household they would join. Should they
choose to join their father’s household, they will be integrated in a patrilineal descent. However,
if they decide to join their mother’s household, they will be made part of a matrilineal descent.
pg. 8
Matrifocal Residence
This type of residency rule arises when the father is economically and physically unable to
provide support for the family, thereby ascribing the role of sole provider and caregiver to the
woman. In this situation, all of the children reside with their mother who is part of her mother’s
household. This is different from the concept of uxorilocality or even matrilocality, as both
patterns allow the cohabitation of the husband and the wife. Ambilocal Residence
This type of residence pattern allows the couple to choose to live either with the wife’s mothers
are or the husband’s father’s area. This often creates an extended family, as several married
children and married couples may cohabit in one household.
Transnational Families
Due to globalization and transnational movements of people, families tend to practice alternative
forms of residency patterns are not based on lineage perpetuation, but more so on economic
reasons such as job offers, educational advancement, and job placements. This creates
transnational families or families whose members reside separately across territories. The
overseas Filipino worker (OFW) phenomenon experienced by a considerable number of Filipinos
contribute to the growing number of transnational families as a Filipino parent reside outside the
country to work while their children remain in the home country to study.
Politics of Kinship
Kinship does not only create social ties among individuals. In some cases, politics and kinship
are interrelated, allowing for the creation of political alliances and dynasties. A political dynasty
refers to the continuous political rule of one family. This can be in the form of the succession of
rule or in the occupancy of several political positions by one family.
Due to the compadrazgo system, political alliances are also created, which is based not on
agreed political ideologies or platforms but more on a pseudo kinship basis. Due to the
vulnerability of this type of governance to forms of corruption, laws are enacted to prevent it
occurrence. For example, the 1987 Philippine Constitution states in Article II Section 26 that
“the State shall guarantee equal access to opportunities for public service, and prohibit political
dynasties as may be defined by law.” Nevertheless, due to the varying interpretation of the law,
political dynasties still pervade in the Philippine political settings.
What I have Learned

Activity #3:
Instructions: Arrange the jumbled letters inside the box to answer the questions below. Put the
arranged answers on the provided space before the question.
1.kin 6. YMFLIA
2. ANILNUIEL ECEDSNT 7. ARPIRCTAHAL
3. ARIAMRGE 8. DXEDETEN MLFIAY
4. ONGOMOOUMS ALMFIY 9. EESCNROTTIUTD LAMIYF
5. IPNSHKI YB LDOBO 10. LMOBAICLA EESRDINEC
pg. 9
1. Kinship
2. Lieutenancies
3. Marriage
4. Monogamous family
5. J
6. Family
7. Patriarchal
8. Extended family
9. Reconstituted Family
10. Ambilocal residence
pg. 10
___ kinship______1. It refers to the “web of social relationships” that humans form as part of a
family, which is the smallest unit of society.
___Unlineal descent______2. This allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one sex
group only-either the male or the female.
__Marriage_______3. What is this ritual or legal contract that recognizes the rights and
obligations of spouses to them, their children, and in-laws.
___ conjugal family______4. This is also referred to as the nuclear family. Most societies in the
world have this type of family.
__ Consanguineous kinship_______5. What is this type of kinship that links individuals based on
their genetic relationship.
___ family______6. It is the smallest and a social and economic unit that consists of one or more
parents and their children.
__ patriarchal_______7. Is the rule of the father.
__nuclear family_______8. This type of family has several married couples and their children
living one household. This can consist of the married parents and their married children living in
one house.
___ Monogamous Family ______9. This is a type of family that consist of spouses and children
whom the spouses may have had prior to their marriage or union.
__ extended family_______10. This type of residence pattern allows the couple to choose to live
either with the wife’s mothers are or the husband’s father’s area. This often creates an extended
family, as several married children and married couples may cohabit in one household.
What I can do
Activity #4:
Instructions:
1. Create a mini portfolio of your family.
2. Post a picture of your family and a picture of your residence.
pg. 11
3. From the previous discussion of kinship, explain what type of family do you belong and
what type of residency your parents chose.
_______Cabrera Family________
Family Name
Kinship by marriage refers to the bond through marriage which binds people together to form a
group. Strangers who are not family members initially become part of the same family and
household becoming socially recognized as a family. The term usually used for this is in-laws.
Apart from social recognition, being bonded by marriage or having kinship by marriage means
legal recognition.
A good example of this is when a person who is part of a family through marriage, could have
his wife as the beneficiary of insurance proceed should he die. But the parent-in-laws are also
part of possible legal beneficiaries in case the wife died with him. Of course blood relatives
would take precedence but those affiliated through marriage could also receive the benefits.
Module 6:
Political and Leadership Structures
pg. 12
What I Need to Learn

1. Analyze social and political structures
2. Differentiate the types of political organizations.
3. Differentiate the different forms legitimacy of authority.
What is in
Can you imagine life without leaders or government? You may wonder if that scenario is
even possible. In this module, you will learn how other societies organize their political lives that
may be distinct from what you are aware of. This module is divided into two main parts. The
first part discusses the types of political organizations created by humans. The second part
discusses
Political Organization
A political organization is any entity that is participating in a political process. In Module 5, you
have been introduced to the concept of politics that involves the distribution and allocation of
scarce values such as power and prestige. Elman Service (1962), a political anthropologist,
identified four types of sociopolitical organizations. He argued that these political organizations
function in consideration of their economic orientation.
Bands
A band is the least complex form of political organizations, as it has neither a rigid form of
governance nor a structured form of leadership. A band typically consists of 20-50 individuals
who are usually related to one another by virtue of kinship. Due to the close ties between
members of this group, coercion as a form of receiving compliance is not an option. Individuals
are made to follow group decision through social mechanisms such as gossiping, ostracizing, and
being ridiculed.
This society is chiefly based on foraging, which is also known as hunting and gathering.
This type of economic subsistence allows for greater mobility of the group as they follow
animals and other food sources. Decision-making is often made by the entire group, with the
eldest member acting as the facilitator. This form of leadership is informal, as the extent of the
leader’s power lies only upon his or her capacity to influence the course of dialog in the group.
He or she can, by no means, coerce anyone in the group to do a task that the other does not want
to perform
Bands are egalitarian in social composition. This implies that individuals in the group have equal
access to resources and values. Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange among the members.
Individuals who have lesser capacity to hunt or gather have equal access to the food that other
members are able to produce. This arrangement produces a form of an economic safety net,
wherein every member of the group is assured of basic needs such as food and water. This is
observed even if the member is not able to produce on a particular day, as food and almost
everything else are communally owned. The drawback of this setting is the creation of free riders
or those who would partake of their share of the community’s resources without any attempt to
contribute. In such cases, bands would usually employ noncoercive tactics such as ridiculing and
gossiping.
pg. 13
Tribes
A tribe is a political organization that consists of segmentary lineages. This type of kinship
relation is marked by loyalty per family cluster or segment. An individual’s loyalty primarily lies
on his or her immediate family, followed by his or her cousins, and then his or her distant
cousins. This type of kinship grouping allows for the creation of interdependent generations. This
also creates a political organization that is less distinct from kinship organizations. This means
that the position of the father in the family as the prime decision maker and his position in
society will most likely be similar. The Maasai tribe of Kenya have strong segmentary lineages
that allow for generational solidarity of warriors coming from the same age group.
Tribes are less mobile than bands, as their form of economic subsistence requires a degree of
settlement. Most tribes are either horticultural (shifting agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals).
These types of economic systems require individuals to settle in one are for a specific period
either to let their animals graze (pastoralism) or to harvest their crops (horticultural) this supports
the need to create an informal form of leadership that is based on need.
The leaders that are chosen in this type of organization are individuals who are believed
to possess special skills or aptitudes that relate to the economic activity. Hence, should a younger
and an older hunter be in a debate about a decision, the decision-making-power shall be accorded
by the members of the society to the person with greater skills in hunting without considering
age. Similar to the leaders of bands, the leaders in a tribe have no concrete political power over
their members, except in areas when group concerns are in place.
The segmented nature of a tribe social dynamics allows for an economic system that use
redistribution of commodities among social segments though the process of tribute. A tribute is a
form of a gift that may consist of wealth, food, or other materials given to a central figure who in
turn redistributes that accumulated goods to the other members of society. Through this process,
the products of one group is shared and consumed by other groups.
Chiefdoms
The ancient Mayans were known for their complex and elaborate political system that
incorporated religion, kinship, and politics. The Mayan political organization is an example of a
chiefdom, as it embodied its characteristics that include a political leader with an advisory
council, a leader who exercises power that is based on legitimacy, and existence of social
stratification.
A chiefdom is more complex than a tribe, as this political organization consists of a few local
communities who subscribe to the power on them. This absolute power is derived from the
perceived relation of the leader to supernatural forces and powers, which is a for of legitimizing
factor. As long as the members of the communities believe that their leader is a direct descendant
of their Gods, their leader maintains his or her sovereignty in the land. Once the belief of people
shifts, this leader almost instantaneously loses power.
Similar to tribe, this political organization is tied with horticulture and pastoralism. The same
economic process of redistribution through tribute collection is practiced in chiefdom, just like in
a tribe. What distinguishes a chiefdom from a tribe is the existence of social stratification that
segregates society into the elite and the commoner. The elites are often the relatives of the ruler
and are also believed to have divinity or connections to the supernatural.
pg. 14
States and Nations

You have learned in an earlier module that a state is different from a nation, as the latter refers to
a group of people sharing similar culture and political history, whereas the former refers to a
political organization united by a common set of laws.
A state uses absolute power in directing the path of a society. To attain societal goals and
objectives, a state uses complete political coerciveness, which may come in the form of armed
personnel, stricter laws, and rigid governmental policies. This provides a marginal intersection
between politics and kinship, as both are required not to interact in the guise of professionalism
and incorruptibility.
The primary form of economic subsistence in this political organization is market exchange.
Standardized currencies are used to exchange commodities, unlike in a band where a commodity
or service is exchanged with another commodity or service, which are often deemed by both
parties to be of similar value. The differentiated access to production and capital creates the
formation and perpetuation of class and caste systems.
As states consists of actors with varying interest and assertions, social rules are
implemented in the form of law. These laws are created to manage the interaction among
individuals and between the individual and the state. As a citizen of a country, an individual is
subjected to the legal norms in the territory. These norms may include paying taxes, rendering of
military service, and contributing to the political life in the society. For example, in the event of
war, citizens may be required to render military service for their country.
Being a citizen of a country also entails the enjoyment of certain privileges that are labeled as
rights. There are two types of rights that are enjoyed by individuals as member of state: natural
and legal Natural Rights are those that are expected to be enjoyed by all individuals, regardless
of citizenship. These rights are derived from the basic elements of individuals being humans.
Some of these rights include the right to life, the right to liberty or freedom, and the right to
property. Legal Rights are those that are awarded to an individual by the state as part of its
culture, traditions, and norms. Hence a Muslim-dominated state will provide its citizens a
different set of legal rights as compared to a Christian-dominated state. Some examples of legal
rights are (1) the right to vote, (2) the right to privacy, and (3) the right to join formal
organizations.
What Is It?
Activity #1:
Instructions: Follow the link below and create a 200 words reflection paper.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUsyqo1jf_w https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1G8-
EejlNZ0 The 1987 constitution of the Republic of the Philippines
Reflection Paper
The Family Code in the Philippines recognizes a family constituted through the union of a man and a woman. It classifies family
relations as those between a husband and a wife, between parents and their children, and among full or half-blood siblings. In
classrooms, students are taught that a family can only either be nuclear or extended. In the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of
pg. 15
the Philippines, the first one is Preamble The preamble is very important for us citizen of the Philippines because it will tell you
why a particular clause on the Philippine Constitution is there. It would tell you what the Filipino people is striving for, what they
aspire to be, and what they believe in and It provides a standard to examine and evaluates any law and action of government to
find out whether it is good or bad. Hence, it is the soul of the Constitution. The Preamble shows the way the government ought to
run. It declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic. The 1987 Constitution established a
representative democracy with power divided among three separate and independent branches of government, the Executive, a
bicameral Legislature, and the Judiciary. There were three independent constitutional commissions as well the Commission on
Audit, the Civil Service Commission, and the Commission on Elections. Integrated into the Constitution was a full Bill of Rights,
which guaranteed fundamental civil and political rights, and it provided for free, fair, and periodic elections. In comparison with
the weak document that had given Marcos a legal fiction behind which to hide, this Constitution seemed ideal to many Filipinos
emerging from 20 years of political repression and oppression
ARTICLE III
BILL OF RIGHTS
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be
inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to
be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the
complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be
searched and the persons or things to be seized.
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for
any purpose in any proceeding.
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press,
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of
grievances.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the
exercise of civil or political rights.
Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law
shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be
impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be
provided by law.
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts,
transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for policy
development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
pg. 16
Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to
form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance shall
not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Section 12. (1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the
right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel
preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be
provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of
counsel.
(2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the free
will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or other similar
forms of detention are prohibited.
(3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be
inadmissible in evidence against him.
(4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well as
compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar practices, and their families.
Section 13. All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua
when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction, be bailable by sufficient sureties, or be
released on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail shall not be impaired even
when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended. Excessive bail shall not be
required.
Section 14. (1) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of
law.
(2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary is
proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed of the nature
and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial, to meet the
witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses and
the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after arraignment, trial may proceed
notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided that he has been duly notified and his
failure to appear is unjustifiable.
Section 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of
invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it.
Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases before all
judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
Section 18. (1) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and
aspirations.
pg. 17
(2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for a crime whereof
the party shall have been duly convicted.
Section 19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman
punishment inflicted. Neither shall the death penalty be imposed, unless, for compelling reasons
involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty already
imposed shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua.
(2) The employment of physical, psychological, or degrading punishment against any prisoner or
detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall
be dealt with by law.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If an
act is punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a
bar to another prosecution for the same act.
Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.
Authority and Legitimacy

The extent of a leader’s power relies on how much his or her followers accord him or her with it.
This leads to a discussion on the reasons that leaders rise and how they maintain power over
individuals. According to Mac Weber, a 20th century sociologist, every leader has some form of
justification as to why he or she should be accorded with such power. He organized these reasons
into three reasons into three categories of legitimacy of authority: legal, traditional, and
charismatic.
Legal authority is achieved by a leader through the process of following established codes and
procedures governing the allocation and distribution of power and resources within a society.
Leaders who are ruling under the clout of this authority have been either elected or appointed to
office following the existing laws of the land. The extent as to which this type of leaders can
wield power is limited to what the codified laws of the society accords him or her.
Traditional authority is a form of leadership legitimacy that highlights the right of a leader to
rule based on inheritance of the title. People under the leadership of a ruler with traditional
authority accept latter’s exercise of power as it has been the status quo in the society since their
forefathers. The rule of monarchs and their allies in both patrimonial and feudal regimes are
example of this.
Charismatic authority creates a type of leadership that is based on the personal attachment of the
subordinates to the ruler whose characteristics, experiences, or even skills are believed to be
extraordinary, or maybe even supernatural. Due to this, most of the ruler’s follower are devoted
to him or her without regard as to whether the authority of the ruler is accepted within the legal
framework of the society or that he or she has not been part of a royal lineage.
These types of authority and legitimacy are not mutually exclusive, as some can be
combined to produce other forms of leadership justification. For example, institutional charisma
is a combination of charismatic and legal authority. This kind of authority is usually observed
among religious institutions wherein the leader’s authority is accepted based on his or her
charisma, but his or her exercise of power is limited by the legal structures of the church.
Another combination is called familial charisma, which is a combination of traditional and
charismatic authority. This is often observed in kingship rules as individuals recognized the right
pg. 18
of the king to rule based on his inheritance of the positions and his innate extraordinary
capacities.
What’s More
Activity #2:
Instructions: Answer the following questions.
1. Why is it important that an individual has knowledge about his/her own rights may it be
natural are legal?
- Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular
culture or government, and so are universal, fundamental and inalienable (they cannot be
repealed by human laws, though one can forfeit their enjoyment through one's actions, such
as by violating someone else's rights). Natural law is the law of natural rights.
Legal rights are those bestowed onto a person by a given legal system (they can be modified,
repealed, and restrained by human laws). The concept of positive law is related to the concept
of legal rights. Human rights are basic rights that belong to all of us simply because we are
human. They embody key values in our society such as fairness, dignity, equality and
respect. ... Most importantly, these rights give us power and enable us to speak up and to
challenge poor treatment from a public authority.
2. In your own understanding, what is the characteristic of a good leader that you want for
our government?
- As well as providing direction, inspiration, and guidance, great leaders exhibit courage,
passion, confidence, commitment, and ambition. They nurture the strengths and talents of
their people and build teams committed to achieving common goals. The most effective
leaders have the following traits in common
What I have Learned

Activity #3:
Instructions: Give 2 examples for each;
Legal rights Natural rights
 The right to life.  the right to question the government
 the right to have free and independent

 The right to liberty and freedom. thought
pg. 19
What I can do
Activity #4:
Instructions:
1. Assuming you are an advocate of Human Rights, create a material promoting your
advocacy. You can choose from the 3 options; slogan, jingle, poster.
2. You can write or draw the material on a 1 long bond paper.
3.Module 7:
Economic Organization
What I have to Learn

1. Analyze economic organization and its impacts on the lives of people in the society.
Differentiate the types of economic subsistence
What’s In
The social world has been through several changes, advancements, and innovation since
the dawn of the Neolithic stage. Consequently, these changes have greatly affected the social,
cultural, political, and most especially economic aspect of societies. Due to various and
numerous technological improvements, the whole economic processes have also been developed.
Form (2014) argued that the shift in the technological capacity of societies has allowed for “the
formation and extension of markets, modifications of property relations (such as the change from
feudal Lord-peasant relations to contractual proprietor-tenant relations), and changes in the
organization of labor (such as the change from independent craftsmen to factories).”
What’s neW
Economic Process Reciprocity
In most situations when you give something away, you expect something in return. This kind of
situation reflect the concept of reciprocity. This economic process entails the exchange of
commodities between parties, often on an individual basis. It is also a binding method which
holds people, peers, and families together (Anthropology, 2008). In reciprocity, there are no
goods and services lost because it is a circular process wherein you just receive and return the
favor. Barter is the most common form of reciprocity, as this process includes the exchange of
commodities between individuals.
Transfers
When resources from one individual or organization are given to another with no expectation of
return, an economic transfer is in place. This type pf economic process allows for the
redistribution of resources within an economic system.
pg. 20
Some examples of this process include the transfer of financial aids, government
subsidies, and social security. Due to the nature of these transfers, individuals and organizations
tend to be reliant on these to mitigate their economic problems. To say that these economic
transactions have no immediate bearing on the participating individuals and organizations is
inaccurate. In fact, some crisis claim that such transfers have underlying agenda, such as when
foreign governments transfer resources to financially struggling organizations in the form of
loans, grants, and subsidies to promote their organizational policies.
Redistribution
Economic redistribution occurs when the resources of one, several individuals, or groups are
collected and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members. Two of the best
examples of redistribution are progressive income tax systems and charity donations. For
instance, a progressive income tax system allows for a process of ensuring that the poorer
members of society are given ample resources to cover their basic needs through the imposition
of higher taxes among the wealthy; this is a form of redistribution. On the other hand, when
wealthy people make charity donations, they get similar effects that are highly beneficial for
them. This donations can affect their social conscience or social image them to gain public
recognition and administration. In the less complex societies, this can be seen in a form of
tribute, a process where members of society give gifts to their chief, expecting that the latter
would ensure their group’s economic and political security.
What is it
Activity # 1:Read each paragraph and identify what kind of Economic Process each paragraph
represents.
1. Public goods are provided to people through various programs and activities that benefit
its citizens. Among the different allocations of transfer payments, governments usually
give priority to retirement and disability benefits, medical benefits, unemployment
insurance, and education and training. Answers:__________________
2. Filipinos who seek help from their acquaintances in accomplishing any specific task, such
as looking for a job or securing a personal loan for the family, would see themselves
indebted to their friends. When the time comes that the friend asks for a favor, it is
common practice to help him out in return. In our country, utang na loob is not mandated
by any law or legal document. It is, however, part of our unique culture and identity as
Filipinos.
Answers:__________________
3. Cherokees typically harvested corn, squash, and beans, but they also fished and hunted on
the side. Every Cherokee family had an area of land to harvest, and they were required by
their chief to give a portion of their annual harvests. These were pooled together at the
central plaza where redistributive feasts and council meetings also take place. The
products pooled together by the chief are reserved for the needy and for travelers.
Commoners could also acquire some of the products with permission from the chief,
while recognizing that the chief still owned such goods.
Answers:_________________
pg. 21
Market transactions
Market is referred to as the exchange of good and services that involves buying and selling
processes, However, it is not a simple process of exchanging materials, goods and services. It
involves several elements and transactions. Market is about making money, capital, income, and
growth (Women and Economy, 2011).
Humans have several needs and wants that are deemed as bases of market sellers for producing
goods and services. After the production of goods and services, everything is brought to the
market for the purpose of selling. Buyers are then expected to purchase the available market
supplies (goods and services) for the purpose of consumption and satisfying their needs. These
market transactions will continue to happen as long as there are buyers, sellers, supplies and
demands in society.
The key element that separates market transaction from reciprocity and redistribution is the use
of standardized currency These means that you cannot buy a can of soda from the grocery byu
giving a chicken that you raised on your backyard.
Market State
What do you think is the relationship of market and state? Basically, market involves all human
actions associated with economic aspects. On the other hand, the state serves as institution that
protects and maintain economic balance through its economic laws and policies. Ferarro et al.
(2010) argues that “societies with self- developed market economies have to decide as to what
extent they would allow free markets or the government to control the economy.” This relates to
the often-dichotomous perspective on the relation of the state and the market: the free hand of the
market or the heavy hand of the state. The first option, the free hand of the market; promotes
unbridled economic exchange between people and organizations in their pursuit of profit and
surplus. The second option the heavy hand of the state, promotes highly structured and codified
economic engagement of individuals and organizations as mandated by state led procedures. In
the most ideal setting, the states through its government, should work hand in hand with the
economic sectors of its society to ensure economic and even political stability.
Types of Economic Subsistence

Due to varying environmental conditions and other social factors such as family organization
and gender dynamics, human societies have created numerous ways to address their economic
needs. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, anthropologist such as Edward B. Taylor and Lewis
Henry Morgan created categorizations that were used to classify human groups that are believed
to be following a unilinear evolutionary pattern that progresses from savagery to civilization.
This theory of society has long been debunked due to its inaccurate and racist provocations.
Nevertheless, it has paved the way for a differentiated analysis of human subsistence patterns.
Modern anthropologists subscribe to four categories of economic subsistence that accepts the
diversity of human population without giving privilege to one category over the other. These four
categories are foraging, horticulture, pastoralism, and agriculture.
Foraging
One of the most ancient types of subsistence pattern is known as foraging. During ancient times,
people lived in the simplest way by being highly dependent on their environment. Hunting for
animals and gathering wild plants were their most common activities. O’Neil (2011) further
described the group’s activities: “They do not plant crops and the only domesticated animals and
they usually have our dogs. These useful animals often have multiple functions for foraging
pg. 22
peoples. They serve as pets, hunting aids, watch-animals, camp refuse scavengers, and even
surplus food when needed.”
Due to the type of activities that they had, their form of technology was also simple-ranging
from digging sticks, to hunting spears, and to other crude forms of hunting materials. Human
power and muscle had been their source in performing economic roles. Most tasks and work
labor were divided according to gender. There were specific tasks, and roles that were associated
with men and women. Hunting wild animals were for men, and gathering plants are for women.
In terms of settlement, the foragers were considered to be the early nomads. Nomads are
individuals or group of people who stay in a place for a short period of time. These people
usually built temporary dwellings in a certain area for the purpose of survival. The length of their
stay in a specific area is highly dependent on the availability of resources, such as food and
water, in that area. Climate variability affected the length of stay of nomads in the area as they
adapted to the resource limitation per season in a region. This implies a more consistent
movement dependent on type of season. Pastoral
Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is primarily focused on “tending herds of large animals”
(O’Neil, 2011). Various kinds of animals available in their environment became the biggest
source of the survival pastoralists. These animals it only plants and grass, so they are
domesticated herbivores. The most common animals tended by pastoralist societies are sheep,
deer, goat, cattle, and horses.
Men appear to be more aggressive toward outsiders, but they are very much cooperative within
the group they belong to. These men are often involved in making fast economic decisions, as
the survival of the group is often reliant on external forces such as drought, weather variability,
and threat of other predators.
There are two classifications of pastoralism: pastoral nomads and transhumance pastoralists.
Pastoral nomads have similarities with the way of life of foragers because of temporary
settlements. However, the only difference is that early foragers do not focus on tending animals.
Therefore, their search for food and water is for their own personal consumption. On the other
hand, pastoral nomads transfer from one place to another in search of food and resources that are
not just limited for their consumption alone but also for the consumption of their animals. Most
destinations of pastoral nomads are highly dependent on the needs of their animals.
O’ Neil (2011) described transhumance pastoralist as “ following a cyclical pattern of
migrations that usually take them to cool highlands valleys in the summer and warmer lowland
valleys in the winter. This seasonal migration between the same two locations I which they have
regular encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses. Transhumance pastoralist
are not dependent on their animals for food. They are into planting vegetation which serves as
their food. These pastoralist are into trading their animals in exchange for grain or food from
market.
O’Neil (2011) described transhumance pastoralist as “following a cyclical pattern of migrations

that usually take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the
winter. This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular
encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses.” Transhumance pastoralists are not
dependent on their animals for food. They are into planting and vegetation, which serves as their
food. These pastoralists are also into trading their animals in exchange for grain or food from the
market.
pg. 23
Horticulture
Horticulture is a combination of small-scale farming and domesticating animals for the purpose
of food and prestige. Unlike foraging, this subsistence pattern allows for the accumulation of
food products because horticultural societies participate in small surplus or selling in exchange of
the goods they cannot produce.
One of the primary characteristics of horticulture societies is their shifting planting that entail
movement from one cultivated land to another. Swidden farming is one key example of this
pattern, a swiddeners prepare and plant in one land area for a period of time and move to another
area after the produce is harvested from the first area. In the Philippines, this takes the form of
kaingin, a form of slash-and-burn planting method.
Horticulture societies follow a certain pattern that can shift rapidly, depending on their situations
and conditions. It also has several economic advantages because of its flexibility and ability to
adjust and resolve circumstances. For instance, when farming lands are depleted of soil,
horticulturists move to another available field using their strategies and techniques.
Agriculture
Most large-scale societies are depended on agriculture as their primary mode of economic
subsistence. As early as 10 000 years ago, farming methods and domestication of animals were
developed intensively to meet the needs of the growing population. Improved water management
systems paved the way for the spread of agriculture among different societies. The number of
large animals for pulling plow rapidly increased for better soil and agricultural farming is one of
the major sources of living and income in early societies. Most families are farmers who work
together in agricultural lands.
During ancient times, agriculture was highly practiced in the ancient civilizations in Egypt,
Mesopotamia (now Iraq and eastern Syria), India, Pakistan, North China, Mesoamerica, and
Western South America (Ferraro and Andreatta, 2010). As farming continued to flourish to the
different regions all over the world, agricultural system changed constantly, especially when
agricultural technologies and inventions were discovered and introduced to different societies.
What’s More
Activity # 2:
Instructions: Differentiate each types of economic subsistence using the table below.
Foraging Pastoral Horticulture Agriculture
Foraging is the act of A pastoral lifestyle is Horticulture is the Agriculture is the
gathering wild food that of shepherds science and art of the practice of cultivating
for free. Although it's herding livestock development, plants and livestock.
gained far greater around open areas of sustainable Agriculture was the
popularity in recent land according to production, key development in
years, for our distant seasons and the marketing and use of the rise of sedentary
ancestors foraging changing availability high-value, human civilization,
would simply have of water and pasture. intensively cultivated whereby farming of
been a way of life – a It lends its name to a food and ornamental domesticated species
necessity in fact. genre of literature, plants. Horticultural created food
art, and music that crops are diverse, surpluses that
pg. 24
depicts such life in an including: Annual enabled people to live

idealized manner, and perennial species, in cities. The history
typically for urban Fruits and vegetables of agriculture began
audiences. thousands of years
ago
What I have learned

Activity #3: Word Search
Instructions: Trace the words that can answer the questions below. After tracing each aswer write
them on the space provided before each question.
A T R A N S H U M A N C E Q W
W V C M S R H T V Z W R E S F
M T P A S T O R A L U A N A O
Y C I R C H R W X T I Q P A R
T E M K P Y T G L B D A M I A
I R O E A Q I U Z N Y N S T G
C D I T U P C F Y Q D A T U I
O I Q W W I U F Q Z A N A V N
R T T E R K L B Y I L O T I G
P Y C G T L T R A N S F E R S
I W A P J Q U N T Q E L E T R
C E R R P P R E E I U L D E B
E H F E Q E E M W B L U E W H
R E D I S T R I B U T I O N T
__________1.This form type of economic subsistence focuses on Hunting for animals and
gathering wild plants were their most common activities.
___ Pastoralism _______2. Is a subsistence pattern that is primarily focused on “tending herds of
large animals.
__________3. It involves all human actions associated with economic aspects.
___ Horticulture _______4. It is a combination of small-scale farming and domesticating
animals for the purpose of food and prestige.
__________5. This economic process entails the exchange of commodities between parties,
often on an individual basis. In most situations when you give something away, you expect
something in return.
__________6. It occurs when the resources of one, several individuals, or groups are collected
and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members. (e.g. income tax systems
and charity donations.)
pg. 25
__________7. This type of economic subsistence focus on farming methods and domestication
of animals were developed intensively to meet the needs of the growing population.
__________8. When resources from one individual or organization are given to another with no
expectation of return, (e.g. financial aids, government subsidies, and social security.)
__________9. It serves as institution that protects and maintain economic balance through its
economic laws and policies.
__________10.This seasonal migration between the same two locations I which they have
regular encampments or stable villages often with permanent hous
Module 8:
Social and Political Stratification

What I have to learn
1. Examine stratification from the functionalist and conflict perspectives.
2. Identify characteristics of the systems of stratification.
3. Suggest ways to address global inequalities.
4. Report on the status of persons with disability on their integration to society.
5. Advocate inclusive citizenship.
6. Promote protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.
What is In
Would you consider yourself or your family rich, poor, or average? Often times, when
you ask Filipino if he or she is rich, you will receive responses such as “medyo mayaman,”
“may kaya,” and “ayos lang.” These descriptions do not directly translate to Western
concepts of being poor, middle class, or rich. These categories are already culturally laden,
such that a person who is may kaya is supposedly is richer than the person who is medyo
mayaman. The differences in the statuses ascribed to individuals are dependent on socially
accepted criteria. These criteria enable the creation of systemic hierarchies that position
individuals in either powerful or marginalized capacities. This unequal access to values and
resources promotes social and political stratifications that perpetuate the problem of
inequality.
What’s neW
Social Desirables
In a society where social stratification is present, social desirables are inevitable. Social
desirable refer to factors that are somewhat accepted or desired in a certain society. Social
desirables may be associated with social status, popularity, acceptance, or approval. These
factors can be considered as qualities that make individuals appear as socially desirable in the
community. There are three most desired qualities in every society: wealth, power, and
prestige.
pg. 26
Wealth
Wealth pertains to the accumulated economic capital of an individual or group. The extent of
the amassed wealth of an individual or group usually determines its capacity for influence in
decision-making in society. Marxist perspective argues that the differentiation in wealth
creates social, economic, and political inequality, which ultimately promotes suffering
among the disadvantage.
Power
Dahl (Curtis,2001) defined power as the capacity of an individual to influence another
person to perform an act that he or she would not otherwise do. This is associated with
wealth, as economic capital permits selected members of society to determine the norms that
are often more beneficial for the elite than for the majority who are bound to follow them.
Power involves benefits and privileges. The power to determine the course of policies and
economy can provide an individual with distinct advantage as compared with those who
cannot wield influenced on others.
Prestige
The last social desirable that serves as the result of the two previous elements in prestige.
Wealth combined with power leads to prestige. Sociologists defined the term prestige as a
level of honor in human society attached to different groups with reference to the group’s
occupation. The measurement of occupational prestige depends on social standing and
desirability. The level of prestige depends on the job professionalism of individuals in
relation to training rather than their job income (Pearson: Sociology, 2005). For instance, a
wealthy and powerful individual is expected to have a stable and high form of occupation to
maintain societal rank and position. Hence, occupational prestige, together with wealth and
power, has always been seen as the basis of social status and rank in human society.
What is It
Activity #1:
1. How are power, wealth, prestige interrelated as social desirables?
- Social stratification refers to the unequal distribution around the world of the three Ps:
property, power, and prestige. Normally property (wealth), power (influence), and prestige
(status) occur together. That is, people who are wealthy tend also to be powerful and appear
prestigious to others
2. What is social Stratification?
- Social stratification refers to a ranking of people or groups of people within a society. The
existence of a system of social stratification also implies some form of legitimation of the
ranking of people and the unequal distribution of valued goods, services, and prestige.
3. How is Social Inequality produced?
- Social inequality can emerge through a society's understanding of appropriate gender roles,
or through the prevalence of social stereotyping. Social inequality can also be established
through discriminatory legislation.
pg. 27
Social Mobility System

Social mobility is the shift in social status or rank of an individual within the frame of a
social structure. Individuals who gain position in a certain social class may progress to a
higher status. The forms, nature, and directions of social mobility are highly dependent on
the social stratification of every society, which may change from time to time. For instance, a
country or community where agriculture is predominant indicate a lower and vice versa.
On the other hand, horizontal mobility refers to the movement from one status to another
within the same social category. It may be a transfer of position to another area but with no
other changes in the position. For instance, a government employee at a certain level may
transfer to another government organization in the same level of position.
Aside from the above mentioned types that affect status, class and position, social
mobility may also affect generations resulting in two types; intergenerational and
intragenerational. The former occurs when changes take place from one generation to
another, whereas the latter illustrates changes within the same generation.
Class
Class system denotes the classification of an individual or group of person having explicit
societal status based on acquired characteristics. In 17 th century Europe, the main
qualification to be a member of a certain hierarchal class depends mostly on three things:
wealth, economic occupation, and power. Nonetheless, this qualification changes over time,
reliant on the existing societies especially those societies that consider legal differentiation as
the basis of social classes (Social Stratification 2014).
Class may also be characterized in different ways, by the term Status is always associated
with it. Status in a class system is not ascribed, but is rather achieved in many different ways.
Class and status differ according to their accustomed modes of behavior, which include
lifestyle, recreation and culture. The standard of living preference, taste, and mode of dress is
reflected on lifestyle and behavior.
Caste
The caste system is related to the concept of Hindu practice, tradition and culture, which is
rooted in divine sanction and customs. The term caste is derived from the Spaniards meaning
“Breed.” The caste also means race in society. The Sanskrit word for caste is “varna”
meaning color. Also, Hindu society is composed of four types of varna or caste known as
brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The Hindu caste system is a close system, as it
does not allow for social mobility. An individual born in shudra (worker) came from parents
who are of the same caste.
pg. 28
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/229472543488068699/
As seen in the figure 12.2 each caste system has specific duties and responsibilities. The
brahmins are placed in the highest position next to gods , and they include the priest and
academics. Moreover, brahmins enjoy privileges such as conducting temple worships and
prayers, making them superior and sacred. Kshatriyas are composed of warriors and kings for
the purposed of defense and protection management. Vaishyas include land owners and
merchants who perform agricultural production. The lowest position in the caste system is
occupied by Shudras, who are servants and workers for the other caste system. The
untouchables have no caste system, which signifies that this groups are outcasts.
The caste system was created to ensure the continuity and preservation of Indian culture
from the earliest generation up to the present one (Social Stratification, 2014). However, it
has been one of the main reasons why alienation, division, and discrimination are present. It
is because of the different positions in the caste system, which are linked to a specific
standards and criteria, that some individuals enjoy superiority and privileges more than
others.
Estate System
The estate system is identical to the practice of Feudalism. It has its roots in prerevolution
France, where individuals were ranked according to three categories; clergy, nobility, and
commoners. The final authority in this system was the king. The estate system was based on
existing legal structures that defined members’ status, rights, and duties. The broad division
of labor was also present in this system including specific functions. Like feudalism, the
estate system related to a political group participation, and possessed political powers
(Sociology Guide, 2014).
pg. 29
Slavery
This system is the most extreme form of inequality in society. For instance, slaves are
often maltreated by their owners. In most cases, slaves have no rights at all and, deprived of
everything because it is believed that are created to work only for others. Ancient Greeks in
Romans allowed various forms of slavery of non-greeks or non-romans individuals. This
system persisted in Western countries such as the United States, which formally abolished
the practice in 1865, through an amendment in the U.S Constitution but with much resistance
from slave owners and their supporters. The condition of the slaves in the United States can
be seen in this Quotation from Harriet Beecher Stowe’s classic work, Uncle Tom’s Cabin,
which sparked antislavery sentiments in the United States that resulted in the American Civil
War.
Social Inequality
Social inequality is one of the dimensions of stratification that concerns the gap between
the rich and the poor (Neckerman and Torche, 2007). In the United States, social
inequality is more rampant than in other countries because of their higher economic
capacities and capabilities. Social inequality is visible in many other social institutions
affecting other social aspects such as gender, capital (Social, Political, Symbolic), Ethnic
minorities and other minorities (e.g., persons with disabilities), and global inequality.
Access to Social, Political and Symbolic Capital
According to Pierre Bordieu, Capital “ is a force inscribed in the objectivity of things so
that everything is not equally possible and impossible.” The existing social world is innate
and depends on the structures of capital. There are three fundamental types of capital:
Economic, symbolic, and cultural capital.
Ethnic Minorities and Person with disabilities
Are you familiar with the concept of social Exclusion? This term defines the inequality
between and among ethnic minorities and other minorities. Social exclusion is the concept of
alienating or dividing individuals or a group in a certain society. Race and Ethnicity have
also been the basis of social division in the whole world. Racial and ethnic differences entail
widespread conflict which can be economic, political, social and cultural. Racial Identity is
the main concern of the ethnic inequalities (Nazroo, 2013). For instance, African American
often suffer from racial discrimination, making them feel alienated from other societies.
Again, this is a visible example of social inequality.
Other minorities also experience inequalities and social discrimination due to specific
differences they possess as compared with other individuals and groups. Minorities such as
person with disabilities (PWDs) suffer from social exclusion and discrimination because of
their disabilities. From social policies to infrastructure, the exclusion of PWDs can be
observed. For example, the lack of sufficient PWD-friendly establishments promotes
hardship and further marginalization of PWDs. Consequently, opportunities in life are
limited for them because of the prejudices of people.
Gender
Another widespread of inequality is gender inequality. This has been a major issue and
problem around the world. Gender has always been a sensitive topic, in every argumentation.
Violence against women and children rapidly increase every day. Gender discrimination
among LGBTQI continues even if several organizations have already developed advocacies
and means to eliminate discrimination in every society and community.
pg. 30
• Dowry deaths are responsible for the numbers of thousands of women every year,
especially in South Asia.
• Honor Killings continue to take place in Pakistan, Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt
Lebanon, Iran, Yemen, Morocco , and othe Mediterranean and Gulf countries.
• Physical and Sexual abuse of girls is a serious concern across all regions.
• Child marriage continues to put young girls at great risk for too-early pregnancy and
other sexual and reproductive health issues.
• Female genital cutting or mutilation (FGC/M) causes serious injury to millions of
young women every year.
• The rate of femicide (murder of women and girls) has significantly escalated over the
last few years.
The cases above show how rampant gender inequality is. Gender inequalities will only be
avoided if gender issues would be settled. But then again, settling gender issues may be
daunting because of the existing norms and values of the society. Furthermore, several
sociologist made various studies to satisfy inquiries about gender, issues, discrimination and
inequalities. Which also lead to further approach and studies up to the present time.
Inequality
One of the most debated issues in the world is that global inequality. This type of
inequality refers to the unequal distribution of scares resources and values across territories.
The divide between resource- rich territories and those that face the challenge of ensuring
basic human needs and care have been conceptualized in the dichotomized terms such as
developing versus developed countries, first world vs third world and, more recently, Global
South vs Global North. In all these dichotomies, the prevalent theme is the unequal access to
world resources among countries.
Theories on Inequality
For the past years, inequality has been analyzed by sociologists because it is present in
every human society. This section provides various perspectives of sociologists regarding
social stratification inequality.
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx’s idea of conflict theory is highly based on the modern society which is
divided into two classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoise are the landlords and owners of
production (Curtis, 1976).
For Marx’s the proletariat or workers are being exploited bourgeoise. The proletariat were
given food, shelter, and clothing by the owners. However, exploitations occurs without the
workers noticing it due to their false consciousness and mistaken beliefs that the bourgeoise
are the ones working for them. Marx predicted that a revolution would happen between the
proletariat and the bourgeoise as the rich became richer. This revolution would involve
through class consciousness together with shared identity that is deeply rooted from
exploitation. Marx believe that a communist society is better than a capitalist society,
wherein people would be treated equally, and no one controlled wealth. However, Marx’s
hypothesis failed and never came into the limelight. As modern societies develop, the
working class became more educated, allowing them to acquire skilled and better jobs.
Instead of exploitation, labor laws and the protection of working class were developed,
letting the members of the working class earn salaries for their financial well being.
pg. 31
Max Weber looks into how Marx viewed social stratification, for weber there are other
factors and elements to consider in determining one’s social class including power, wealth,
and prestige. Ads [people acquire more wealth, prestige, or popularity, they also acquire
more power.
Functionalism
Summary of Dais and Moore’s Principle of Stratification
The main function of stratification is “placing and motivating individuals in the social
structure”
1. Each society must (a) place individuals in social positions and (b) motivate them to
work.
2. Some positions are more functionally important than others and/ or require more
training or talent than others.
3. Societies place appropriate example (skilled and trained) people in these positions
and motivate them to work by connecting this positions to better rewards.
4. Thus, the resulting stratification system is functional for society.
According to Davis and Moore each member of society has specific roles and
responsibilities to take and accomplish. Each role has levels of difficulty, and a task with
higher level of difficulty entails more wealth, power, and money. Davis and Moore also
believed that the unequal distribution of work among people enables them to exert more
effort toward the accomplishment of societal rewards. On the contrary, Tatum argues that
gender and family is more likely determinant of social stratification. Men have a higher place
in social stratification because paternalistic feature has been implanted to the human mind. A
wealthier family has higher capacity of accomplishing their roles because of its higher
income.
Human Dignity, Rights and the Common Good
Although Social grouping and stratification function in promoting social order and
organization, the impact that they often have in human groups in unsettling due to the issues
that they creative pertaining to the achievement of human dignity and rights. The rights of
individuals to quality education is often tampered by political arguments contesting that it
should be reserved to those who can afford it. The pervading issue in the Philippines
educational system that promotes unequal learning opportunities between private and public
schools is one of the negative impacts of inequality.
What’s More
Instructions:
1. Visit the following website to read an article written by Ann- Marie Slaughter, a
professor at Princeton University. This article presents arguments on the inequality of
labor based on gender. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-
women-still-canthave-it-all/309020/
pg. 32
2. After reading the section, answer the following questions.
1. What forms of inequality are experienced by women?

- Women Works Longer than Men
In most of the societies the male-stream is the main stream who argues that women have
comparative advantage in household non-market production, like cooking and cleaning for the
family that can be called emotional and personal caring work. Based on this thinking, household
jobs are then asymmetrically distributed. Women are more valued in home. Men are specialised
in market- based production. Thus, being the bread-earners, males enjoy both power and status.
2. How can inequality be addressed?
- Inequality arises from power imbalances, and these can be tackled through redistribution of
income, assets, access to social services and access to power and decision-making. The
transfer of power is what makes policies transformational, enabling people to move out of
vulnerability in a sustainable way.
3. Relate the article writer’s arguments with your observation of Philippine culture.
- Filipinos are native people who are found in the Philippines. They are from different ethnic
groups that are bounded together. The cultures of the Filipino are evident of influences. As a
past colony of more than two countries, we have adopted some of their cultures and tradition.
As we all know, culture is the sum total of everything. The diversity of culture in the
Philippines is what makes them more unique. Every region has their own entity that defines
who they are and the way of their living.
What I have Learned

Activity #4:
Explain the following ON YOUR OWN WORDS based on your own understanding on the
previous lesson.
1. Inequality
- inequality the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities is a
concept very much at the heart of social justice theories. However, it is prone to confusion in
public debate as it tends to mean different things to different people. Some distinctions are
common though.
2. Conflict Theory
- Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize a
materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward
existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at least, reform
3. Functionalism
- In philosophy of mind, functionalism is the thesis that mental states are constituted solely by
their functional role, which means, their causal relations with other mental states, sensory
inputs and behavioral outputs. Functionalism developed largely as an alternative to the
identity theory of mind and behaviorism
4. Human Dignity, Rights and the Common Good

- Human beings have intrinsic dignity. All human persons share this common dignity and as
such are called to live in solidarity with each other. This solidarity enables us to recognize
that human flourishing can only be realized through cooperation with others. This mutual
cooperation is the common good.
5. Slavery
pg. 33
- slavery, condition in which one human being was owned by another. A slave was considered
by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most of the rights ordinarily held by free
persons.
pg. 34
UNDERSTANDING D
Module
Education
CULTURE SOCIETY AN POLITICS
9:
What I have to learn

At the end of this module, I can evaluate how functions of educations affect the lives of
people in society.
What is in
An individual learns his or her society’s value and beliefs through various institutions. One of the
most pervading is that of the educational system. In sociology, education is viewed as a social
institution. It gives society the potential to reach development and success. Generally, education
means the development of the intellect, it is an act of thinking critically, it can be classified into
formal and nonformal.
Formal education is the term used when a student learns inside the classroom. A student follows
a curriculum and is being graded on his or her performance. Your experiences in your current
school are fostered by this type of education.
As a concept, nonformal education emerged in response to the world crisis in education
identified by Philip H. Coombs in 1967, who argued that the formal education systems have
failed to address the changing dynamics of the environment and the societies. The skills that are
needed to foster economic development are lacking due to untrained labor force that is not able to
access formal education. Nonformal education enables a student to learn skills and knowledge
through structured learning experiences. A student learns his or her values, principles, and beliefs
and undergoes lifelong learning. Capacity-building initiatives are conducted through this type of
education.
What is new
The Function of Education That Affect Society
As British sociologist Herbert Spencer explains, functions are important to be performed as they
make the society whole. If each function is working well, society attains progress.
The functions of education are the following: (1) to produce productive citizens, and (2) to
develop self-actualization.
Productive Citizenry
Educational systems enable citizens to be productive members of society, as they are equipped
with knowledge and skills that could contribute to the development of their society’s systems and
institutions. This highlights the importance of formal and nonformal education in the
development of oneself and the society. Consequentially, it is crucial for educational systems to
adapt to the changing demands of the environment to efficiently capacitate individuals.
pg. 35
For instance, the Philippines recently adapted the K to 12 curriculum, which provides sufficient
time for students to learn and develop knowledge and skills that are demanded by the global
community. The K to 12 program covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education, which
includes primary education, junior high school, and senior high school. It is the aim of the
curriculum to produce high school graduates who are employable to the skill-based sectors.
Recently, some universities in the country also underwent changes, in which they shifted their
academic year to pattern it to its Southeast Asian neighbors. This move facilities economic
integration programs that will allow labor exchanges among participating countries.
Being a productive citizen requires critical thinking. One must have the ability to understand his
or her duties and be able to respond to them by making decisions. Through education, individuals
are introduced to concepts concerning democracy, power, inequality, and the like. This promotes
greater awareness in his or her society. It encourages vigilance and participation. Educational
attainment does not only contribute to the individual’s success but also to the betterment of his or
her environment. Self-actualization
Education develops one’s sense of self. As a huge part of the discovery process of oneself,
education encourages having the vision to become self-actualized. Moreover, it enables once to
see your strengths and maintain them. It enables one to determine weakness and adjust to them.
This helps one reach full potential and establish oneself as a whole.
According to Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is the highest form of a human need. It was
defined as “to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming.
Through education, humans are empowered to experience and learn their true capacities that lead
to self-actualizations. Humans also tend to find boundless enthusiasm in learning outside the
classroom, which is basically through experience. With this, it becomes easier for them to
socialize, to identify a career path to create self-identity, and the like. They will tend to have the
ability to analyze, evaluate, and decide on their own.
Primary Education as a Human Right

Primary educational is essential in the early of human life. Humans need education to enable
them to adapt to the dictates of their society. UNESCO declares that
Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights. It
promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development benefits. Yet millions
of children and adults remain deprived of educational opportunities, many as a result of poverty.
Normative instruments of the United Nation and UNESCO lay down international legal obligations for
the right to education. These instruments promote and develop the right of every person to enjoy access to
education of good quality, without discrimination or exclusion. These instruments bear witness to the
great importance that Member States and the international community attach to normative action for
realizing the right to education. It is for governments to fulfill their obligation both legal and political in
regard to providing education for all food quality and to implement and monitor more effectively
education strategies.
Education is a powerful tool by which economically and socially marginalized adults and children can lift
themselves out of poverty and participate fully as citizens.
pg. 36
Formal education suggests studying in a school or university where everything is systematic. A

teacher or professor explains, while a student listens and understands. For that, the student pays
the teacher. The last relates primarily to the struggles between social classes.
What is it
Activity #1:
1. Explain why education plays a significant role in changing lives of people.
- Having education in an area helps people think, feel, and behave in a way that contributes to
their success, and improves not only their personal satisfaction but also their community. In
addition, education develops human personality, thoughts, dealing with others and prepares
people for life experiences.
2. What is Self-Actualization? Explain it in your own words and understanding.
- Self-actualization is the complete realization of one's potential, and the full development of
one's abilities and appreciation for life. This concept is at the top of the Maslow hierarchy of
needs, so not every human being reaches it
What’s More
Activity # 2:
Instructions:
1. Follow the link below and watch the documentary about Indigenous People's Education
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xp9YGKYX-gs
2. After watching the video create a reflection paper answering these questions.
1. What are the challenges in education that hinders individuals from accessing it?
2. After watching the video, in your own opinion, what are the possible solutions that
the government can give especially to those who are living in remote areas?
3. List down your realizations while watching the videos.
What I have learned

Activity #3: Identify weather this characteristics are Self Actualization or Productive Citizenry
_______________1. Confidence
_______________2. Patriotic
_______________3. Empathy
_______________4 Integrity
_______________5. Responsibility
_______________6. Goal oriented
_______________7. Creativeness
_______________8. Sense of Humor
_______________9. Love of Justice
pg. 37
_______________10. Compassionate
Reference:
Carrinnes, Maria and Gonzales, Alejandria, “Understanding Culture Society and Politics Module”
Diwa Learning System Inc., Legaspi Village Makati City Philippines, 2016.
pg. 38

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UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLITICS

Unit 2: Humans and Institutions ………………………………………………...…3

The two primary purposes of a family are;

• to orient the individual of the norms of the society and

Patrifocal and Matrifocal Family

Post marital Residency Rules

What I have Learned

Political and Leadership Structures

What I Need to Learn

States and Nations

Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.

Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.

Authority and Legitimacy

What I have Learned

 the right to have free and independent

What I have to Learn

Types of Economic Subsistence

O’Neil (2011) described transhumance pastoralist as “following a cyclical pattern of migrations

depicts such life in an including: Annual enabled people to live

What I have learned

Social and Political Stratification

Social Mobility System

Human Dignity, Rights and the Common Good

2. After reading the section, answer the following questions.

1. What forms of inequality are experienced by women?

What I have Learned

4. Human Dignity, Rights and the Common Good

What I have to learn

Primary Education as a Human Right

Formal education suggests studying in a school or university where everything is systematic. A

What I have learned

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