SECTION 17

Fluid Flow and Piping

Few flow problems can be solved with an acceptable degree of their relationships. For engineering design purposes, several
accuracy when using equations designed to fit idealized appli- empirical formulas have been developed to fit particular cir-
cations. Flow regimes and associated pressure drops are com- cumstances in predicting flow capacity and pressure drop.
plex phenomena and require complex equations to predict

FIG. 17-1
Nomenclature

A = pipe cross sectional area, m2 (A = πD2/4) NLv = liquid velocity number, from Eq 17-53
c = sum of allowances for corrosion, erosion, etc., mm, Ngv = gas velocity number, from Eq 17-54
Fig. 17-23 Nd = pipe diameter number, from Eq 17-55
C = design parameter used in Hazen and Williams NL = liquid viscosity number, from Eq 17-56
formula, Eq. 17-33 P = pressure, kPa (abs)
C1 = discharge factor from Fig. 17-8 P1 = inlet pressure, kPa (abs)
C2 = size factor from Fig. 17-9 P2 = outlet pressure, kPa (abs)
d = internal diameter of pipe, mm Pavg = average pressure, kPa (abs), from Eq 17-16
do = outside pipe diameter,mm Ps = base absolute pressure, kPa (abs) :
D = internal diameter of pipe, m Ps = 101.56 kPa (abs)
E = pipeline efficiency factor (fraction) Pi = internal design pressure, kPa (ga)
E′ = longitudinal weld joint factor from ANSI B31.3, ∆P100 = pressure drop, kPa/100 m equivalent pipe length
Fig. 17-23 ∆Pe = elevation component of pressure drop, kPa
E′′ = longitudinal joint factor from ANSI B31.8, ∆Pf = frictional component of pressure drop, kPa
Fig. 17-24 ∆Pt = total pressure drop, kPa
√

1/ff = transmission factor
q = flow rate, m3/h
ff = Fanning friction factor Q = flow rate of gas, m3/day at base conditions
fm = Moody friction factor (fm = 4.0 ff) QL = liquid volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
fn = single phase friction factor for Dukler calculation, m3/h
from Eq 17-44
Qg = gas volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions,
ftpr = friction factor ratio for Dukler calculation, m3/h
Fig. 17-17
Re = Reynolds number
F′′ = construction type design factor used in
Rey = mixture Reynolds number for Dukler calculation,
ANSI B31.8, Fig. 17-24 from Eq 17-45
Fpv = volume correction for a non-ideal fluid due to
S′ = allowable stress, kPa, Fig. 17-23
compressibility from Eq 17-13
S′′ = specified minimum yield strength, kPa, Fig. 17-24
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8067 m/s2
hL = loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow, m t = thickness, mm, Figs. 17-23, 17-24
of fluid tm = minimum required wall thickness, mm, Fig. 17-23
H = total energy of a fluid at a point above a datum, T = absolute temperature of flowing gas, K
from Eq 17-1 T′′ = temperature derating factor used in ANSI B31.8,
HLd = liquid holdup fraction (Dukler), Fig. 17-18 Fig. 17-24
HLe = liquid holdup fraction (Eaton), Fig. 17-20 Tavg = average temperature, K [Tavg = 1/2 (Tin + Tout)]
HLf = liquid holdup fraction (Flanigan), Fig. 17-19 Ts = base absolute temperature, K : Ts = 288.9 K
IL = liquid inventory in pipe, m3, from Eq 17-57 V = single phase fluid velocity, m/s
L = length of line, m Vsg = superficial gas velocity, m/s, from Eq 17-36
Lm = length of line, m VsL = superficial liquid velocity, m/s, from Eq 17-35
M = molecular mass Vm = mixture velocity, m/s, from Eq 17-46
Nx = Fig. 17-16 horizontal coordinate, m/s W = mass flow, kg/h
Ny = Fig. 17-16 vertical coordinate, m/s XA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (horizontal
NE = abscissa of Eaton correlation, Fig. 17-20 axis, Fig. 17-16)

17-1
 FIG. 17-1 (Cont’d)
Nomenclature

YA = Aziz fluid property correction factor (vertical axis, ρ = single phase fluid density, kg/m3
Fig. 17-16) ρavg = average density, kg/m3 [ρavg = 1/2 (ρin + ρout)]
Y′ = coefficient found in Fig. 17-23 ρa = air density at 15°C and 1.22 kg/m3
Zavg = average compressibility factor ρw = water density at 15°C and 101.56 kPa (abs),
Ze = pipeline vertical elevation rise, m 999.5 kg/m3
ε = absolute roughness, m ρg = gas density, kg/m3
γ = relative density of flowing gas (air = 1.0) ρL = liquid density, kg/m3
λ = flowing liquid volume fraction ρk = two phase mixture density for Dukler calculation,
µ = single phase fluid viscosity, Pa • s kg/m3
µg = gas viscosity, Pa • s σ = interfacial tension at flowing conditions, N • m
µL = liquid viscosity, Pa • s σwa = interfacial tension of air and water at 15°C and
µn = mixture viscosity for Dukler calculation, Pa • s 101.56 kPa (abs), 72.4 x 10-7 N • m

Bernoulli’s Theorem sity of gas is defined as the ratio of the molecular mass of
the gas to the molecular mass of air.
The Bernoulli Theorem1 is a mathematical derivation based
on the law of conservation of energy. This theorem states that M (gas)
γ = Eq 17-3
the total energy of a fluid at any particular point above a da- M (air)
tum plane is the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head,
and the velocity head. Stated mathematically: Flow in Pipes and Reynolds Number
P V2 At low velocities, fluid molecules or particles carried by
H = Ze + + Eq 17-1 the fluid move in a reasonably straight line. Velocity of the
ρ 2g
fluid is maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the
If there are no friction losses and no energy is added to or pipe wall. This flow pattern is referred to as laminar. If the
taken from the system, H is constant for any point in the fluid. velocity is increased it will reach a critical point where fluid
In reality, whenever fluid is moving there is friction loss (hL). particles begin to show a random motion transverse to the
This loss describes the difference in total energy at two points direction of flow. This is the critical velocity. This random
in the system. Expressing the energy levels at Point 1 versus motion is typical of what is referred to as turbulent flow.
Point 2 then becomes: Above the critical velocity the flow is considered to be com-
pletely turbulent even though there is always a boundary
P1 V21 P2 V22
Zel + + = Ze2 + + + hL Eq 17-2 layer at the pipe wall where flow is laminar. In the turbu-
ρ1 2g ρ2 2g lent zone the velocity profile is more nearly straight across
All practical formulas for fluid flow are derived from the the face of the pipe.
above. Modifications to Eq 17-2 have been proposed by many Reynolds developed a dimensionless number that may be
investigators to account for the friction losses. considered as the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to
the shear stress due to viscosity. The Reynolds number is:
Fluid Physical Properties
DVρ
The physical properties of a flowing fluid must be known to Re = Eq 17-4
predict pressure drop in piping. The two properties entering into µ
the solution of most fluid flow problems are viscosity and density. If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, flow may be consid-
ered laminar. If it is above 4000, the flow is turbulent. In the
Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows zone between 2000 and 4000 the flow could be either turbulent
when it is acted upon by an external force. Two types of viscos-
or laminar, but cannot be predicted by the Reynolds number.
ity measurements are used, absolute and kinematic. Absolute
viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to defor- If a non-circular conduit is encountered, the Reynolds num-
mation or shear. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute ber can be approximated by using an equivalent diameter for
viscosity to mass density. The absolute viscosity will be used D. The equivalent diameter would equal four (4) times the
for all calculations in this section. hydraulic radius. The hydraulic radius is defined as:
Viscosity is temperature dependent. The viscosity of most Area of Flowing Fluid
Hydraulic Radius = Eq 17-5
liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas Wetted Perimeter
that of gases increases. Pressure has almost no effect on the This conversion would not apply to extremely narrow
viscosity of liquids or near perfect gases. On the other hand, shapes where the width is small relative to the length. In
the viscosity of saturated or slightly superheated vapors is such cases an approximation may be used wherein one-half
changed appreciably by pressure changes. The viscosity of the width of the passage is equal to the hydraulic radius.
steam is readily available, but the viscosity of other vapors
may not be known. Pressure Loss Due to Friction
Specific volume is the inverse of density. Relative density of Flow is always accompanied by friction. This friction results
a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid at a specified in a loss of energy available for work. A general equation for
temperature to the density of water at 15°C. The relative den- press pressure drop due to friction is the Darcy-Weisbach2

17-2
(often referred to as simply the Darcy) equation. This equation Friction Factor and Effect of Pipe Roughness
can be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the
When the fluid flow is laminar (Re<2000), the friction factor
exception of the friction factor, fm, which must be determined has a direct relationship to the Reynolds number, such that:
experimentally. Expressed in meters of fluid this equation is:
fm = 64 /Re or ff = 16 /Re Eq 17-8
fm L V2
hL = Eq 17-6 Pipe roughness has no effect on the friction factor in laminar
2gD flow.
Converting to kPa, the equation becomes: Substitution of the formula for Reynolds number, Eq 17-4,
into Eq 17-8, yields the following:
0.5 ρfm LV2 64 µ
∆Pf = Eq 17-7 fm = Eq 17-9
d DVρ
The Moody friction factor3, fm, is used in the equations above. This expression can then be substituted for the friction fac-
Some equations are shown in terms of the Fanning friction factor, tor in Eq 17-7, resulting in the following formula for pressure
ff, which is one fourth of fm (fm = 4.0 ff). A graph of both Fanning loss in kPa:
and Moody friction factors as a function of Reynolds number ap- 32 000 µLV
∆Pf = Eq 17-10
pears in Fig. 17-2. d2
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is valid for both laminar and tur- Eq 17-10 is commonly known as Poiseuille’s law for laminar
bulent flow of any liquid, and may also be used for gases with flow.
certain restrictions. When using this equation, changes in eleva- When the flow is turbulent, the friction factor depends on
tion, velocity, or density must be accounted for by applying Ber- the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe,
noulli’s theorem. The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be applied ε/D, which is the roughness of the pipe, ε, over the pipe diame-
to line segments sufficiently short such that fluid density is essen- ter, D. Fig. 17-2 incorporates the relative roughness of the pipe
tially constant over that segment. The overall pressure drop is the into the determination of the friction factor. Fig. 17-3 indicates
relative roughness and friction factors for various piping ma-
sum of the ∆ Pf values calculated for the individual segments. For
terials. These figures are based on the iterative solution of the
gas applications the segmental length may be relatively short, as following equation developed by Colebrook.4
compared to liquid applications, since many gas applications in-
1  ε 2.51 
volve compressible gases where gas densities vary with pressure. = −2 log 10  +  Eq 17-11
fm
√  3.7 d Re √
fm 
FIG. 17-2
Friction Factors5

17-3
Equivalent Length of Valves and Fittings that the gas temperature is constant at an average value for
the section considered; the compressibility factor is constant
The pressure drop effects of valves and fittings can be ac- at the value characterized by the average gas temperature and
counted for by addition of the “equivalent lengths” of the fit- pressure; and in the term giving the effect of elevation change,
tings to the actual piping lengths. This augmented pipe length the pressure is constant at the average value. In the range of
is then used in any of the following pressure drop calculation conditions to which pipeline flow equations are ordinarily ap-
techniques. A table of equivalent lengths for a number of rep- plied, averages are usually sufficiently accurate. Average tem-
resentative valves and fittings appears in Fig. 17-4. peratures are calculated as indicated in Fig. 17-1.
Compressibility of Gases The average pressure in the line can be computed by:
For more accurate values of Z, refer to Section 23. For more 2 P1 P2 
Pavg =  P1 + P2 −
P1 + P2 
approximate calculations, the value of the average compressibil- Eq 17-16
3
ity factor, Zavg, may be calculated from the following equations:
In the absence of field data indicating otherwise, an effi-
1
Zavg = Eq 17-12 ciency factor, E, of 1.0 is usually assumed.
(Fpv)2
The AGA Equations — The AGA Equations were devel-
and oped to approximate partially and fully turbulent flow using
 (Pavg ) (0.0527 ) (105) (10(1.785) (γ ))  two different transmission factors. The fully turbulent flow
Fpv = 1 +   Eq 17-13 equation accounts for the relative pipe roughness, ε/D, based
 T3.825
avg  on the rough-pipe law.4 This equation uses the following trans-
Fig. 17-5 contains a plot of the deviation factor, Fpv, virtually mission factor:
identical to those calculated by this equation.  3.7 d 

√ 1/ff = 4 log10   Eq 17-17
An estimate for Zavg at pressures below 700 kPa is:  ε 
1 When the transmission factor for fully turbulent flow is sub-
Zavg = Eq 17-14
1 + 0.00003 Pavg stituted in the general energy equation (Eq 17-15), the AGA
Equation for fully turbulent flow becomes:
0.5
 Ts    3.7 d    P1 − P2  2.5
2 2
SINGLE PHASE FLOW Q = 0.018   E  4 log10    d
 
 Ps    ε    γ Lm Tavg Zavg 
Transmission Line Gas Flow
Eq 17-18
Isothermal Flow — The steady-state, isothermal flow be-
havior of gas in pipelines is defined by a general energy equa- The partially turbulent flow equation is based on the
tion of the form: smooth-pipe law4 and is modified to account for drag-inducing
elements. The transmission factor for this equation is:
0.5
 Ts  1  P1 − P2  2.5
2 2
Q = 0.018   E √  Re
  d Eq 17-15 
√ 1/ff = 4 log10 − 0.6 Eq 17-19
 Ps  ff  γ Lm Tavg Zavg  
√ 1/ff
This equation is completely general for steady-state flow, Substituting √

1/ff from Eq 17-19 into Eq 17-15 does not pro-
and adequately accounts for variations in compressibility fac- vide an equation which can be solved directly. For partially
tor, kinetic energy, pressure, and temperature for any typical turbulent flow a frictional drag factor must also be applied to
line section. However, the equation as derived involves an un- account for the effects of pipe bends and irregularities. These
specified value of the transmission factor, √ 
1/ff . The correct calculations are beyond the scope of this book and the AGA
representation of this friction factor is necessary to the valid- “Steady Flow in Gas Pipelines”6 should be consulted for a de-
ity of the equation. tailed treatment of partially turbulent flow.
The friction factor is fundamentally related to the energy The Weymouth Equation — The Weymouth Equation,
lost due to friction. In the derivation of the general energy published in 19127, evaluated the coefficient of friction as a
equation, all irreversibilities and non-idealities, except for function of the diameter.
those covered by the real gas law, have been collected into the 0.00272
friction loss term. ff = Eq 17-20
d1/3
Empirical methods historically and currently used to calcu-
late or predict the flow of gas in a pipeline are the result of 
√ 1/ff = 125 d1/6 Eq 17-21
various correlations of the transmission factor substituted When the friction factor, ff, is substituted in the general en-
into the general energy equation. ergy equation, Weymouth’s Equation becomes:
Examination of the relationships presented by various 1/2
authors shows that their forms differ primarily in the inherent  Ts   P21 − P22 
Qs = (0.0037)   d2.667   Eq 17-22
or specified representation of the transmission factor which  Ps   LγT 
defines the energy lost in resistance to flow for various pipe The Weymouth formula for short pipelines and gathering
sizes, roughnesses, flow conditions, and gases.
systems agrees more closely with metered rates than those
To obtain Eq 17-15, which is convenient for general calcula- calculated by most other formulae. However, the degree of er-
tions, a number of simplifying assumptions have been made. ror increases with pressure. If the Q calculated from the Wey-
For other than pipeline sections with a very high pressure mouth formula is multiplied by √  , where Z is the
1/Z
gradient, the change in the kinetic energy of the gas is not compressibility factor of the gas, the corrected Q will closely
significant, and is assumed equal to zero. It is also assumed approximate the metered flow. Fig. 17-5 shows a plot of the

17-4
 FIG. 17-3
Relative Roughness of Pipe Materials and Friction Factors for Complete Turbulence5

17-5
 1.0788 0.5392
FIG. 17-4  Ts   P21 − P22 
Q = 0.191   E  0.853  d2.6182
Equivalent Length Le for Valves and Fittings  Ps  γ Lm Tavg Zavg 

Eq 17-25
Ball valve Reduced bore 40 mm (11/2 in.) *
and smaller 65 D This equation was intended to reflect the flow of gas through
Reduced bore 50 mm (2 in.) 45 D smooth pipes. When “adjusted” with an efficiency factor, E, of
and larger about 0.90, the equation is a reasonable approximation of the
partially turbulent flow equation. The equation becomes less
Gate valve Standard bore 13 D accurate as flow rate increases. Many users of the Panhandle
Reduced bore 40 mm (11/2 in.) 65 D A Equation assume an efficiency factor of 0.92.
Valves and smaller
Panhandle B Equation — A new or revised Panhandle
(fully
Globe valve Straight pattern 340 D Equation was published in 1956. This revised equation is
open)
Y pattern 160 D known as the Panhandle B Equation and is only slightly
Reynolds number dependent. Therefore, it more nearly ap-
Angle pattern 145 D proximates fully turbulent flow behavior. The transmission
Check valve Swing type 135 D factor used here is:
0.01961
Ball or piston type 40 mm 340 D  Q γ
(11/2 ) in. and smaller 
√ 1/ff = 19.08   = 16.49 (Re)0.01961 Eq 17-26
 d 
Plug valve Regular pattern 45 D
Substituting Eq 17-23 for √

1/ff in the general energy equa-
Butterfly valve 150 mm (6 in.) and larger 20 D tion (Eq 17-15), the Panhandle B Equation becomes:
Tee-equal Flow straight-through 20 D 1.02 0.51
 Ts   P21 − P22 
Flow through side outlet 65 D Q = 0.01   E  0.961  d
2.53
Eq 17-27
P
 s  γ L T Z
m avg avg 
1
Elbow 90°, R = 1 /2 D 20 D
The equation can be adjusted through the use of an effi-
1
Fittings 45°, R = 1 /2 D 16 D ciency term that makes it applicable across a relatively limited
Bend 90°, R = 4 D 14 D range of Reynolds numbers. Other than this, however, there
are no means for adjustment of the equation to correct it for
90°, R = 5 D 16 D variations in pipe surface. Adjusted to an average flowing
180°, R = 4 D 25 D Reynolds number, the equation will predict low flow rates at
low Reynolds numbers, and high flow rates at high Reynolds
180°, R = 5 D 28 D numbers, as compared to a fully turbulent flow equation. Ef-
Strainer Pump suction Y-type and 250 D ficiencies based on the Panhandle B equation decrease with
Miscel- bucket type increasing flow rate for fully turbulent flow. The efficiency fac-
laneous tor, E, used in the Panhandle B equation generally varies be-
Nozzle Suction nozzle vessel/tank 32 D
tween about 0.88 and 0.94.
* D = nominal size in meters
Conclusions — The successful application of these trans-
deviation factor, √
 , of a common gas and can be used safely
1/Z mission line flow equations in the past has largely involved
if exact data is not available. compensation for discrepancies through the use of adjustment
factors, usually termed “efficiencies.” These efficiencies are
The equation cannot be generally applied to any variety of frequently found in practice by determining the constant re-
diameters and roughness, and in the flow region of partially quired to cause predicted gas equation behavior to agree with
developed turbulence, it is not valid. The Weymouth Equation flow data. As a result, the values of these factors are specific
may be used to approximate fully turbulent flow by applying to particular gas flow equations and field conditions and, un-
correction factors determined from the system to which it is to der many circumstances, vary with flow rate in a fashion that
be applied. Graphs showing gas flow calculations based on the obscures the real nature of flow behavior in the pipe.
Weymouth equation are shown in Figs. 17-6a and 17-6b.
The Reynolds number dependent equations, such as the
Panhandle A Equation — In the early 1940s Panhandle
Panhandle equations, utilize a friction factor expression which
Eastern Pipe Line Company developed a formula for calcula-
yields an approximation to partially turbulent flow behavior
tion of gas flow in transmission lines which has become known
in the case of the Panhandle A equation, and an approximation
as the Panhandle A Equation. This equation uses the following
to fully turbulent behavior in the case of the Panhandle B.
expressions of Reynolds number and transmission factor.
Qγ These equations suffer from the substitution of a fixed gas
Re = 1734.55 Eq 17-23 viscosity value into the Reynolds number expression, which,
d
in turn, substituted into the flow equation, results in an ex-
0.07305 pression with a preconditioned bias.
 Q γ

√ 1/ff = 11.85   = 6.872 (Re)0.07305 Eq 17-24
 d  Regardless of the merits of various gas flow equations, past
The transmission factor assumes a Reynolds number value practices may dictate the use of a particular equation to main-
from 5 to 11 million based on actual metered experience. tain continuity of comparative capacities through application
of consistent operating policy. A summary of comparisons be-
Substituting Eq 17-24 for √

1/ff in the general energy equa- tween transmission factors used in the above gas equations
tion (Eq 17-15), the Panhandle A Equation becomes: are shown in Fig. 17-7.

17-6
 1⁄ 2
 27.69 (P1 − P2) d5 
FIG. 17-5 Q = 0.081   Eq 17-29
  91.44 
Deviation Factors8  γ L 1 + + 0.00118 d 
  d 

Plant Piping Gas Flow

For estimating pressure drop in short runs of gas piping,
such as within plant or battery limits, a simplified formula for
compressible fluids is accurate for fully turbulent flow, assum-
ing the pressure drop through the line is not a significant frac-
tion of the total pressure (i.e. no more than 10%).
The following method is a simplification of the Darcy for-
mula, which eliminates calculation of fm, the Moody friction
factor. This simplification was checked over a wide range of
flows and densities for pressure drops of 6 to 35 kPa/100 m.
Density was varied over a range of 100 to 1; flows varied over
a range of 75 to 1. Pressure variation was from atmospheric to
7000 kPa (abs). The error from using the simplified approach
as compared to the actual friction factor calculated in the Darcy
formula was from zero to 5%, with the simplified approach giv-
ing consistently lower calculated pressure drop for a given flow.
The Darcy formula can be written in the simple form:

W2  62 530 (10 ) f 
2
∆P100 =   Eq 17-30
ρ  d5 
62.530 (1014) f
Simplifying, C1 = W2 (10−9), and C2 = , then
d5
C1 C2
∆P100 = Eq 17-31
ρ
(∆P100) ρ
C1 = = discharge factor from chart, Fig. 17-8
C2
(∆P100) ρ
C2 = = size factor Fig. 17-9
C1
Note: Refer to Section 23 for more accurate compressibility factors.

Reference should be made to “Steady Flow in Gas Pipe- C2 incorporates the friction factor, assuming clean steel. Us-
lines”6, published by American Gas Association, for a complete ing this simplified approach, new lines can be sized by setting
analysis of steady flow in gas pipelines. the desired ∆P100 and solving for C2 with a given flow. For a
given flow and pipe size, ∆P100 can be solved directly.
Low Pressure Gas Flow
Gas gathering often involves operating pressures below Example 17-1 — Calculate the pressure drop in a 10-in.,
690 kPa. Some systems flow under vacuum conditions. For Schedule 40 pipe (250 mm) for a flow of 68 400 kg/h of meth-
these low pressure conditions, equations have been developed ane. Temperature is 15°C and pressure is 5200 kPa. The com-
that give a better fit than the Weymouth or Panhandle equa- pressibility factor is 0.905 (from Fig. 23-3).
tions. Two such formulas are:

The Oliphant Formula9 for gas flow between vacuum and Solution Steps
690 kPa:
16.042 (5200)
ρ = = 38.48 kg/m3
 d3   99.3   Tb  8.3145 (273 + 15) (0.905)
Q = 0.051 d2.5 +    
 30   Ps   288.9  C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 4.7
1⁄ 2 C2 from Fig. 17-9 is 78.7
 0.6   288.9   P21 − P22  C1C2 4.7 (78.7)
     Eq 17-28 ∆P100 = =
 γ   T   Lm  ρ 38.48
The Spitzglass Formula for gas flow below 7 kPa (ga) at 15°C: = 9.61 kPa/100 m using Eq 17−31

17-7
 FIG. 17-6a
Gas Flow Based On Weymouth Formula

17-8
 FIG. 17-6b
Gas Flow Based On Weymouth Formula

17-9
 FIG. 17-7
Comparison of Gas Equation Transmission Factors for Nominal 500 mm Pipe

Example 17-2 — Calculate the required line size (of Sched- addition, several graphical aids are available for pressure drop
ule 40 pipe) to give ∆P100 = 25 kPa or less when flowing 34 000 calculation. Elevation pressure drops must be calculated sepa-
kg/h of methane at 2800 kPa and 38°C. The compressibility rately using Eq 17-32. These elevation pressure gains or losses
factor is 0.96 (from Fig. 23-8). are added algebraically to the frictional pressure drops.
Solution Steps ∆Pe = (0.00981) ρL Ze Eq 17-32
16.062 (2800) Water — A graph showing pressure drop for water per 100 m
ρ = = 18.12 kg/m3 as a function of flow rate in m3/h and pipe size is shown in Fig.
8.3145 (273 + 38) (0.96)
17-10. These data are based on the Hazen and Williams empirical
C1 from Fig. 17-8 is 1.16 formula10 using a “C” constant of 100 which is commonly used for
(∆P100) ρ 25 (18.12) design purposes in welded and seamless steel pipe.
C2 = = = 390.5
C1 1.16 Hazen and Williams formula for flow of water:
From Fig. 17-9 the smallest size of Schedule 40 pipe with C2 0.54
 P1 − P2 
less than 390 is 8-in. pipe. For 8 in. Sch 40 pipe, C2 is 257. The q = 3.765(10)−6 d2.63 C   Eq 17-33
actual pressure drop can then be calculated as:  L 
1.16 (257) Where:
∆P100 = = 16.45 kPa/100 m
18.12 C = 140 for new steel pipe
using Eq 17-31 for the above flow conditions.
C = 130 for new cast iron pipe
Liquid Flow
C = 100 is often used for design purposes to account for
For the calculation of pressure drop in liquid lines, the
pipe fouling, etc.
Darcy-Weisbach method, Eq 17-6, can be used. The calculation
is simplified for liquid flows since the density can reasonably Hydrocarbon — A graph showing pressure drop for hydro-
be assumed to be a constant. As a result, the Darcy-Weisbach carbons per 100 meters as a function of flow rate in m3/h and
calculation can be applied to a long run of pipe, rather than pipe size is shown in Fig. 17-11. This graph assumes a relative
segmentally as dictated by the variable density in gas flow. In density of 1.0 (water). To correct for different liquid densities,

17-10
 FIG. 17-8
TWO PHASE FLOW
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids5
Values of C1 Two-phase flow presents several design and operational dif-
ficulties not present in single phase liquid or vapor flow. Fric-
tional pressure drops are much harder to calculate. For
cross-country pipelines, a terrain profile is needed to calculate
elevation pressure drops. At the downstream end of a pipeline,
it is frequently necessary to separate the liquid and vapor
phases in a separator. The presence of liquid slugs complicates
this process, and a slug catcher may be required.

Flow Regime Determination

Several empirical flow regime maps have been presented
that determine vapor-liquid flow patterns as a function of fluid
properties and flow rates. Diagrams of these flow patterns are
shown in Fig. 17-14. One map commonly used was developed
by Gregory, Aziz, and Mandhane12 for horizontal flow. This
map appears as Fig. 17-15. The coordinates of the map are:
VsL = superficial liquid velocity

= QL/A Eq 17-35

Vsg = superficial gas velocity

= Qg/A Eq 17-36
Mandhane proposed a fluid property correction to the superfi-
cial velocities, but concluded that the fluid property effects are
insignificant compared to the errors in the empirical map. The
map reports the flow regimes: stratified, wavy, annular mist, bub-
ble, slug, and dispersed. Care should be taken in the interpretation
of these flow maps as the regime boundaries are strongly affected
by pipe inclination. In particular, horizontal flow regime maps
must not be used for vertical flow, and vertical flow regime maps
must not be used for horizontal flow. The Mandhane map given
in Fig. 17-15 was developed for horizontal lines flowing air and
water at near atmospheric pressure. Inclinations in the range of
0.1-1.0 degrees can cause substantial regime boundary move-
ment. In addition, flow regime boundary adjustment has been
observed due to fluid pressure, pipe diameter, and surface ten-
sion.13,22 The gas density increase caused by high pressure acts to
move the slug-mist boundary to lower superficial gas velocities,
while increased pipe diameter acts to increase the stratified wavy
flow regime at the expense of the slug flow regime. In addition,
foamy fluids having a high surface tension have been observed to
flow in the dispersed flow regime even though Mandhane would
the value read from Fig. 17-11 must be multiplied by the actual
have predicted superficial liquid velocities too low to cause dis-
relative density to obtain the correct pressure loss.
persed flow. A flow regime map generated by Taitel and Dukler13
Steam Flow contains explicit inclination effects and should be used for inclined
pipes. This latter method also contains explicit pipe diameter ef-
Fig. 17-12 contains a graphical representation for calculat- fects but lacks any way of accounting for surface tension.
ing pressure drop in steam lines.
For vertical flow, the stratified flow regime cannot exist as
The Babcock formula5 for steam flow is: there is no preferred direction for the liquid to settle. An em-
pirical flow regime map developed by Aziz14 for vertical up-
 d + 3.6  W2 L ward flow is shown in Fig. 17-16. The coordinates for this flow
∆Pf = 2489   Eq 17-34 map are the same as for the Mandhane map in Fig. 17-15
 d  ρ
6
except that fluid property corrections are used. The coordi-
nates used in the Aziz vertical map are:
Fire Stream Flow
Nx = Vsg XA Eq 17-37
Fig. 17-13 is a table permitting rapid computation of the
behavior of various sized fire nozzles. The table also includes the Ny = VsL YA Eq 17-38
estimated pressure drop in 30.5 m of 21⁄2 inch diameter fire hose.
0.333
 ρg 
XA =   YA Eq 17-39
 ρa 

17-11
 FIG. 17-9
Simplified Flow Formula for Compressible Fluids5
Values of C2

Nominal Nominal Nominal

Schedule Value Schedule Value Schedule Value
pipe size pipe size pipe size
number of C2 number of C2 number of C2
in. in. in.
1⁄ 40 s 13 940 000 000 6 40 s 1 074. 16 10 8.15
8
80 x 46 100 000 000 80 x 1 404. 20 8.50
1⁄ 40 s 2 800 000 000 120 1 786. 30 s 8.87
4
80 x 7 550 000 000 160 2 422. 40 x 9.66
3⁄ 40 s 561 000 000 ... xx 3 275. 60 10.77
8
80 x 1 260 000 000 80 12.32
1⁄
8 20 234.
2 40 s 164 600 000 100 14.15
30 243.
80 x 327 500 000 120 16.30
40 s 257.
160 756 800 000 140 19.34
60 287.
... xx 19 680 000 000 160 21.89
80 x 326.
3⁄ 40 s 37 300 000 18 10 4.35
4
80 x 65 000 000 100 371. 20 4.51
160 176 200 000 120 444. ... s 4.68
... xx 1 104 000 000 140 509. 30 4.86
1 40 s 10 470 000 ... xx 558. ... x 5.05
80 x 17 000 000 160 586. 40 5.24
160 39 600 000
10 20 69.9 60 5.90
... xx 200 800 000
30 74.1 80 6.64
11⁄4 40 s 2 480 000
100 7.66
40 s 78.7
80 x 3 720 000 120 8.87
60 x 90.5
160 6 140 000 140 10.08
80 100.1
... xx 24 000 000 160 11.77
11⁄2 40 s 1 100 000 100 114.8
20 10 2.48
80 x 1 590 000 120 132.5
20 s 2.65
160 2 920 000 140 159.3
30 x 2.83
... xx 8 150 000 160 185.2
40 2.98
2 40 s 297 000 60 3.36
12 20 27.6
80 x 415 000
30 29.6 80 3.82
160 859 000
... s 30.8 100 4.42
... xx 1 582 000
40 31.7 120 5.05
21⁄2 40 s 117 000
... x 34.3 140 5.89
80 x 162 000
60 36.3 160 6.78
160 257 000
24 10 0.940
... xx 669 000 80 40.7
20 s 0.994
3 40 s 37 700 100 47.0
... x 1.051
80 x 50 500 120 54.0
30 1.081
160 85 000 140 61.6
40 1.146
... xx 170 000 160 74.4
60 1.304
31⁄2 40 s 17 600 14 10 16.70
80 x 23 200 20 17.53 80 1.470
4 40 s 9 100 30 s 18.41 100 1.711
80 x 11 880 40 19.34 120 1.970
120 15 730 ... x 20.33 140 2.242
160 20 770 60 21.89 160 2.600
... xx 32 720 80 24.92 Note: The letters s, x, and xx in the columns
5 40 s 2 798 of Schedule Numbers indicate Standard,
100 29.16
Extra Strong, and Double Extra Strong
80 x 3 590 120 33.40 pipe respectively.
120 4 734 140 38.37
160 6 318 160 44.35
... xx 8 677

17-12
 FIG. 17-10
Pressure Drop for Flowing Water

17-13
 FIG. 17-11
Pressure Drop for Hydrocarbon Liquids in Smooth Pipe

17-14
 FIG. 17-12
Pressure Drop in Steam Pipes by Fritzsche’s Formula11

17-15
 FIG. 17-13
Table of Effective Fire Streams

Smooth nozzles, size 18 mm (3⁄4") 21 mm (7⁄8") 25 mm (1")

Pressure at hydrants, kPa 221 296 372 448 517 586 234 317 393 476 552 627 255 345 427 517 600 690
Pressure at nozzle, kPa 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552
Pres. lost in 30.5m, 21⁄2 in. hose, kPa 14 21 28 34 34 41 28 41 48 62 69 76 48 69 83 103 117 138
Vertical height, m 15 18 20 22 23 24 15 19 22 23 25 26 15 20 22 24 26 27
Horizontal distance, m 11 13 15 16 18 18 13 15 17 19 20 21 14 17 19 20 22 23
m3 discharge/h 20.4 23.6 26.3 28.3 31.1 33.4 27.9 32.3 36.1 39.5 42.7 45.7 36.6 42.2 47.2 51.3 55.9 59.7
Smooth nozzles, size 28 mm (11⁄8") 31 mm (11⁄4") 34 mm (13⁄8")
Pressure at hydrants, kPa 290 386 483 579 676 772 338 448 558 669 779 889 400 531 655 800 931 1062
Pressure at nozzle, kPa 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552 207 276 345 414 483 552
Pres. lost in 30.5m, 21⁄2 in hose, kPa 83 110 138 165 193 207 131 172 214 255 296 338 193 255 310 386 448 510
Vertical height, m 16 20 23 25 27 28 16 20 23 26 28 29 17 21 24 26 28 30
Horizontal distance, m 15 18 20 22 23 25 16 19 21 23 25 26 17 20 22 24 26 27
m3 discharge/h 46.8 54.1 60.4 66.1 71.3 76.3 58.1 67.2 75.2 82.4 89.0 96.2 71.5 82.4 92.2 101.1 109.0 116.7

Using 30.5m of 21⁄2 in. ordinary best quality rubber lined hose between nozzle and hydrant or pump.

The vertical and horizontal distance in above table are "effective" streams. The "effective stream," is one that has not broken up into a spray
and which will project three fourths of the water through a circle 254mm in diameter, at the distance indicated.
The bulk of the stream and extreme drops will carry a greater distance, but the stream is spread out too much to penetrate a hot fire and
reach the burning materials before evaporation. The vertical height "h" in meters, which the bulk of the stream will carry, may be computed
V2
by formula h = 0.91
2g

0.000 278 m3/h

The m3/h discharge in the above table check approximately with the formula: V = C√

2 gH =
A
VA
then m3/h = V = Velocity in meters per second g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.80 m/s2
0.000 278
A = Area of nozzle, in square mm C = Coefficient for smooth nozzles = 0.98 H = Head in m = pressure x 0.335

Reference: Adapted from Fire Protection Handbook, 1976, 14th Edition, National Fire Protection Association

FIG. 17-14 FIG. 17-15

Two Phase Flow Regimes Horizontal Flow Regime Map12

Slug
Bubble

Annular Mist

Stratified Wave

17-16
 FIG. 17-16 17.3/3600
VsL = = 0.153 m/s using Eq 17-35
Vertical Up-Flow Regime Map 14
(π/4) (200/1000)2
Nx = (0.451) (3.91) = 1.76 m/s using Eq 17-37
Ny = (0.153) (1.32) = 0.202 m/s using Eq 17-38
Fig. 17-16 shows that this flow is in the slug flow regime.
Pressure Drop Calculation
Calculation of pressure drop in two-phase flow lends itself
better to computer calculation than to hand calculation. Sev-
eral two-phase pressure drop correlations are available for
both horizontal and vertical flows.15,16,17 Due to the complexity
of two-phase flow, uncertainties associated with pressure drop
calculations are much greater than uncertainties in single-
phase pressure drop calculations. As a result, errors in calcu-
lated two-phase pressure drops in the order of plus or minus
twenty percent may normally be anticipated, especially in cir-
cumstances where fluid velocities are unusually high or low,
where terrain is rugged, or where fluid properties are inade-
quately known. In addition, different two-phase flow correla-
tions may give significantly different pressure drops. In order
to evaluate these differences, several correlations should be
used. A method suggested by the American Gas Association18
can serve as a basis for hand calculation generated by Dukler19
and an elevation pressure drop correlation by Flanigan.20
Frictional Component18 — Using the Dukler frictional
0.25
pressure drop calculation method, the frictional pressure drop
 ρLσwa  is given by the equation:
YA =   Eq 17-40
 ρwσ  ∆Pf =
fn ftpr ρk V2m Lm
Eq 17-41
For pipe inclinations greater than 10-20 degrees, flow regime 2d
patterns resemble those of vertical flow more than those of hori- where
zontal flow, and the Aziz vertical map should be used. For vertical
ρL λ2 ρg (1 − λ)2
downward flow, the flow patterns can be more complicated. A ρk = + Eq 17-42
generally accepted vertical down-flow map is not available. HLd (1 − HLd)

Although the designer frequently does not have the choice, and
avoidance of the slug flow regime in horizontal flow and the slug QL
λ = Eq 17-43
and froth flow regimes in vertical flow is desirable. Slug flow QL + Qg
introduces a flow rate and pressure intermittency that may be
troublesome to process control. In some cases, slug flow may be The single phase friction factor, fn, can be obtained from the
avoided by the choice of smaller pipe sizes. Of course, frictional correlation:19
pressure drop may be increased by use of this smaller pipe. In fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (Rey)−0.32 Eq 17-44
vertical upflow, oversizing the pipe may result in a bubble flow
The mixture Reynolds number, Rey, is calculated according
regime, and a large liquid inventory. This liquid inventory may
to the equation:
cause excessive hydrostatic presure drops.
(0.001) ρk Vm d
Example 17-3 — A vapor-liquid mixture is flowing vertically Rey = Eq 17-45
µn
upward in a pipe having an inside diameter of 200 mm. The fluid
is a hydrocarbon liquid-hydrocarbon vapor mixture. The liquid Calculation of this Reynolds number requires determina-
density is 832.8 kg/m3 and the vapor density is 32.0 kg/m3. The tion of mixture velocity, Vm, and mixture viscosity, µn. These
interfacial surface tension is 20 (10)-7 N• m. The liquid volumetric quantities can be determined according to:
flow rate is 17.3 m3/h and the vapor flow rate is 51 m3/h measured Vm = VsL + Vsg Eq 17-46
at acutal conditions. What flow regime is to be expected?
Solution Steps µn = µL λ + µg (1 − λ) Eq 17-47
The two-phase friction factor ratio, ftpr, representing a two-
0.25
 (832.8) (72.4) 10−7  phase frictional “efficiency” can be determined by reference to
YA =  −7 
= 1.32 using Eq 17-40 Fig. 17-17 or by the equation:
 (999.5) (20) 10 
 y 
ftpr = 1 +  4
 (32) 
0.333
 1.281 − 0.478y + 0.444y 2
− 0.094y3
+ 0.00843y 
XA =   (1.32) = 3.91 using Eq 17-39
 1.224 
Eq 17-48
51/3600
Vsg = = 0.451 m/s using Eq 17-36 where y = −ln(λ).
(π/4) (200/1000)2

17-17
 The remaining quantity to be calculated in the Dukler The Eaton correlation has been found reasonably accurate
scheme is an estimate of the liquid holdup, HLd. This holdup by several investigators, particularly for low holdup flows.
can be estimated using Fig. 17-18. This figure gives liquid
The liquid holdup fraction, HLe, is the fraction of the flow
holdup as a function of λ and Rey. Since Rey is itself a function
area of the pipe occupied by liquid. To calculate the liquid in-
of liquid holdup, the calculation is, in general, iterative. For ventory in the pipe, IL, the pipe internal volume is multiplied
most calculations, however, the Rey line can be used for a first by this holdup fraction.
estimate.
IL = (7.853) (10−7) HLed2Lm Eq 17-57
Elevation Component — The elevation component of
pressure drop can be found using the Flanigan method. In this Since holdup fractions may change along the length of the
method, the elevation component is calculated using the equa- pipe, a segmental calculation is more accurate.
tion: Example 17-4 — A pipeline segment with a 6-inch inside
ρL HLf diameter (150 mm), 1200 m long, transports a mixture of gas
∆Pe = Σ Ze Eq 17-49 and oil. The pipeline has a gradual upward slope and rises 30
100
m over the 1200 m length. The inlet pressure of the pipeline
where HLf is determined from Fig. 17-19 or calculated accord- is 2800 kPa (abs), liquid viscosity is 0.02 Pa • s, the vapor vis-
ing to the formula: cosity is 0.000015 Pa • s, and the interfacial surface tension is
1.5 x 10-6 N/m. The liquid flow rate is 17 m3/h and the vapor
1 flow rate is 425 m3/h. The density of the liquid phase is 880
HLf = Eq 17-50
1 + 1.078 (Vsg)1.006 kg/m3, and the density of the gas phase is 20.8 kg/m3 at oper-
ating conditions. What is the pressure at the downstream end
The term Ze is the vertical elevation rise of a hill. The rises of the line segment, and what is the liquid inventory of the
are summed. No elevation drops are considered. This is tan- line?
tamount to ignoring any possible hydrostatic pressure recov-
eries in downhill sections of pipeline and may lead to a Solution Steps
considerable error in the pressure drop analysis. Calculate the flowing liquid volume fraction using Eq 17-43.
Once the frictional component or pressure drop is found us- 17
λ = = 0.038
ing the Dukler method, and the elevation component is found 425 + 17
using the Flanigan method, the overall two-phase pressure Calculate the mixture viscosity, µn using Eq 17-47.
drop is found by summing the friction and elevation compo-
nents. µn = (0.02) (0.038) + (0.000015) (1.0 − 0.038) = 0.000774 Pa • s
∆Pt = ∆Pe + ∆Pf Eq 17-51
For a first guess, assume HLd = λ and estimate ρk using
Since fluid properties and liquid holdups can change rapidly Eq 17-42.
in a two-phase line, accuracy is improved if this AGA calcula-
tion procedure is performed segmentally. The need for seg- (880) (0.038)2 (20.8) (1.0 − 0.038)2
ρk = + = 53.45 kg/m3
mental calculations is one of the reasons why two-phase 0.038 (1.0 − 0.038)
calculations are best suited for computer calculation.
Calculate the superficial velocities and the mixture velocity.
Liquid Holdup — The liquid holdup correlation given in 17
Fig. 17-18 is intended only for use in the Dukler friction pres- VsL = = 0.259 m/s using Eq 17-35
(π/4) (152.4/1000)2 (3600)
sure drop calculation. A correlation by Eaton et al.21 is better
suited for liquid holdup determination in liquid inventory cal- 425
culations. Vsg = = 6.472 m/s using Eq 17-36
(π/4) (152.4/1000)2 (3600)
The Eaton21 holdup correlation is shown in Fig. 17-20. In
this figure, the holdup fraction, HLe, is plotted directly as a Vm = 0.259 + 6.472 = 6.731 m/s using Eq 17-46
function of the dimensionless group, NE. This dimensionless Calculate an estimate of the mixture Reynolds number, Rey,
group is of the form: using Eq 17-45
 Pavg 
0.05
(0.001) (53.45) (6.731) (152.4)
1.84 (NLv)0.575   (NL)0.1 Rey = = 70 839
 Pb  (0.000774)
Ne = Eq 17-52
Ngv (Nd)0.0277 From Fig. 17-18, determine a better estimate for the holdup
fraction HLd using λ = 0.038, Rey = 70 839
where
0.25 HLd = 0.12
 ρL 
NLv = 0.0565 VsL   Eq 17-53 Using this improved HLd, recalculate ρk using Eq 17-42
σ
(880) (0.038)2 (20.8) (1.0 − 0.038)2
0.25 ρk = + = 32.463 kg/m3
 ρL  (0.12 ) 1.0 − 0.12
Ngv = 0.0565Vsg   Eq 17-54
σ Using this improved ρk recalculate Rey using Eq 17-45
0.50 (0.001 ) (32.463 ) (6.731) (152.4)
 ρL  Rey = = 43 024
Nd = 0.00003134 d   Eq 17-55 (0.000774)
σ From Fig. 17-18 with λ = 0.038 and Rey = 43 024, HLd = 0.16.
 1 
0.25 Another iteration using HLd = 0.16 indicates Rey = 40 900 and
NL = 0.001769 µL  3
Eq 17-56 HLd = 0.16.
 ρLσ 

17-18
 FIG. 17-17
Two-Phase Friction Factor Ratio19

FIG. 17-18
Liquid Holdup Correlation19

17-19
 FIG. 17-19
Flanigan Liquid Holdup Correlation20

Calculate the single phase friction factor with Rey = 40 900 HLf = 0.12
using Eq 17-44 Determine the elevation component of pressure drop, ∆Pe,
fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 (40 900)-0.32 = 0.0223 using Eq 17-49
Determine the two-phase friction factor, ftpr, from Fig. 17-17 ∆Pe = (0.01) (880) (0.12) 30 = 31.68 kPa
using λ= 0.038
Find the total pressure drop, ∆Pt, using Eq 17-51
ftpr = 2.59
∆Pt = 317.9 + 31.68 = 349.6 kPa
Now for λ = 0.038, HLd = 0.16 then ρk= 30.86 using Eq 17-42.
Find the segment discharge pressure
Calculate the frictional component of pressure drop ∆Pf us-
P2 = 2800 – 349.6= 2450.4 kPa
ing Eq 17-41
The pipeline segment has a discharge pressure of
(0.5) (0.0223) (2.59) (30.86) (6.731)2 (1200) 2450.4 kPa.
∆Pf = = 317.9 kPa
152.4
To calculate the liquid inventory, the liquid holdup fraction
from Eaton’s correlation must be found. First determine the
Find HLf from Fig. 17-19 using Vsg = 6.472 m/s nondimensional parameters:
FIG. 17-20 NLv = (0.0565) (0.259) (880/1.5 • 10−6)0.25 = 2.277
Eaton Liquid Holdup Correlation21 using Eq 17-53
−6 0.25
Ngv = (0.0565) (6.472) (880/1.5 • 10 ) = 56.91
using Eq 17-54
−6 0.5
Nd = (0.00003134) (152.4) (880/1.5 • 10 ) = 115.69
using Eq 17-55
0.25
 1 
NL = (0.001769) (0.02) −6 3 
= 0.152
 (880) (1.5 • 10 )

using Eq 17-56
Determine Eaton’s nondimensional abscissa, NE, using
Eq 17-52
(1.84) (2.277)0.575 (2800/101.56)0.05 (0.152)0.1
NE =
(56.91) (115.69 )0.0277
l= 0.0445
From Fig. 17-20, read the holdup fraction, H Le
HLe = 0.14

17-20
 FIG. 17-21 FIG. 17-22
Multiple Pipe Slug Catcher Example Line Drip

IN
LE
T

GRADE

GAS FLOW

ED
OP DRIP
SL BELOW
LINE
V DRIP LIQUID
OUAPO DRIP
TL R VESSEL
ET
DRIP
VALVE NO

L
OUIQU
TL ID
ET

Note that this estimate is close to the HLf predicted in wave induced slugs were described by Greskovich and
Fig. 17-19 for elevation pressure drop determination. It also Shrier22, and by Brill et al.23 A preliminary scheme for calcu-
coincides closely with the value of 0.16 from Fig. 17-18. lating terrain generated slugs was reported by Schmidt.24
Analytical methods for determining inlet flow rate generated
Calculate the pipeline segment liquid inventory from Eq 17- 57 slugs were given by Cunliffe,25 and a method of analyzing pig-
IL = (7.853) (10−7) (0.14) (152.4 )2 (1200) = 3.064 m3 ging dynamics was given by McDonald and Baker.26
The pipeline segment contains 3.064 cubic m of liquid at any Slug Catchers — Slug catchers are devices at the down-
instant. stream end or other intermediate points of a pipeline to absorb
the fluctuating liquid inlet flow rates through liquid level fluc-
Liquid Slugging tuation. Slug catchers may be either a vessel or constructed of
Purpose of Separators — The slug flow regime is fre- pipe. All size specifications discussed in Section 7 to provide
quently encountered for pipe sizes and flow rates used in proc- residence time for vapor-liquid disengagement also apply to
ess and transmission piping. Liquid slugging introduces an vessels used as slug catchers. In addition, sufficient volume
additional design and operational difficulty as liquid and va- must be provided for liquid level fluctuation. Particularly for
por must generally be separated at the downstream end of the high pressure service, vessel separators may require very
two-phase flow line. The downstream separator serves both as thick walls.
a liquid-vapor disengaging device and as a surge vessel to ab- In order to avoid thick wall vessels, slug catchers are fre-
sorb the fluctuating liquid flow rates caused by slugging. In quently made of pipe. Lengths of line pipe tens or hundreds of
order to size the separator or slug catcher, the length of the feet long are used as long, slender horizontal separators. The
incoming slugs must be determined. Slug length calculation pipe is generally inclined from one to ten degrees and banks
methods are not well developed, and there is large uncertainty of these slightly inclined pipes are frequently manifolded to-
in slug length determination. gether. Pipe type slug catchers are frequently less expensive
Mechanisms of Slug Generation — Liquid slug lengths than vessel type slug catchers of the same capacity due to thin-
are difficult to determine in part because there are at least ner wall requirements of smaller diameter pipe. The manifold
four identifiable mechanisms for liquid slug generation. Slugs nature of multiple pipe slug catchers also makes possible the
can form as the result of wave formation at the liquid-gas in- later addition of additional capacity by laying more parallel
terface in a stratified flow. When the liquid waves grow large pipes. A schematic of a multiple pipe (harp) slug catcher ap-
enough to bridge the entire pipe diameter, the stratified flow pears in Fig. 17-21. Different pipe inclinations and different
pattern breaks down and a slug flow is formed. manifolding arrangements are favored by different designers.
An example of a line drip catcher is shown in Fig. 17-22. A
Slugs can also form due to terrain effects. Liquid collects at
drip vessel is connected to the incoming pipeline and often laid
a sag in the pipeline and blocks the gas flow. The pressure in
beneath it. A flow line from the drip vessel is used to blow the
this blocked gas rises until it blows the accumulated liquid in
liquids out to a storage or surge vessel as they accumulate.
the sag out as a slug. Changes in pipeline inlet flow rate can
also cause slugs. When the inlet flow rate increases, the liquid Pigging — Pipelines are pigged for several reasons. If water
inventory in the pipeline decreases, and the excess liquid is present in the line, it must be removed periodically in order to
forms a slug or series of slugs. Finally, pigging can cause very minimize corrosion. This water accumulates in sags in the pipe-
large liquid slugs as the entire liquid inventory of the line is line, and these low spots are particularly susceptible to corrosion.
swept ahead of the pig. Of the four mechanisms described, Pipelines are also pigged to improve pressure drop-flow rate per-
wave growth normally produces the shortest slugs, followed formance. Water or hydrocarbon liquids that settle in sags in the
in length by terrain generated slugs. Methods for calculating pipeline constitute partial blockages that increase pressure drop.

17-21
Pigging can remove these liquids and improve pipeline effi- sure limits, ANSI B31.8. Refer to Fig. 17-24 for the calculation
ciency. Pigging can also be used as a means of limiting the method.
required slug catcher size. By pigging at frequent intervals,
The designer is encouraged to refer to the latest ANSI B31.8
liquid inventory buildup in a pipeline can be reduced, and the
standard for comprehensive code description. A tabular com-
maximum slug size can be limited. The required downstream
pilation of maximum allowable working pressures computed
slug catcher size must take into account pigging frequency.
according to ANSI B31.8 appears in Fig. 17-27.
Operational hazards are associated with pigging. The very Fig. 17-28 provides pressure ratings for steel flanges and
large slugs swept ahead of the pig may overwhelm inade- flanged fittings.
quately sized downstream facilities. Pigs may also occasion-
ally be destroyed in the pipeline and the resulting debris may
damage downstream fittings or equipment. Even worse, the
pig may become stuck in the line and require an expensive
shutdown for location and removal.

FIG. 17-24
PIPE AND FLANGE DATA
Working Pressures Transmission Lines
The Petroleum Refinery Piping Code (ANSI B31.3) is used To determine allowable internal working pressures for pip-
to determine the allowable pressure limits for piping inside ing outside of refineries and other processing facilities in
refineries and other processing facilities. Refer to Fig. 17-23 accordance with ANSI B31.8-1992, “Code of Pressure Pip-
for the calculation method. ing, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping,” use the
The table of allowable stresses, Fig. 17-25, is extracted from following:
ANSI B31.3. The designer is strongly urged to consult the lat- 2 S′′ t
est ANSI B31.3 publication for full description of the code. A Pi = (F′′) (E′′) (T′′)
do
tabular compilation of maximum allowable working pressures
calculated according to ANSI B31.3 appears in Fig. 17-26. Where
Pi = Design pressure, kPa (ga)
For piping outside of refineries and other processing facili-
ties, a separate code applies for determining allowable pres- S′′ = Specified minimum yield strength, kPa
do = Nominal outside diameter, mm
FIG. 17-23
t = Nominal wall thickness, mm
Working Pressures Refinery Piping F′′ = Construction type design factor,
Table 841.114A and Par. 840.2 (see note)
To determine allowable internal working pressure for
straight sections of pipe in accordance with ANSI B31.3, Location Class F′′
“Code for Pressure Piping, Petroleum Refinery Piping”, 1 Div 1 .80
use the following: Div 2 .72
tm = t + c Div 2 .60
Div 3 .50
Pido 2 tS′E′
t = or Pi =
2(S′E′ + PiY′) do − 2 tY′ Div 4 .40

where: Complete details are covered in Par. 841.

tm = minimum required thickness, satisfying E′′ = Longitudinal joint factor, Table 841.115A
requirements for pressure, and mechanical, Normally a factor of 1.0 is used for seamless
corrosion, and erosion allowances, mm. (The and welded pipe except for the following:
minimum thickness for the pipe selected, con- Fusion Welded A 134 and A 139 0.80
sidering manufacturer’s minus tolerance, Spiral Welded A 211 0.80
shall not be less than tm). Furnace Butt Welded ASTM-A53, API-5L 0.60
t = pressure design thickness, mm
c = the sum of the mechanical allowances T′′ = Temperature derating factor, Table 841.116A
(thread depth and groove depth), corrosion, Temp, °C Factor T′′
and erosion allowances, mm 120 or less 1.000
Pi = internal design pressure, kPa (ga)
150 0.967
do = outside diameter of pipe, mm
175 0.933
S′ = allowable stresses, kPa
200 0.900
E′ = longitudinal weld joint factor:
Seamless = 1.000, ERW = 0.85 230 0.867
Y′ = coefficient having values for ferritic steels For intermediate temperatures, interpolate for
as follows: 0.4 up to and including 480°C derating factor.
0.5 for 510°C
Note: Factor reflecting location of line, proximity to roads,
0.7 for 540°C and above public or private land, etc.

17-22
 FIG. 17-25
Allowable Stresses in Tension for Materials (1)
(Excerpted from ANSI B31.3a-1985, Appendix A, Tables A-1, A-1B)

17-23
 FIG. 17-26
Design Properties and Allowable Working Pressures for Piping
ASTM A106, grade B seamless pipe—Petroleum Refinery Piping Code
for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.3-1984—Corrosion allowance = 0.05

Nom Allowable working pressures for temperatures (in °C) not to exceed, Mpa (ga).
pipe Weight Flow
size Sch. of pipe O.D. Wall thk. I D mm area –29 to 38 93 149 204 260 316 371
in. No. kg/meter mm mm (d) mm2

1/2 S40 1.27 21.3 2.8 15.8 196 15.57 15.57 15.57 15.57 14.72 13.47 12.85
3/4 S40 1.69 26.7 2.9 20.9 344 13.33 13.33 13.33 13.33 12.60 11.53 11.00
X80 2.20 3.9 18.8 279 23.80 23.80 23.80 23.80 22.49 20.59 19.63
1 S40 2.50 33.4 3.4 26.6 558 14.50 14.50 14.50 14.50 13.71 12.54 11.97
X80 3.24 4.5 24.3 464 23.92 23.92 23.92 23.92 22.60 20.69 19.73
160 4.24 6.4 20.7 337 39.45 39.45 39.45 39.45 37.28 34.12 32.54
XX 5.46 9.1 15.2 182 65.75 65.75 65.75 65.75 62.14 56.88 54.25
1-1/2 S40 4.05 48.3 3.7 40.9 1 313 11.53 11.53 11.53 11.53 10.90 9.97 9.51
X80 5.41 5.1 38.1 1 140 19.15 19.15 19.15 19.15 18.10 16.57 15.80
160 7.25 7.1 34.0 907 30.99 30.99 30.99 30.99 29.29 26.81 25.57
XX 9.56 10.2 27.9 613 49.85 49.85 49.85 49.85 47.11 43.12 41.12
2 S40 5.45 60.3 3.9 52.5 2 165 10.13 10.13 10.13 10.13 9.57 8.76 8.36
X80 7.49 5.5 49.3 1 905 17.16 17.16 17.16 17.16 16.21 14.84 14.16
160 11.10 8.7 42.8 1 442 31.72 31.72 31.72 31.72 29.98 27.44 26.17
XX 13.46 11.1 38.2 1 145 43.34 43.34 43.34 43.34 40.96 37.49 35.76
3 S40 11.30 88.9 5.5 77.9 4 769 11.31 11.31 11.31 11.31 10.69 9.79 9.33
X80 15.28 7.6 73.7 4 261 17.60 17.60 17.60 17.60 16.63 15.22 14.52
160 21.36 11.1 66.6 3 489 28.43 28.43 28.43 28.43 26.86 24.59 23.46
XX 27.70 15.2 58.4 2 680 41.99 41.99 41.99 41.99 39.68 36.32 34.65
4 S40 16.09 114.3 6.0 102.3 8 213 9.92 9.92 9.92 9.92 9.38 8.58 8.19
X80 22.35 8.6 97.2 7 417 15.69 15.69 15.69 15.69 14.83 13.57 12.94
160 33.56 13.5 87.3 5 989 27.43 27.43 27.43 27.43 25.93 23.73 22.63
XX 41.06 17.1 80.1 5 034 36.60 36.60 36.60 36.60 34.59 31.66 30.19
6 S40 28.30 168.3 7.1 154.1 18 639 8.31 8.31 8.31 8.31 7.86 7.19 6.86
X80 42.61 11.0 146.3 16 817 14.22 14.22 14.22 14.22 13.43 12.30 11.73
160 67.54 18.2 131.7 13 633 25.88 25.88 25.88 25.88 24.46 22.39 21.36
XX 79.27 21.9 124.4 12 151 32.13 32.13 32.13 32.13 30.37 27.79 26.51
8 S40 42.58 219.1 8.2 202.7 32 275 7.57 7.57 7.57 7.57 7.15 6.55 6.25
X80 64.71 12.7 193.7 29 460 12.86 12.86 12.86 12.86 12.14 11.12 10.60
XX 107.94 22.2 174.6 23 950 24.51 24.51 24.51 24.51 23.17 21.20 20.22
160 111.37 23.0 173.1 23 520 25.51 25.51 25.51 25.51 24.11 22.07 21.05
10 S40 60.38 273.1 9.3 254.5 50 874 7.05 7.05 7.05 7.05 6.66 6.10 5.81
X60 81.55 12.7 247.7 48 169 10.23 10.23 10.23 10.23 9.68 8.86 8.44
160 172.50 28.6 215.9 36 610 25.77 25.77 25.77 25.77 24.35 22.29 21.26
12 S 73.95 323.9 9.5 304.8 72 966 6.12 6.12 6.12 6.12 5.79 5.30 5.05
X 97.51 12.7 298.5 69 957 8.59 8.59 8.59 8.59 8.12 7.43 7.08
160 238.99 33.3 257.2 51 956 25.51 25.51 25.51 25.51 24.11 22.07 21.05
14 10 54.72 355.6 6.4 342.9 92 347 3.35 3.35 3.35 3.35 3.17 2.90 2.77
S30 81.40 9.5 336.6 88 959 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.57 5.26 4.81 4.59
X 107.49 12.7 330.2 85 634 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.37 6.75 6.44
16 10 62.77 406.4 6.4 393.7 121 736 2.93 2.93 2.93 2.93 2.77 2.54 2.42
S30 93.33 9.5 387.4 117 841 4.86 4.86 4.86 4.86 4.59 4.20 4.01
S40 123.45 12.7 381.0 114 009 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.43 5.89 5.62
18 10 70.67 457.2 6.4 444.5 155 179 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.46 2.25 2.14
S 105.26 9.5 438.2 150 777 4.31 4.31 4.31 4.31 4.08 3.73 3.56
X 139.40 12.7 431.8 146 438 6.04 6.04 6.04 6.04 5.71 5.22 4.98
20 10 78.57 508.0 6.4 495.3 192 676 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.21 2.02 1.93
S20 117.19 9.5 489.0 187 767 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.88 3.66 3.35 3.20
X30 155.20 12.7 472.6 182 921 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.12 4.69 4.48
24 10 94.52 609.6 6.4 596.9 279 829 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.84 1.68 1.61
S20 141.04 9.5 590.6 273 907 3.23 3.22 3.22 3.22 3.05 2.79 2.66
X 187.11 12.7 584.2 268 048 4.55 4.51 4.51 4.51 4.26 3.90 3.72

Note: The above allowable working pressures are calculated from Fig. 17-23 using a reduction in tm to 87.5% of the wall thickness shown above to recognize mill
wall tolerance of 12.5%.

17-24
 FIG. 17-27
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B31.8-1982
Carbon Steel and High Yield Strength Pipe
(Values apply to A106, API 5L and API 5LX pipe having the same specified minimum yield strength as shown)

Allowable Working Pressures up to 120°C, in MPa (ga)

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Pipe Wall
Size O.D. Thk. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
in. mm mm GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8
(STD) 3.9 22.5 18.8 15.7 12.5
2
60.3 5.5 31.9 26.6 22.2 17.7
3.2 12.4 20.7 10.3 8.6 6.9
4.0 15.5 12.9 10.8 8.6
88.9 4.8 18.7 15.6 13.0 10.4
3 (STD) 5.5 21.4 17.9 14.9 11.9
6.4 24.8 20.7 17.2 13.8
7.1 27.9 23.3 19.4 15.5
7.6 29.8 24.8 20.7 16.6
3.2 9.7 11.6 12.7 8.0 9.7 10.6 6.7 8.0 8.8 5.4 6.4 7.0
4.0 12.0 14.5 15.8 10.0 12.0 13.2 8.4 10.0 11.0 6.7 8.0 8.8
4.8 14.5 17.4 19.1 12.1 14.5 15.9 10.1 12.1 13.3 8.1 9.7 10.6
114.3 5.6 16.9 20.3 22.2 14.1 16.9 18.5 11.8 14.1 15.4 9.4 11.3 12.4
4 (STD) 6.0 18.3 22.0 24.1 15.3 18.3 20.0 12.7 15.3 16.7 10.2 12.2 13.4
6.4 19.3 23.2 25.4 16.1 19.3 21.2 13.4 16.1 17.6 10.7 12.9 14.1
7.1 21.7 26.0 28.5 18.1 21.7 23.8 15.1 18.1 19.8 12.1 14.5 15.8
7.9 24.1 28.9 31.7 20.1 24.1 26.4 16.7 20.1 22.0 13.4 16.1 17.6
8.6 26.0 31.2 34.2 21.7 26.0 28.5 18.1 21.7 23.8 14.5 17.4 19.0
4.0 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.5 5.5 6.0 6.8
4.8 9.9 11.8 13.0 14.6 8.2 9.9 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.2 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.1
5.6 11.5 13.8 15.1 17.1 9.6 11.5 12.6 14.2 8.0 9.6 10.5 11.9 6.4 7.7 8.4 9.5
6 168.3 6.4 13.1 15.7 17.2 19.5 10.9 13.1 14.4 16.2 9.1 10.9 12.0 13.5 7.3 8.7 9.6 10.8
(STD) 7.1 14.7 17.6 19.3 21.8 12.2 14.7 16.1 18.2 10.2 12.2 13.4 15.2 8.2 9.8 10.7 12.1
7.9 16.4 19.6 21.5 24.3 13.6 16.4 17.9 20.2 11.4 13.6 14.9 16.9 9.1 10.9 12.0 13.5
9.5 19.7 23.6 25.9 29.2 16.4 19.7 21.6 24.4 13.7 16.4 18.0 20.3 10.9 13.1 14.4 16.2
11.0 22.7 27.2 29.8 33.7 18.9 22.7 24.8 28.1 15.7 18.9 20.7 23.4 12.6 15.1 16.6 18.7
4.0 6.3 7.5 8.3 9.3 5.2 6.3 6.9 7.8 4.4 5.2 5.7 6.5 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2
4.8 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.3 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.3
5.2 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.5 5.5 6.0 6.8
5.6 8.8 10.6 11.6 13.1 7.4 8.8 9.7 10.9 6.1 7.4 8.1 9.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3
6.4 10.1 12.1 13.2 15.0 8.4 10.1 11.0 12.5 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.4 5.6 6.7 7.4 8.3
8 219.1 7.0 11.2 13.4 14.7 16.6 9.3 11.2 12.2 13.8 7.8 9.3 10.2 11.5 6.2 7.4 8.2 9.2
7.9 12.6 15.1 16.5 18.7 10.5 12.6 13.8 15.6 8.7 10.5 11.5 13.0 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.4
(STD) 8.2 13.0 15.6 17.1 19.3 10.8 13.0 14.2 16.1 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.4 7.2 8.6 9.5 10.7
8.7 13.9 16.6 18.2 20.6 11.6 13.9 15.2 17.2 9.6 11.6 12.7 14.3 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4
9.5 15.1 18.1 19.9 22.5 12.6 15.1 16.5 18.7 10.5 12.6 13.8 15.6 8.4 10.1 11.0 12.5
11.1 17.7 21.2 23.2 26.2 14.7 17.7 19.3 21.9 12.3 14.7 16.1 18.2 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6
12.7 20.2 24.2 26.5 29.9 16.8 20.2 22.1 24.9 14.0 16.8 18.4 20.8 11.2 13.4 14.7 16.6
4.8 6.1 7.3 8.0 9.0 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.5 4.2 5.1 5.5 6.3 3.4 4.1 4.4 5.0
5.2 6.6 7.9 8.6 9.8 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.1 4.6 5.5 6.0 6.8 3.6 4.4 4.8 5.4
5.6 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.9 7.1 7.8 8.8 4.9 5.9 6.5 7.3 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8
6.4 8.1 9.7 10.6 12.0 6.7 8.1 8.9 10.0 5.6 6.7 7.4 8.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7
10 273.1 7.1 9.0 10.8 11.9 13.4 7.5 9.0 9.9 11.2 6.3 7.5 8.2 9.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4
7.8 9.9 11.9 13.0 14.7 8.3 9.9 10.9 12.3 6.9 8.3 9.1 10.2 5.5 6.6 7.2 8.2
8.7 11.1 13.3 14.6 16.5 9.3 11.1 12.2 13.8 7.7 9.3 10.2 11.5 6.2 7.4 8.1 9.2
(STD) 9.3 11.8 14.2 15.5 17.5 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6 8.2 9.8 10.8 12.2 6.6 7.9 8.6 9.7
11.1 14.2 17.0 18.6 21.0 11.8 14.2 15.5 17.5 9.8 11.8 12.9 14.6 7.9 9.4 10.3 11.7
12.7 16.2 19.4 21.2 24.0 13.5 16.2 17.7 20.0 11.2 13.5 14.8 16.7 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.3
4.8 5.1 6.2 6.7 7.6 4.3 5.1 5.6 6.3 3.6 4.3 4.7 5.3 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2
5.2 5.5 6.6 7.3 8.2 4.6 5.5 6.1 6.9 3.8 4.6 5.1 5.7 3.1 3.7 4.0 4.6
5.6 6.0 7.2 7.8 8.9 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.4 4.1 5.0 5.4 6.2 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9
6.4 6.8 8.2 9.0 10.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4 4.7 5.7 6.2 7.0 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6
7.1 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4 6.4 7.7 8.4 9.5 5.3 6.4 7.0 7.9 4.3 5.1 5.6 6.3
12 323.9 7.9 8.5 10.2 11.2 12.6 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.9 7.1 7.8 8.8 4.7 5.7 6.2 7.0
8.4 9.0 10.8 11.8 13.4 7.5 9.0 9.9 11.1 6.2 7.5 8.2 9.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4
8.7 9.4 11.2 12.3 13.9 7.8 9.4 10.3 11.6 6.5 7.8 8.6 9.7 5.2 6.2 6.8 7.7
(STD) 9.5 10.2 12.3 13.4 15.2 8.5 10.2 11.2 12.7 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 5.7 6.8 7.5 8.4
10.3 11.1 13.3 14.6 16.4 9.2 11.1 12.1 13.7 7.7 9.2 10.1 11.4 6.2 7.4 8.1 9.1
11.1 11.9 14.3 15.7 17.7 10.0 11.9 13.1 14.8 8.3 10.0 10.9 12.3 6.6 8.0 8.7 9.9
12.7 13.6 16.4 17.9 20.2 11.4 13.6 14.9 16.9 9.5 11.4 12.4 14.1 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.2
* Type A construction also applicable to "Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code," ANSI B31.4-1979

17-25
 FIG. 17-27 (Cont’d.)
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping

Allowable Working Pressures up to 120°C, in MPa (ga)

Nom Construction Type Design Factors
Pipe Wall
Size O.D. Thk. Type A, F = 0.72* Type B, F = 0.60 Type C, F = 0.50 Type D, F = 0.40
in. mm mm GR.B GR.B GR.B GR.B
241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8 241.4 289.7 317.2 358.6 413.8
5.6 4.8 5.7 6.2 7.1 8.2 4.0 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.8 3.3 4.0 4.3 4.9 5.7 2.6 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.5
6.4 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
7.1 6.1 7.3 8.0 9.1 10.5 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.6 8.7 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.3 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8
7.9 6.8 8.1 8.9 10.1 11.6 5.6 6.8 7.4 8.4 9.7 4.7 5.6 6.2 7.0 8.1 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.5
16 406.4 8.7 7.5 9.0 9.8 11.1 12.8 6.2 7.5 8.2 9.2 10.7 5.2 6.2 6.8 7.7 8.9 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1
(STD) 9.5 8.1 9.8 10.7 12.1 14.0 6.8 8.1 8.9 10.1 11.6 5.7 6.8 7.4 8.4 9.7 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8
11.1 9.5 11.4 12.5 14.1 16.3 7.9 9.5 10.4 11.8 13.6 6.6 7.9 8.7 9.8 11.3 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1
12.7 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
15.9 13.6 16.3 17.8 20.2 23.3 11.3 13.6 14.9 16.8 19.4 9.4 11.3 12.4 14.0 16.2 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9
6.4 4.3 5.2 5.7 6.5 7.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.1
7.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.1 7.0 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8 2.7 3.3 3.6 4.0 4.6
7.9 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.7 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
8.7 6.0 7.2 7.9 8.9 10.2 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4 8.5 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.7
20 (STD) 9.5 6.5 7.8 8.6 9.7 11.2 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2
508.0 10.3 7.1 8.5 9.3 10.5 12.1 5.9 7.1 7.7 8.7 10.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.7
11.1 7.6 9.1 10.0 11.3 13.0 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 10.9 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.2
12.7 8.7 10.4 11.4 12.9 14.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3
15.9 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
19.1 13.0 15.6 17.1 19.4 22.3 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4
7.1 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.0 7.0 3.4 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.8 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.8 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.9
7.9 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.7 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.7 5.4 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3
8.7 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.4 8.5 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 3.5 4.2 4.5 5.1 5.9 2.8 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.7
(STD) 9.5 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 5.9 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
24 609.6 10.3 5.9 7.1 7.7 8.7 10.1 4.9 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.4 6.1 7.0 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.9 5.6
11.1 6.3 7.6 8.3 9.4 10.9 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.8 9.1 4.4 5.3 5.8 6.5 7.6 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0
12.7 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9
15.9 9.0 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.3 7.5 8.3 9.3 10.8 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6
19.1 10.9 13.0 14.3 16.1 18.6 9.1 10.9 11.9 13.4 15.5 7.5 9.1 9.9 11.2 12.9 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3
7.1 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.6 6.4 3.1 3.8 4.1 4.7 5.4 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.6
7.9 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.9 3.5 3.8 4.3 5.0 2.3 2.8 3.0 3.4 4.0
660.4 8.7 4.6 5.5 6.0 6.8 7.9 3.8 4.6 5.0 5.7 6.6 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.7 5.5 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.4
(STD) 9.5 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.4 8.6 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.2 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.8
26 10.3 5.4 6.5 7.1 8.1 9.3 4.5 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.8 3.8 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2
11.1 5.8 7.0 7.7 8.7 10.0 4.9 5.8 6.4 7.2 8.4 4.1 4.9 5.3 6.0 7.0 3.2 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.6
12.7 6.7 8.0 8.8 9.9 11.5 5.6 6.7 7.3 8.3 9.6 4.6 5.6 6.1 6.9 8.0 3.7 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.4
15.9 8.4 10.0 11.0 12.4 14.3 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.3 11.9 5.8 7.0 7.6 8.6 9.9 4.6 5.6 6.1 6.9 8.0
19.1 10.0 12.0 13.2 14.9 17.2 8.4 10.0 11.0 12.4 14.3 7.0 8.4 9.2 10.3 11.9 5.6 6.7 7.3 8.3 9.6
7.9 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.5 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.3 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.4
8.7 4.0 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.8 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.9 5.7 2.8 3.3 3.6 4.1 4.7 2.2 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.8
(STD) 9.5 4.3 5.2 5.7 6.5 7.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.2 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.2 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.1
30 762.0 10.3 4.7 5.6 6.2 7.0 8.1 3.9 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.7 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.9 5.6 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5
11.1 5.1 6.1 6.7 7.5 8.7 4.2 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.2 3.5 4.2 4.6 5.2 6.0 2.8 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.8
12.7 5.8 7.0 7.6 8.6 9.9 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9 3.2 3.9 4.2 4.8 5.5
15.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 5.0 6.0 6.6 7.5 8.6 4.0 4.8 5.3 6.0 6.9
19.1 8.7 10.4 11.4 12.9 14.9 7.2 8.7 9.5 10.8 12.4 6.0 7.2 7.9 9.0 10.3 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.2 8.3
* Type A construction also applicable to "Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Code," ANSI B31.4-1979

Notes: 1. All dimensions are as shown

2. See Fig 17-24

17-26
 FIG. 17-28
Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings from ANSI B16.5-1981

CLASS 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 See Notes
 A105 (1)(3), A216−WCB (1), A515−70 (1) (a) (h)

Material Group 1.1 (Carbon Steel)  A516−70 (1) (a) (g)
 A350−LF2, A537−C1.1 (d)

°C Pressures are in MPa (ga)
–29 to 38 1.97 5.10 6.83 10.21 15.31 25.55 42.55
93 1.79 4.66 6.21 9.31 13.97 23.28 38.79
149 1.59 4.52 6.03 9.07 13.59 22.62 37.72
204 1.38 4.38 5.83 8.76 13.10 21.86 36.41
260 1.17 4.14 5.52 8.28 12.38 20.66 34.41
316 0.97 3.79 5.03 7.55 11.31 18.86 31.45
343 0.86 3.69 4.93 7.41 11.10 18.52 30.86
371 0.76 3.69 4.90 7.34 11.03 18.38 30.62
399 0.66 3.48 4.62 6.97 10.41 17.38 28.97
427 0.55 2.83 3.79 5.69 8.52 14.21 23.66
454 0.45 1.86 2.45 3.69 5.55 9.24 15.38
482 0.34 1.17 1.59 2.38 3.55 5.93 9.86
510 0.24 0.72 0.97 1.41 2.14 3.55 5.93
538 0.14 0.34 0.48 0.72 1.07 1.79 2.97
 A182−F304 (5), A182−F304H —

Material Group 2.1 (Type 304)  A240−304 (5)(6), A351−CF8 (5) —
 A351−CF3 (f)

–29 to 38 1.90 4.97 6.62 9.93 14.90 24.83 41.38
93 1.62 4.14 5.52 8.28 12.41 20.69 34.48
149 1.41 3.66 4.86 7.28 10.93 18.21 30.34
204 1.24 3.24 4.34 6.48 9.72 16.21 27.03
260 1.17 3.00 4.03 6.03 9.03 15.07 25.10
316 0.97 2.86 3.83 5.72 8.59 14.31 23.86
371 0.76 2.79 3.72 5.55 8.34 13.90 23.17
427 0.55 2.72 3.62 5.45 8.14 13.59 22.62
454 0.45 2.69 3.59 5.38 8.03 13.41 22.34
482 0.34 2.66 3.52 5.31 7.93 13.24 22.07
510 0.24 2.59 3.45 5.17 7.76 12.90 21.52
538 0.14 2.24 2.97 4.45 6.66 11.10 18.52
566 2.14 2.83 4.28 6.38 10.66 17.72
593 1.79 2.38 3.55 5.31 8.86 14.79
621 1.34 1.79 2.69 4.03 6.76 11.24
649 1.07 1.41 2.14 3.21 5.31 8.86
677 0.76 1.00 1.52 2.28 3.79 6.31
704 0.59 0.76 1.14 1.69 2.83 4.72
732 0.41 0.59 0.86 1.28 2.14 3.55
760 0.34 0.45 0.62 1.00 1.66 2.76
788 0.24 0.31 0.48 0.72 1.17 1.97
816 0.17 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.83 1.38

Notes: (a) permissible but not recommended for prolonged use above 425°C
(d) not to be used over 343°C
(f) not to be used over 425°C
(g) not to be used over 455°C
(h) not to be used over 540°C

Additional Notes: (1) Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 800°F (425°C), the carbide phase of carbon steel may
be converted to graphite
(3) Only killed steel shall be used above 455°C
(5) At temperatures over 540°C, use only when the carbon content is 0.04 percent or higher
(6) For temperatures above 540°C, use only if the material is heat treated by heating it to a temp-
erature of at least 1040°C and quenching in water or rapidly cooling by other means

17-27
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17-28