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Autonomous Soft Robotic Fish Capable of Escape Maneuvers Using Fluidic Elastomer Actuators
Autonomous Soft Robotic Fish Capable of Escape Maneuvers Using Fluidic Elastomer Actuators
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Abstract
In this work we describe an autonomous soft-bodied robot that is both self-contained and capable of rapid,
continuum-body motion. We detail the design, modeling, fabrication, and control of the soft fish, focusing on
enabling the robot to perform rapid escape responses. The robot employs a compliant body with embedded
actuators emulating the slender anatomical form of a fish. In addition, the robot has a novel fluidic actuation
system that drives body motion and has all the subsystems of a traditional robot onboard: power, actuation,
processing, and control. At the core of the fish’s soft body is an array of fluidic elastomer actuators. We design
the fish to emulate escape responses in addition to forward swimming because such maneuvers require rapid
body accelerations and continuum-body motion. These maneuvers showcase the performance capabilities of
this self-contained robot. The kinematics and controllability of the robot during simulated escape response
maneuvers are analyzed and compared with studies on biological fish. We show that during escape responses,
the soft-bodied robot has similar input–output relationships to those observed in biological fish. The major
implication of this work is that we show soft robots can be both self-contained and capable of rapid
body motion.
1
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts.
75
76 MARCHESE ET AL.
performed maneuvers have a similar input–output relation- however, such fully actuated, rigid-bodied systems inher-
ship as observed in biological fish. ently fail to capture the continuum motion of the escape
Performance and autonomy are competing goals in fluid- response maneuver.
powered soft robots. Some fluid-powered soft machines show We build on several prior works that aim to create ro-
promising capabilities such as walking10 and leaping11 but botic fish using biologically inspired flexible posteriors. Self-
are primarily driven by cumbersome external hardware lim- propelling flexible foils driven by an external robotic actuator
iting their practical use. Conversely, there are instances of have been studied by Lauder and colleagues.23,24 Valdivia y
self-contained fluidic soft robots;12–14 however, because of Alvarado and Youcef-Toumi used a compliant body in the
the constraints imposed by bringing all supporting hardware design of a robotic fish to mimic the swimming kinematics of
onboard, performance of these robots is severely limited a natural fish.25 Similarly, the robot fish FILOSE26,27 has a
when compared with rigid-bodied robots. The primary compliant posterior and serves as a test bed for fishlike
technical challenge addressed by this work is the advance- sensing and locomotion. Both of these systems are cable-
ment of soft-bodied robots to simultaneously be capable driven and actuated with an onboard servomotor but lack
of rapidly achieving continuum-body motion and be self- autonomy and require an external power supply. Recently,
contained. We illustrate our proposed technical approach by researchers have developed a cable-driven, flexible spring-
designing and building a soft robot fish capable of emulating steel spine to model escape response behavior;28 however, in
the escape response of fish because this maneuver ex- this system the motor, control system, and power supply are
emplifies rapid and continuum-body motion and exhibits the external to the apparatus, and its motion is constrained. Long
highest accelerations seen in fish.1 et al. have developed a flexible biomimetic vertebral column
The soft robotic fish exhibits continuum motion that used to propel an autonomous surface-swimming robot.29
conventional rigid-bodied robotic fish cannot achieve. For The vehicle can also perform an escape response.30 Again, a
instance, although many notable robotic fish exist,15–19 single servomotor is used to actuate the compliant spine.
these prior robotic systems have bodies composed of rigid Although this system is autonomous, relative to the afore-
segments connected by fixed joints and are consequently mentioned work, only a small portion of the body is flexible,
incapable of reproducing the body kinematics observed namely, its posterior tail, and because its large anterior is a
during agile escape response maneuvers. Previous at- surface vessel, the system is limited to surface swimming.
tempts to recreate an escape response used a body com- Notably, the above-mentioned compliant-bodied robotic fish
posed of multiple position-controlled, rigid links;20–22 operate on the principle of a passive, flexible mechanism
AUTONOMOUS SOFT ROBOTIC FISH CAPABLE OF ESCAPE MANEUVERS 77
driven by a traditional electromechanical actuator, and they ments in these subsystems enable autonomous operation of a
were primarily designed to understand the hydrodynamics of soft-bodied robot underwater.
the flexible body. However, in this work our primary goal was
to develop a fluidic actuation system that is embedded within
Actuation
the flexible body, yielding a compliant and active body within
a completely self-contained system. FEA technology forms the core of the soft-bodied robotic
We have also built on prior work that introduced compliant fish. FEAs are elastomer modules that bend under fluid
active-bodied robotic swimmers. Shen et al. have used an pressure. Bending is accomplished using a two-layer bimorph
oscillating strip of ionic polymer–metal composite as the structure. Pressurized gas expands fluidic channels embedded
posterior trunk of a dolphinlike robot.31 This is a free- within an elastomer layer, and a second inextensible but
swimming robot, but again limited by an external tether. flexible layer functions to constrain the axial tension gener-
Perhaps the closest precursor to our work is the Airacuda fish ated by the expanding channels along one side. This trans-
developed by Festo.32 This robot has a flexible body and is forms lateral stress in the elastomer into a bending moment.
driven by fluidic actuators. Similar to our system, the fluidic Moreover, three layers can be used to form a bidirectional
and electronic components are located in the fish’s rigid an- bending FEA: an inextensible constraining layer sandwiched
terior, and its actuators extend along the length of its flexible between both an agonistic and antagonistic expanding layer,
trunk. However, this system differs considerably from ours in as has been demonstrated in Ref.12 This bidirectional FEA
design. It is composed of a plastic skeleton covered by flex- structure is fundamental to the soft robotic fish (see Fig. 1G,
ible skin with two actuators along the anteroposterior axis, agonistic layer; H, constraining layer; and I, antagonistic
whereas we have a body composed almost entirely of soft layer). However, in this work we have advanced FEA tech-
rubber with numerous actuators embedded in the dorsoven- nology by abandoning a simple rectangular shape and cre-
tral orientation along the anteroposterior axis (see the Ac- ating FEAs that conform to the complex anatomical shape of
tuation section in Materials and Methods). Another a fish. The structure and operating principles of a tapered
difference is that Airacuda can do static diving and swim- bidirectional FEA are illustrated schematically in Figure 2.
ming using the onboard pneumatic actuation system, whereas In their model, Onal and colleagues13 describe the total
the focus of the fish presented here was on forward swimming bending angle h of a rectangular FEA using both the physical
and planar escape response maneuvers. properties of the channels and internal actuator pressure Pa,
The work presented in this article differs from this prior
work in design, fabrication, and control, to enable new au- we(r)
h ¼ 2n tan 1 ,
tonomous capabilities for soft robotic fish. Specifically, the 2hc
main contributions of this article include the following: (1)
hc
r ¼ Pa :
A novel fluidic soft actuation system capable of rapidly ha hc
achieving continuum-body motion
A method for designing, fabricating, and controlling Here, n is the number of channels, w is channel width, e is
autonomous, self-contained soft-bodied robots material strain and a nonlinear function of material stress r,
A self-contained soft robot device that embodies our and, lastly, ha and hc are the constant heights of the actuator
approach to soft robots and emulates forward swim- and channels, respectively. However, because our actuator
ming and planar escape maneuvers of biological fish, differs considerably from a rectangular actuator with uniform
along with experimental evaluations of the robot channels, we have developed a new model. By extending the
model presented in Ref.13 to include variable channel height as
well as radial stress (i.e., normal to the inextensible constraint
Materials and Methods layer), we can statically model the nonuniform bending of a
System overview tapered FEA (Fig. 2). Specifically, the accumulated angle
along the length of the actuator after a given embedded
A defining characteristic of the soft-bodied robotic fish channel n, represented as hn, can be estimated as a function of
is the separation of actuation power from the rest of the both the physical properties of the preceding channels and Pa,
system—specifically, the utilization of mechanical energy in
the form of pressurized fluid instead of electrical energy to n
power actuation. The body of the robotic fish (Fig. 1C–E, G– hn ¼ + ai F i , (2)
I, and Q) is entirely composed of fluidic elastomer actuators i¼1
(FEAs),13,33,34 which are directly powered by pressurized
fluid and accordingly no energy conversion takes place at the 0 1
actuators. However, in order to control the fluidic system, b b
n b2i
1B w
2 2
þ hi 1 þ w þ hi C 2
1 w
supporting valve hardware is also incorporated into the ar- hn ¼ + cos @ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi A tan ,
chitecture to electrically address and isolate the mechanical i¼1 2hbi hbi 2 1 þ w2 hbi 1
actuation system.
hi
The soft robot has onboard all the subsystems of a con- b i ¼ w e Pa
w þ 1 , hbi ¼ hi [e(Pa ) þ 1]:
ventional robot: an actuation system, power system, driving 2w
electronics, and computation and control systems. These (3)
systems (Fig. 1K–N) are stored in the fish’s rigid anterior
region (A), a region with minimal contribution to body cur- Here, i is the channel index, ai and Fi are construction
vature during escape responses.35 Technological advance- angles for the indexed channel, w and ŵ represent the initial
78 MARCHESE ET AL.
and deformed widths of the indexed channel, and h and ĥ This static analysis suggests that by independently varying
represent the initial and deformed heights of the indexed the height of embedded channels, net complex curvatures of
channel. These parameters are illustrated in Figure 2C. It is the body can be achieved. A curvature profile can be me-
important to note that this simplifying static model assumes chanically ‘‘programmed’’ into the body geometry of the fish.
that channels deform purely by extending their side and top Such construction serves to simplify computational control
walls, and that these wall stresses are based on initial channel inputs. For instance, a single binary control input can be used
geometry. In reality, the wall stresses change as the channel to drive the robot’s body through a complex kinematic profile
surfaces deform. For this reason, this analytic model is most (Fig. 7).
valid for small deformations, that is, when pressure is low and The robotic fish used in this case study employs four sili-
the actual stresses approximate those calculated from initial cone FEAs that are molded to replicate the slender anatomy
channel geometry. The model also ignores external forces of a natural fish, creating an actuated but continuously de-
such as the compressive forces generated by the antagonistic formable body. The actuated body spans 43% to 100% of
half of the actuator. In Figure 2D we show a predicted the robot’s overall fork length (30.5 cm) (Fig. 1, top). Em-
bending of the fish’s anterior actuator overlaid on top of the bedded fluidic channels are grouped into two independently
actuator’s actual bending. Here, hn was predicted to be 52 actuated pairs: an agonistic and antagonistic anterior trunk
degrees but measured approximately 45 degrees. Table 1 lists pair ranging from 45% to 70% of fork length (Fig. 1C), and a
actuator-specific parameter values for this experiment. posterior trunk pair ranging from 70% to 90% of fork length
(Fig. 1E). Separating the agonistic and antagonistic channel
groups is an inextensible but flexible constraining layer in-
Table 1. Physical Parameters of the Soft troduced along the fish’s posterior midline (Fig. 1D and H).
Anterior Actuator This layer enables channel stresses to generate body curvature,
Parameter Value analogous to, though inverted from, the process by which
muscles generate a bending moment about the vertebrate
Pa 55.8 kPa column in a fish.3,4
n 16 A fabrication process was developed to first cast and then
h1 18.6 mm combine components of the fish’s soft body. The process is
h16 11.8 mm illustrated in Figure 3. First, each half of the body is cast
ha - h1 2.5 mm from silicone rubber (Mold Star 15; Smooth-on, Easton,
ha - h16 1.8 mm PA) by a two-part mold. The top mold piece creates the
w 2.5 mm
h[n] 52 embedded channels of both the anterior and posterior ac-
tuator grouping, and the bottom piece creates the anatomical
AUTONOMOUS SOFT ROBOTIC FISH CAPABLE OF ESCAPE MANEUVERS 79
FIG. 3. Illustration of the soft fish body fabrication process. First, two halves of the body (1a), a connector piece (1b), and
a constraining layer (1c) are all cast from silicone by two-part molds. Next, these four pieces are sequentially bonded
together using a thin layer of silicone (2). Lastly, once cured, the fish body is ready for operation (3).
At each flow rate above baseline, i, the resistive component Here, the supply pressure Ps is a nonlinear function of
of work done on the body can be approximated as volume v, and this relation is defined using the Van der Waals
80 MARCHESE ET AL.
DP ¼ Pd Pa ¼ qghT (7)
FIG. 7. Sequences depicting the soft robotic fish performing both a single-bend (A–D) and double-bend (E–H) escape
response. The single-bend response requires only agonistic actuator effort. The double-bend response requires sequential
agonistic and antagonistic actuator efforts, causing a significant decrease in heading angle and ultimately resulting in lower
escape angles than single-bend responses. Actuator effort durations of 160 ms were used in both escape responses.
AUTONOMOUS SOFT ROBOTIC FISH CAPABLE OF ESCAPE MANEUVERS 83
FIG. 8. Escape response kinematics of the soft-bodied robotic fish. Panel (A) details kinematics of a typical single-bend
escape response for the robotic fish; similarly, panel (B) details a double-bend escape response. The top portions of the
panels show the digitized body midline (red) overlaid every 10 ms from the first detectable motion to the end of maneuver.
The middle portions show the corresponding angular velocity of the head along with actuator effort (agonistic is positive;
antagonistic is negative). At the bottom is the resulting center-of-mass velocity for each maneuver.
84 MARCHESE ET AL.
actuators. Here, the ‘‘C’’ shape is assumed at 170 ms and is completion of antagonistic activity). Onset of significant
quickly preceded by the body straightening. A maximum center-of-mass motion occurred at 160 ms, approximately
heading angle of 72 degrees is obtained at 410 ms. In general, synchronized with the onset of antagonistic activity.
the robotic fish exhibits higher escape angles in single-bend A point of contrast is that in natural fish the head and tail
than in double-bend escape responses. Figure 9 portrays both both move toward each other in the first stage of the escape
a single- and double-bend escape response of an angelfish response (Fig. 9). However, because the center of mass of our
(body length of 7.3 cm) exhibiting a similar kinematic pattern robot is in the anterior head region, head movement is
to our robot; that is, the angelfish is also shown to have higher greatest during the second stage of the escape response.
escape angles in single-bend than in double-bend re- Eaton, Lee, and Foreman’s direction-change hypothesis in
sponses.39 natural fish41 is consistent with the behavior of our robotic
Foreman and Eaton40 document that single-bend maneu- fish. Specifically, a combination of agonistic and antagonistic
vers in fish result in higher escape angles and slower center- actuator inputs can independently influence both escape
of-mass motion, while double-bend maneuvers result in angle and linear escape velocity during the robot’s escape
lower escape angles and faster center-of-mass motion. Con- response. A series of experiments were carried out to inves-
sequently, although antagonistic effort is not required for tigate the effect of two parameters, T1xx and M2, on the escape
center-of-mass motion, it is responsible for amplifying the angle and linear escape velocity of the robotic fish (Fig. 10).
center-of-mass motion and a period of negative angular rate As a result we found that T1 has marked influence on escape
in natural fish. An important result is that our robot exhibits angle. Mean escape angle at T1 equal to 100 ms was 26.6
similar behavior: In double-bend responses, escape angle is degrees, whereas mean escape angle was 81.4 degrees at T1,
lower and linear escape velocity higher than in single-bend equal to 160 ms. Also, M2 provides control over escape angle.
responses. In double-bend escape responses having antago- Increasing M2 decreased escape angle (Fig. 10A). Unlike
nistic actuator activity (Fig. 8B), the escape angle is reduced,
as there is significant angular rate in the negative (antagonistic)
xx
direction starting at approximately 380 ms (60 ms after the T1 = T2 in all tests.
AUTONOMOUS SOFT ROBOTIC FISH CAPABLE OF ESCAPE MANEUVERS 85
Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program (primary mimetics fish robot. IEEE/ASME International Conference
award number 1122374). We are grateful for this support. on, July 14–17, 2009. Adv Intell Mechatronics 2009;1230–
1235.
Author Disclosure Statement 19. Wen L, Wang TM, Wu GH, Liang JH. Hydrodynamic in-
vestigation of a self-propelled robotic fish based on a force-
The authors declare no competing financial interests exist. feedback control method. Bioinspir Biomim 2012;7:
036012.
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