 Cells in multicellular organisms undergo differentiation - Definition: growth and change shape to carry

out specific functions.

(a) Cells which have become specialised to carry out specific functions are organised into tissues.
(b) Tissues - a group of cells which are similar in structure and perform a specific function
(c) Organ - different tissues working together to carry out a function
(d) System - different organs organised together.
(e) Organism - different systems working together to support life processes.

 Importance of cell differentiation and organisation into tissues, organs and systems:
1. A group of cells or tissues are able to carry out a specific function more efficiently compared to a
single cell.
2. Organisms are able to adapt and survive in diverse habitats and environments.
 Specialisation in Human Cells

Nerve cell

Muscle cell
multinucleated

Red blood cells

White blood cells

Sperm cells

Epithelial cells
 Specialisation in Plant Cells

1. Sieve Tube Element

 Long cylindrical tubes arranged from
end to end, with pores on both ends
called sieve plates.
 Sieve tube transports photosynthesis
products (sugars) from the leaves
down to storage organs such as the
roots and fruits

2. Xylem vessel
 The xylem vessels are elongated, hollow and connected to each other from the roots to the leaves.
 This enables the transport of water and mineral salts from the roots to all parts of the plant.
 3. Palisade mesophyll cell
 Arranged vertically and closely-packed to receive maximum amount of sunlight.
 These cells are the sites for photosynthesis. Therefore, they have many chloroplasts.

4. Spongy mesophyll cell

 Loosely arranged and have many air spaces between the cells.
 This allows water and CO2 to diffuse easily from the stomata to the palisade mesophyll cells.

5. Guard cell
 Modified lower epidermal cells of the leaf.
 Controls the opening of the stoma for gas exchange.

6. Root hair cell

 Modified epidermal cells of the root.
 The projections increases the surface area of the root
for water and mineral salts absorption.

Root hair cell

 Cells with similar structure and function are organised into tissues to perform specific functions.
 4 types of tissues: (a) Epithelial tissue
(b) Muscle tissue
(c) Nerve tissue
(d) Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue

 Epithelial tissue forms a continuous layer over body surfaces (e.g skin and mouth area)
and inner lining of cavities (e.g digestive tract and lungs)
 Some epithelial tissue also form glands.
 Epithelial tissue functions are mostly related to protection, secretion and absorption.
Muscle tissue

 Most abundant tissue.

 Made up of long cells called muscle fibres.
 3 types : Smooth muscles, skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles.

Nerve tissue

 Made of nerve cells called neurons.

 Each neuron consists of a cell body and nerve fibres (dendrites and axon)
 3 types of neurons : afferent neurons, interneurons and efferent neurons
 Function : Transmit signals (nerve impulses) over long distances.
Connective tissue

 All connective tissues except for blood have fibrous strands called collagen.
Ground Tissue (for support)

(a) Parenchyma Tissue

 Simplest living cells.
 Thinnest cell walls.
 Stores food substances and also involved in photosynthesis.

(b) Collenchyma Tissue

 Living cells
 Cell walls thickened with hemicellulose and pectin.
 Provide support for herbaceous plants (non-woody plants).

(c) Sclerenchyma Tissue

 Dead cells
 Cell walls thickened with lignin.
 Provide support for mature parts of the plant.
 Vascular tissues (for transport)

(a) Xylem
 Dead cells
 Cell walls contain lignin.
 The xylem vessels are elongated, hollow and connected to each other from the roots
to the leaves. This enables the transport of water and mineral salts from the roots to
all parts of the plant.
 In woody plants, xylem tissue also provides support to the plant.

(b) Phloem
 Made of companion cells and sieve tubes. Sieve tubes are the living cells.
 Sieve tubes are elongated and arranged end to end. This enables the transport of
photosynthesis products (sugars) from the leaves down to storage organs such as the roots
and fruits and from the roots up to growing regions such as the bud.

Heart

Tissues that make up the heart: (all 4 types - CMEN)

- Cardiac muscle, connective tissue, nerve tissue and epithelial tissue.
 Epithelial tissue forms the inner lining of the heart.
 Cardiac muscle tissue helps the heart pump blood to the rest of the body.
 Connective tissue = blood
 Nerve tissue regulates the rhythm of the heartbeat.
Skin

 Function: Covers the entire body to protect against infections, physical injuries and water loss.
 Largest organ of the body.
 Skin is considered an organ because it consists of different tissues combined together to perform
specific functions.
 Divided into 2 layers:
- Epidermis - outermost, thinner layer that is made up of dead epithelial cells which is continually
sloughed off.
- Dermis - Made up of CMEN tissue.

Malpighian
layer

1) Epithelial cells at the basal layer (Malpighian layer) of the epidermis undergo continuous cell division.
2) Smooth muscle (hair erector muscle) is attached to the hair follicle. When the smooth muscle contracts,
it causes the hair to stand on end.
3) Nerve endings detect stimuli (pressure, temperature, touch and pain) and transmit the nerve impulses to
the nervous system.
4) Connective tissue
- Elastic fibres: give elasticity to the skin so that the skin can stretch and return to it’s original shape.
- Blood capillaries supply blood to the skin surface.
5) Specialised epithelial cells: form glands.
- Hair follicles: produces hair.
- Sweat glands: secrete sweat
- Oil glands: secrete sebum (an oily substance that lubricates the hair and skin)
 There are 11 major systems.
 An organ may belong to more than one system.
- Example: pancreas - secretes hormones (endocrine system) and pancreatic juice (digestive system).
 An example of how the various systems coordinate which each other for the the survival of the
organism:- Nutrients absorbed by the digestive system and oxygen taken in by the respiratory system
are transported by the circulatory system to all parts of the body.

System Major organs / tissues Main functions

 Detects stimuli, formulates

responses, transmit nerve
Brain impulses.
Nervous system Spinal cord
Peripheral Nerves  Controls physiological
processes together with the
endocrine system.

 Supports the body.

Bones, cartilage, tendons  Provides sites for

Skeletal system attachment of muscles.
ligaments
 Protects the internal organs.
 Delivers nutrients,
respiratory gases and
hormones to body cells.
Circulatory system Heart, blood vessels, blood
 Transports waste products
to excretory organs.

Mouth, pharynx,  Digests food

oesophagus, stomach, liver,  Absorbs nutrients
Digestive system
pancreas, small and large  Eliminates undigested
intestines, rectum, anus. material

 Allows oxygen intake and

Respiratory system Nose, trachea, lungs
carbon dioxide elimination
  Removes waste products
Kidneys, ureters, bladder,
Excretory system  Regulates osmotic balance
urethra, skin, lungs
of the blood.

Male: Testes, seminal  Male: Produces sperms and

vesicles, penis male hormones.
Reproductive system  Female: Produces ova,
Female: Ovaries, Fallopian develops foetuses, produces
tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina female hormones.

Skeletal muscles, smooth  Contraction of muscles

Muscular system
muscles, cardiac muscles allows body movement.

 Separates the body from the

external environment.
Integumentary system Skin
 Protects the body against
infection and injuries.

 Coordinates body activities

Endocrine system Glands (secrete hormones) together with the nervous
system

 Defends the body against

Lymphatic vessels, lymph infections
Lymphatic system
nodes, bone marrow, thymus  Returns excess tissue fluid
to the blood.
 Plant organs: roots, stems, leaves, flowers.
 Plant systems are not as specialised as those of animals. They also have fewer organs.
 Flowering plants have 2 systems:
- Root system = absorptive system
- Function: 1) absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.
2) anchors the plant to the ground.
- Shoot system (stem, leaves, flowers, fruits)
- Function: 1) stems provide support for the plant.
2) leaves carry out photosynthesis to generate food for the plant.
 Reproductive system: flowers which produce fruits and seeds after fertilisation has taken place.