WORDS SENTENCES AND DICTIONARIES

Disusun Untuk Memenuhi Tugas Ujian Akhir Semester Mata Kuliah Morphology
yang diampu oleh bapak Albadri, M. Pd.

Kanzul Athiyah
NPM : 2019.70.4022

ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

Background of Study
Knowledge of a language enables you to combine words to form phrases,
and phrases to form sentences. You cannot buy a dictionary of any
language with all its sentences, because no dictionary can list all the possible
sentences. Knowing a language means being able to produce new sentences
never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before.
Knowledge of a language, then, makes it possible to understand and
produce new sentences. If you counted the number of sentences in this book that
you have seen or heard before, the number would be small. Next time you write
an essay or a letter, see how many of your sentences are new. Few sentences are
stored in your brain, to be pulled out to fit some situation or matched with some
sentence that you hear. Novel sentences never spoken or heard before cannot be
stored in your memory.
Language is a tool used by people for communication and a formal
symbolic system. The art of conceptualizing and describing a language involves
analyzing its formal systematic properties and interpreting the language as a
communicative character. Most of linguists today find the term ‘grammar’ is
equated with not only Morphology but also Syntax. The domain of Morphology
is words. How words are formed is the concern of this field so morphological
structure is the structure which consists of the elements to form words. While
Syntax describes the ways that words fit together to form sentences is
utterances. Unit 1 begins with several definitions used in this book dealing with
Morphosyntax, surely they are not only some of Morphology’s but also Syntax’.
In short Morphosyntax is the study of grammatical categories or linguistic units
that have both morphological and syntactic properties. It is also meant the set of
rules that govern linguistic units whose properties are definable by both
morphological and syntactic criteria.

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 Morphology is an essential subfield of linguistic. Generally, it aims to describe
the structure of words and patterns of word formation in a language. The
traditional concern of morphology is the identification of morphemes. Linguist
interested in morphology look at the parts that words are divided into and study
the meaning of these individual parts. The main aim of morphology is to assign
meaning parts of words.
We can study the structure of language in a variety of ways. For example, we
can study classes of words (parts of speech), meanings of words, with or without
considering changes of meaning (semantics), how words are organised in relation
to each other and in larger constructions (syntax), how words are formed from
smaller meaningful units (morphology), the sounds of words (perception and
pronunciation or articulation), and how they form patterns of knowledge in the
speaker's mind (phonetics and phonology) and how standardized written forms
represent words (orthography). Since this website is primarily devoted to the
exploration of English throught its words, the focus in this website is on
morphology (word stucture) and other aspects of words, such as etymology,
lexical semantic change, word usage, lexical types of words, and words marking
specific linguistic varieties.

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 CHAPTER II
WORDS SENTENCES AND DICTIONARIES

WORDS
Definition of Words
Word is a single unit of language that can be written and spoken and also has a
meaning. Sentence is a group of words or set of words that is complete in itself,
typically containing a subject and predicate. Dictionary is a book that lists the
words of a language in alphabetical order and gives their meaning, or that gives
the equivalent words in different language.
In language, a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation
with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This
contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not
necessarily stand on its own. A word may consist of a single morpheme (for
example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly,
running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as
a word (in the words just mentioned, these are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). A
complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes (rock-s, red-
ness, quick-ly, run-ning, un-expect-ed), or more than one root in a compound
(black-board, rat-race). Words can be put together to build larger elements of
language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock), and sentences (He
threw a rock too but he missed).
The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes
to the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound
called phonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the
letters of the English alphabet.
Words as Meaningful Building-Blocks of Language
We think of words as the basic units of language. When a baby begins to
speak, the way the excited mother reports what has happened is: ‘Sally (or
Tommy) has said her (or his) first word!’ We would be surprised at a mother who

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described little Tommy’s or Sally’s first utterance as a sentence. Sentences come
later, we are inclined to feel, when words are strung together meaningfully. That is
not to say that a sentence must always consist of more than one word. One-word
commands such as ‘Go!’ or ‘Sit!’, although they crop up relatively seldom in
everyday conversation or reading, are not in any way odd or un-English.
Nevertheless, learning to talk in early childhood seems to be a matter of putting
words together, not of taking sentences apart.
Words as meaningful building-blocks of language means that a word can
be describe a sentence that has varieties meaning. We can say only one word but
the meaning of that word can describe a sentence. We often think that a sentence
must always consist of more than word. We think of words as the basic units of
language, but in fact that is not to say that a sentence must always consist of more
than one word. There is a clear sense, then, in which words seem to be the
building blocks of language. Even as adults, there are quite a few circumstances in
which we use single words outside the context of any actual or reconstruct able
sentence. One word commands such as “Go”, or  “sit”, although they crop
relatively seldom in everyday conversation However, it is the fact that we
sometime use a word to express warning shout, conversational commands item on
shopping list. 
Example :
1. warning shouts, such as ‘Fire!’
2. conventional commands, such as ‘Lights!’, Camera!’, ‘Action!’
3. items on shopping lists, such as ‘carrots’, ‘cheese’, ‘eggs’.
It is clear also that words on their own, outside sentences, can be sorted and
classified in various ways. But the kind of conventional classification that we are
likely to refer to most often is a dictionary, in which words are listed according to
their spelling in alphabetical order. Given that English spelling is so erratic, a
common reason for looking up a word in an English dictionary is to check how to
spell it. But another very common reason is to check what it means. Here, for
example, is a specimen dictionary entry for the word month, based on the entry
given in the Concise Oxford Dictionary (6th edition): month noun. Any of twelve
portions into which the year is divided. It seems, then, that a word is not just a

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building-block of sentences: it is a building-block with a meaning that is
unpredictable, or at least sufficiently unpredictable that learners of English, and
even sometimes native speakers, may need to consult a dictionary in order to
discover it.We may be tempted to think that this constitutes everything that needs
to be said about words: they are units of language which are basic in two senses,
both
1. In that they have meanings that are unpredictable and so must be listed in
dictionaries and,
2. In that they are the building-blocks out of which phrases and sentences are
formed.
Word are known as the basic units of meaningful building blocks of language,
possessing to 2 characteristics :
 Unpredictable meaning : in that they have meanings that are unpredictable
and so must be listed in dictionaries.
 Building block (in phrases/sentences ) : in that they are the building blocks
out of which phrases and sentences are formed. 
Words as types and word as tokens
Token having a reference of individual occurrence of type of the words.
Token is a number of word or single type, if you want to know how many token in
one sentence, you must count all word although there are the same word in one
sentence. For example “I love you more than I love him” in here there are 8 words
so the tokens are 8. 
Type is a number of word also but not all word is a type, when there are
more than one the same word we only count one. For example “I love you more
than I love him”, in this sentences there are 2 “I”, we only count it one, well in
this sentence there are 7 type.
The other example: Space time space time time time
The question may be asked, how many words are in that line? The answer
will either be six, if one is referring to individual words, or tokens, or two if one is
referring to types of word. Specifically, there are two types of word in that
sentence “Space”, “Time”, there are two tokens of the types “space” and four
tokens of the types “time”. 

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Word with predictable meanings
Sometimes, word has meaning that is predictable. That is meanings that
can be worked out on the basic of the sound and make them up. It is true there are
some words whose sound seem to reflect their meaning fairly directly. These
include so-called onomatopoeic words, Onomatopoeic word are some word whose
sound  seems to reflect their meaning fairly directly, Onomatopoeic words are not
the same in all languages; for example, a cock-crow in German is such as words
for animals cries bow-bow, kikeriki, and a dog’s bark in French is ouah ouah
(pronounced roughly ‘wah wah’). miaow,cheep, the ticking of clock, in English
“tick tock”.
There are also sets of words in which some similarity in sound o reflect a
similarity in meaning. Sound symbolism is the idea that vocal sound or phonemes
carry meaning in and of themselves. Example Gl-words: glow, gleam, glory,
glitter, glance and glimpse, all that word has same first two letter make them has
the same meaning. The other example is smoothness or wetness or both, in the set
of words slip, slop, slurp, slide, slither, sleek, slick, slaver, slug. A technical term
for this situation is sound symbolism. But in sound symbolism, quite apart from
the role of convention, the sound–meaning relationship is even less direct than in
onomatopoeia. The fact that a word begins with sl- does not guarantee that it has
anything to do with smoothness or wetness (consider slave, slit, slow), and
conversely there are many words that relate to smoothness and wetness but do not
begin with sl-.
What kinds of word do have predictable meanings, then? The answer is:
any words that are composed of independently identifiable parts, where the
meaning of the parts is sufficient to determine the meaning of the whole word.
Here is an example. Most readers of this book have probably never encountered
the word dioecious (also spelled diecious), a botanical term meaning ‘having male
and female flowers on separate plants’. (It contrasts with monoecious, meaning
‘having male and female flowers, or unisexual flowers, on the same plant’.) If you
had been asked the meaning of the word dioecious before today, you would
probably have had to look it up in the dictionary.
Non-words with unpredictable meaning

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 Non – word with unpredictable meaning is that is, something that is
clearly larger than a word (being composed of two or more words) may
nevertheless have a meaning that is not entirely predictable from the meanings of
the words that compose it. It is possible for a linguistic item to be a basic building
block of syntax. The item is clearly not itself a sentence or phrase and yet to have
a meaning that is predictable. (syntax  is the study of the description of the classes
of word)
Example :
1. People who do not finish a job really make me angry.
2. People who do not finish the job really make me see red.
So, although “see red” consists of two words, it functions as a single unit
semantically and its meaning is not predictable from that of these two words
individually. In technical terms, “see red” is a idiom. Even though it is not a word,
it will appear in any dictionary that take seriously the task listing semantic
idiosyncrasies, probably under the headword “red”.
Idioms are enormously various in length, structure and function. “See red”
behaves rather like an adjective. Many idioms behave more like nouns.
For example:
3. Vaccinations are an unavoidable matter if you want to travel.
4. Vaccinations are a necessary evil if you want to travel.
“necessary evil” in sentence (4) means something you do not like but which you
accept. Therefore, (3) and (4) are the same.
In most of the idioms that we have looked at so far, all the individual words (red,
necessary, evil) have a literal or non-idiomatic meaning in other contexts.
However, there are also words that never occur except in an idiomatic context.
For example :
- I like everything about summer – the light, the warmth, the clothes-the
whole caboodle.
The word “caboodle” (everything) and it is the whole phrase which deserves to be
lexically listed, as an idioms.
Akin to idioms, but distinguishable from them , are phrase in which individual
words have collocationally restricted meanings.

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 For example:
- Blue baby : a baby born with slightly blue skin, usually because it has
something wrong with its heart.
- Blue – blooded : describes someone who has been born into a family
which belongs to the highest social class.
- Blue – collar : describes people who do work needing strength or physical
skill rather than office work.
These phrase may count as idiomatic because the meaning that “blue” has in them
not its usual meaning. If a typical idiom is a phrase, than a word with a
collocationally restricted meaning is smaller than a typical idiom. That provokes
the question whether there are linguistic items with unpredictable meanings that
are larger than phrase – specifically, that constitute whole sentences. The answer
is yes : many proverbs fall into this category. A proverb is a traditional saying,
syntactically a sentence, whose conventional interpretation differs from what is
suggested by the literal meaning of the words it contains.
Example :
- “Two wrongs don’t make a right” : When someone has done something
bad to you, trying to get revenge will only make things worse.
- The pen is mightier than the sword : Trying to convince people with ideas
and words is more effective than trying to force people to do what you
want.
- No man is an island” : You can’t live completely independently. Everyone
needs help from other people.

Kinds of Words
1. Noun: A noun is a person, place, thing, quality, or act.
Examples : shoes, turtle, anger, sadness, town
2. Verb: Verbs are action or existence words that tell what nouns do.
Examples: to laugh, to read, watched
3. Adjective: An adjective describes a noun.
Examples: bald, heavy, useful
4. Adverb: An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or adverb. It often ends in 'ly'.

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 Examples: simply, patiently
5. Interjection: An outcry or sudden utterance. Usually starts a sentence.
Examples: ouch, god, my
6. Preposition: A preposition describes the relationship between a noun and another
noun (or verb or adverb). 
Examples: at, down, to, from
7. Conjunction: A conjunction joins together words, phrases, or clauses
Examples: but, and, so
8. Pronoun: A pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase that is understood from
context.
Examples: she, me, it

Function of Words
Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs,
conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of
closed-class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but
they belong to the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not
be inflected or might have affixes.
Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar in that it is
very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech,
whereas in the open class of words (that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs)
new words may be added readily (such as slang words, technical terms, and
adoptions and adaptations of foreign words).
Each function word either gives some grammatical information on other
words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words, or it may
indicate the speaker's mental model as to what is being said.
In English, for example, words tend to be smaller than the sentence, and we
combine words to form sentences. One tricky thing, however, is that in many
languages, a single word can have "sentence" meaning. Here's an example from
Spanish: hazmelo. This "word" is actually a command that is best translated as
"do it for me" (do (haz) it (lo) for me (me)). In Swahili, the word atakusumbua
means "s/he will annoy you." Nevertheless, if we take English as an example, we

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have a clear sense that sentences can be broken down into smaller units (words),
each of which generally contributes to the meaning of the whole.  For example:
Pigs like mud is a sentence containing three words (pigs, like, mud).

SENTENCES
Definition of Sentence
Based on linguistic, A sentence is a grammatical unit consisting of one or
more words that are grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped
meaningfully  to         express, statement, a question, exclamation,
request, command or suggestion.
Requisite of sentence:
 Begin by capital letter.
 At least consist of Subject and Verb.
 Ending by full stop marker.
Sentences may be classified according to the purpose of the speaker or writer.
The four principal purposes of a sentence are described below.
 The declarative sentence is used to make a statement of fact, wish, intent, or
feeling.
Example : I have seen that movie twice. I wish I could go on the picnic.
 The imperative sentence is used to state a command, request, or direction.
The subject is always "You," even though it may not be expressed in the
sentence.
Example : (You) Be on time for dinner. (You) Open the window, please.
 The interrogative sentence is used to ask a question. It is followed by a
question mark.
Example : Do you have a sweater? Are you having a bad day?
 An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It is followed by
an exclamation point.
Example : Don't burn yourself out! Keep out! He screamed, “Help!”

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 Kinds of Sentence and their Punctuation
A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and
type(s) of clauses it contains.
 An Independent Clause  contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
Example : I wrote my first novel last year.
 A Dependent Clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.
Example : After I wrote my first novel last year
 Simple Sentence has one independent clause.
Example : Tom reads novels.  
 Compound Sentence has two independent clauses joined by
- A coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),
- A conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or
- A semicolon alone.
Example : Tom reads novel but Jack reads comic.
Tom reads novel however Jack reads comic.
Tom reads novel; his friend reads comic.      
 Complex Sentence has one dependent clause  joined to an independent
clause.
Example : Although Tom reads novel, Jack reads comic. 
 Compound-Complex Sentence has two independent clauses joined to one or
more dependent clauses.
Example : While Tom reads novel, Jack reads comic, but James reads only
newspaper.

DICTIONARIES
Definition of Dictionary
A reference book containing an alphabetical list of words, with
information given for each word.

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 Kinds of Dictionaries
Since a dictionary only represents an aspect of a lexicon for a certain
purpose, dictionaries differ along a large number of parameters. Some of the
more important ones are the following:
a) Monolingual lexicon (“definition dictionary”)
 Dictionary
 Encyclopedia
b) Bilingual dictionary (“equivalence dictionary”)
 Glossary
c) Multilingual dictionary (e.g., a multilingual terminological glossary)

Fuctions of Dictionaries
Its most general functions are the following:
 The dictionary provides information on parts and aspects of the lexicon of
one language. This is a monolingual dictionary.
 The dictionary provides help in translating between languages. This is a
pluri- (mostly, a bi-)lingual dictionary.
On the other hand, the functions of a dictionary may be distinguished
according to the role or perspective of the user:
 If he is in the role of speaker or writer, he is taking the onomasiological
perspective.
 If he is in the role of hearer or reader, he is taking the semasiological
perspective.
A dictionary is a very important tool for anyone who is learning a new
language. With a good dictionary you can do the following:
 look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear
 find the English translation of a word in your language
 check the spelling of a word
 check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
 find out other grammatical information about a word
 find the synonym or antonym of a word
 look up the collocations of a word

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 check the part of speech of a word
 find out how to say a word
 find out about the register of a word
 find examples of the use of a word in natural language

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 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

From the explanation above, we can conclude that , a word is the smallest
element that  we can combine it to be a sentence. Based on Oxford Leaner’s
Dictionary, a sentence is a set of words expressing statement, a question or an
order usually containing a verb and a subject. Sentence a grammatical unit
consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. The using of
dictionary, we can find many words that include in it. There are some functions of
dictionary:
 Look up the meaning of an English word you see or hear
 Find the English translation of a word in your language
 Check the spelling of a word
 Check the plural of a noun or past tense of a verb
 Find out other grammatical information about a word
 Find the synonym or antonym of a word
 Look up the collocations of a word
 Check the part of speech of a word
 Find out how to say a word
 Find out about the register of a word
 Find examples of the use of a word in natural language

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 REFERENCE

http://seameomandala.blogspot.com/2016/11/makalah-morphology-tentang-
word.html?=1 acsess on January 12st 2021

http://fis.ucalgary.ca/RF/GRContentWords-Structurewords.html acsess on January

http://www.fact-index.com/f/fu/function_word.html acsess on January 12st 2021

http://deddisetiawan1.blogspot.com/2014/11/morphologywords-sentences-
and.html?m=1 acsess on January 14st 2021

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