Indian Society Notes by Ias Network

UPSC 2022
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TOPICS AS PER UPSC SYLLABUS, WHOLE SOCIETY PART OF GS1 COVERED :
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

MAJOR ISSUES AFFECTING INDIAN SOCIETY
FEATURES OF CASTE
DIVERSITY OF INDIA
OVERPOPULATION ISSUE IN INDIA
NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY
INFANT MORTALITY ISSUE
MALNUTRITION ISSUE
FOOD SECURITY ISSUE
ISSUES FACED BY WOMEN
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS
URBANIZATION
URBAN POOR
SLUM ISSUES
POVERTY ISSUE
CLIMATE CHANGE AND POVERTY
CHILD LABOUR
POSCO ACT AND VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
CHILD MARRIAGE
MIGRANTS ISSUE
REFUGEE ISSUES
RESERVATION SYSTEM
SCHEDULE CASTE IN INDIA
TRIBALS ISSUE IN INDIA
LGBTQ ISSUES
TRANSGENDER ISSUES
COMMUNALISM
REGIONALISM
SECULARISM
DIVYANGS IN INDIA
SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS RELATED TO MINORITIES
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SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY
India is land of diversity of culture and people in terms of language, religion, caste, food, dress and way
of life. For the same reason India is known for its socio-cultural diversity.
Traditional as well as modern: Ever since, India embraced globalization in 1991, the notions of
modernity have changed. Outwardly display of modern practices like eating out fast food, going to
shopping malls, wearing western clothes, speaking foreign languages and owning modern electronic
gadgets.
Modernity in thinking : This includes leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
and Mahatma Phule and his wife Savitribhai Phule who supported women’s empowerment and went
ahead with their work despite objections from a “traditional society’.
Dynamic and Syncretic : Indian culture and its society are not isolated. It is a fusion of different
cultures and it retains its identity. Its syncretic culture can be seen across the country. Throughout its
history, India has regularly interacted with the outside world and has been plundered for its riches by
many barbaric foreign powers.
Patriarchy : Most parts of the country are deeply involved in observing the practice of patriarchy. The
head of the family is always a senior male member in this system. The disadvantages faced by women
include denial of equal rights in social, economic, political and cultural spheres.
Spiritual and Materialistic : Even before the 1991 reforms, Indian society has been both spiritual and
materialistic. However, the reforms have had the effect of increasing the importance of wealth and
materialism in the society. The Classical Hindu civilization recognizes four “fruits' ' or aims of life:
dharma (duty, righteousness), artha (wealth), kaama (pleasure) and moksha (spiritual liberation). The
middle two (artha and kama) of these are materialistic values.
Rural and Agrarian : Since 1991, the Agricultural sector may be experiencing considerable stress and
its contributions in national development may have reduced, but the country largely remains rural and
agrarian in its outlook. As per the 2011 census, approximately a little over 78% of the population
continues to live in rural areas and 166 million (56.6%) has been engaged in ‘Agricultural and allied
activities’.
Caste and class : There are four main castes and many sub-castes and though the Constitution of India
prohibits any type of discrimination based on caste, it is still a rampant practice in both urban as well as
rural areas. Class discrimination exists in terms of level of economic progress, social standing and the
nature of jobs.
MAJOR ISSUES AFFECTING INDIAN SOCIETY
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Westernisation Vs.Modernisation
Usually, modernisation is misinterpreted as westernisation. However, both ideas are different, having
some overlaps as well as contradictions.
● Modernisation: Coming out of the traditional mould (identity based) of thinking and behaving in
personal and societal spheres. A progressive transformation towards rational and scientific
principles.
● Westernisation: It is about a change in the society, economy, food habits, dressing, thinking etc.
on the lines of Western nations. Replacing one’s own civilizational values and principles with that
of the west.
Overlap between Westernisation and Modernisation:
● Since the Renaissance first began in the West, the Western societies were the first to be
established on modern principles like individualism, secularism etc.
● The ideological dominance/hegemony of the West by virtue of its economic prosperity,
technological superiority and educational preeminence.
● Increasing individualism in the developing world and migration in search of better quality of life
has resulted in McDonaldization and Walmartization.
Contradictions between Westernisation and Modernisation:
● Losing one’s own cultural and civilisational values in the mad rush of aping the West.
● Blindly copying the Western notion of secularism has resulted in increased social tensions and
governance challenges in the global East.
● Shift towards fast food has resulted in malnutrition among the population of global South.
● Gandhi’s criticism of western consumerism (terming it satanic) and the threats of global warming
and climate change underscores the contradiction.
Tradition versus Modernity:
Conflict and Cooperation
Conflicts:
● Hierarchy vs Equality: Societal hierarchy Vs. equality of individuals based on principle of human
dignity.
● Women’s Status: Increasing role of women outside the four walls of the home.
● Superstition vs Rational scientific thinking: Questioning the dogmas and superstitions.
● Joint family Vs. Nuclear family.
● Individualism vs Collectivism: Man as a social being Vs. man as a rational self centred
individual.
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● Ex: Protests against Triple Talaq Law, Sabarimala judgement, by Naga groups against 33%
representation to women in the local body elections etc. are manifestations of these conflicts.
Cooperation:
● Emphasis on sustainability, caring for nature and its various creations.

● Considering the whole world as one big family ( VasudhaivaKutumbakam) is central to solving
global conflicts and establishing peace.
● COVID-19 has further underscored the need for cooperation and togetherness to tackle
challenges of the future.
● Increased attention and awareness towards Yoga and Ayurveda signify the scope for cooperation
between tradition and modernity.
Indian Society Uniqueness in sustaining its culture:
● A Cosmic Vision: The framework of Indian culture places human beings in the centre of the
universe, as a divine creation-which celebrates Individuality and differences of opinion in the
society.
● Sense of Harmony: Indian philosophy and culture tries to achieve an innate harmony and order
in the society.
● Tolerance: In India, tolerance and liberalism is found for all religions, castes, communities, etc.
Indian society accepted and respected Shaka, Huna, Scythians , Muslim, Christian,jews and
Zoroastrians. Rulers like Ashoka, Akbar have patronized various religions and ensured that there
is peaceful co-existence of religions.
● Continuity and Stability: The light of ancient Indian culture life is yet glowing. Many invasions
occurred, many rulers changed, many laws were passed but even today, the traditional
institutions, religion, epics, literature, philosophy, traditions, etc. are alive.
● Adaptability: Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place and period. Indian
society has shown fluidity and has adjusted itself with changing times.
● Caste System and Hierarchy: Indian Society has evolved systems of social stratification, which
in the past helped in accommodating outsiders,but concomitantly it has also been the reason for
descrimination and prejudice.
● Unity in diversity: Despite inherent difference Indian society celebrates unity in diversity which
reflects in modern India’s founding principles and constitutional ideals.
CASTE SYSTEM
● Segmental division of society: It means that social stratification is largely based on caste.
Membership to a caste group is acquired by birth, on the basis of which people are ranked in
relative to other caste groups.
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● Hierarchy: It indicates that various castes are categorized according to their purity and impurity
of occupations. Just like a ladder, castes are ranked from higher to lower positions. Pure caste is
ranked at the top and impure is ranked at the bottom.
● Civil and religious disabilities: These consist of restrictions based on contact, dress,
speech,rituals etc. and are placed on every caste group.
Means of Indian Society Continuing Caste:
● Endogamy: Members of a particular caste have to marry within their caste only. Inter-caste
marriages are prohibited
● Untouchability: It is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the
mainstream by social custom. Untouchability was a corollary of the caste system, wherein the
untouchables (those belonging to the lowest caste groups) were deemed impure and polluted.
● Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging eventually became a caste-based occupation, which
involves the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It has been
officially abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their
Rehabilitation Act 2013.
● Caste based violence in India: Increasing trend of caste based violence are related to instances
of inter-caste marriage and assertion of basic rights by Dalits including land rights, freedom of
expression, access to justice, access to education etc. e.g. A group of Dalits were attacked in Una,
Gujarat when they had participated in the movement for demand of land ownership for the Dalits.
Changes in the Caste System:
● Trends for inter-caste marriage: Purity of blood was one of the main aims of the caste system.
As a result, inter-caste marriages were socially forbidden. Due to economic and social necessities,
inter-caste marriages on western lines are being performed at increased frequency
● Challenge to orthodoxy: Orthodox practices of the caste system such as child marriage, ban on
widow re-marriage, ban on conversion, insensitiveness of superior class towards the low caste
people are being challenged in the wake of urbanization.
● New food habits: Due to frequent mixing of the people at meetings, conferences, seminars etc.,
food habits have changed. Moreover, people have adapted to new social norms such as eating at
the same table, accepting food prepared by low caste people without any reservations etc.
● Changes in occupation: Occupational mobility has become a new feature. Leaving behind their
traditional roles, Brahmins have become traders whereas Vaishyas have joined teaching and so
on.
● Improvement in the position of lower caste: Due to steps initiated by the government, the
position of lower castes have improved. economically,as well as socially.
Factors affecting Caste System:
● Sanskritisation: Sanskritization as a process of change is the mobility concerned with positional

change in the caste system. By changing the customs and rituals such as by adopting
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vegetarianism and teetotalism, people belonging to the low castes are claiming a ‘higher’ position
in the caste hierarchy
● Westernisation: Due to changes in the spheres of education, food habits, dressing sense, style of
eating, manners etc., westernization has brought occupational changes cutting across the caste
barriers.
● Industrialisation and urbanisation: With the growth of industrial towns and cities, migration
has spiralled up. Unlike the source regions, destination areas witness fewer adherences to caste
rules.
● Democratic decentralisation: The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has given
the opportunity for the lower castes to empower themselves.
● Caste and politics: They both are closely linked to each other.In fact, the link has led to an
empowerment among the lower castes since they ventilate their feelings through elections and
power lobby .Dalit politics is one such example, where Dalits are trying to assert their identities
and have become successful in capturing power in various states.
● Legislative measures: A variety of social legislations have been introduced in the post
independence era which aim to safeguard the interests of the down-trodden, to eradicate
untouchability and to facilitate the social and economic development of the depressed castes. For
instance, the Untouchability (offences) Act, 1955 provided for punishment against the practice of
untouchability.
Recent Changes in the Marriage System:
● Changes in the aim and purpose of marriage:|In traditional societies the primary objective of
marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty; especially among Hindus. But today the modern objective of
marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and wife.
● Changes in the form of marriage: Traditional forms of marriages like polygamy, polygyny are
legally prohibited in India. Nowadays, mostly monogamous marriages are practiced.
● Change in the age of marriage: According to legal standards, the marriageable age for boy and
girl stands at 21 and 18 respectively. Average age of marriage has gone up and pre-puberty
marriages have given place to post-puberty marriages.
● Increase in divorce and desertion rates: Relaxed legislative provisions for divorce have
virtually affected the stability of the marriage, particularly in the urban areas. . It is mainly due to
economic prosperity and internet connectivity. The Internet has exposed people to the different
social trends prevalent across the world and has revolutionized the institution in an otherwise
conservative Indian society.
● Live in relationships: They are on a steady growth rate in India especially among the youth in
metropolitan cities. The institution also has legal recognition as a three judge bench of SC in 2010
observed that a man and a woman living together without marriage cannot be construed as an
offence and held that living together is a Right to Life and Liberty (Article 21). SC has also
acknowledged that children born out of such relations are legitimate and have property rights of
their parents under Section 16 of Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
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DIVERSITY OF INDIA
Types of Diversity
● Linguistic Diversity: The Constitution of India recognises 22 languages as per the 8th Schedule.
In reality there are more than 1500 known languages as per the 2011 census.
● Religious Diversity: All major religions have their origins in India or have grown here in this
land. Hindus constitute the majority religion though they are a minority in Union Territories such
as Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh
● Climate and Geographical Diversity: There are also different climatic zones.
● Diverse Family Structure: In India, patrilineal families are common, while matrilineal families
are common among the Khasi of Meghalaya and among the traditional Nayar of Kerala.
● Caste diversity: India is a country of castes. The term caste has been used to refer to both varna
as well as jati. Varna is the four-fold division of society according to functional differentiation.
Thus, the four varnas include Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras and an outcaste group.
● Cultural diversity: Cultural patterns reflect regional variations. Because of population diversity,
there is immense variety in Indian culture as it is a blend of various cultures. Different religions,
castes, regions follow their own tradition and culture. Thus, there is variation in art, architecture,
dance forms, theatre forms, music etc.
● Geographical diversity: Spanning across an area of 3.28 million square kilometre, India is a vast
country with great diversity of physical features like dry deserts, evergreen forests, lofty
mountains, perennial and non-perennial river systems, long coasts and fertile plains.
Factors leading to Unity:
● Constitutional identity: The entire country is governed by one single Constitution. Most of the
states follow a generalised scheme of 3-tier government structure, thus imparting uniformity in
the national governance framework. Further, the Constitution guarantees certain fundamental
rights to all citizens regardless of their age, gender, class, caste, religion, etc.
● Religious co-existence: Religion tolerance is the unique feature of religions in India due to which
multiple religions coexist in India. Freedom of religion and religious practice is guaranteed by the
Constitution itself. Moreover, there is no state religion and all religions are given equal preference
by the state.
● Inter-State mobility: The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the territory of
India under Article 19 (1) (d), thus promoting a sense of unity and brotherhood among the
masses.
● Other factors such as uniform pattern of law, penal code, administrative works (eg. All India
services) too lead to uniformity in the criminal justice system, policy implementation etc.
● Institution of pilgrimage and religious practices: In India, religion and spirituality have great
significance. . From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the south,
Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy rivers are spread
throughout the length and breadth of the country.
● Fairs and festivals: They also act as integrating factors as people from all parts of the country
celebrate them as per their own local customs. Eg. Diwali is celebrated throughout by Hindus in
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the country, similarly ld and Christmas are celebrated by Muslims and Christians, respectively.
Celebration of inter-religious festivals is also seen in India.
● Climatic integration via monsoon: The flora and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent,
agricultural practices, life of people, including their festivities revolve around the monsoon
season in India.
● Sports and Cinema: These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding force
across the length and breadth of India.
Factors threatening India’s Unity:
● Regionalism: Regionalism tends to highlight interests of a particular region/regions over national

interests. It can also adversely impact national integration. Law and order situation is hampered
due to regional demands and ensuing agitation.
● Divisive politics: Sometimes, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by
politicians in order to garner votes. This type of divisive politics can result in violence, feelings of
mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
● Development imbalance: Uneven pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate economic
policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to backwardness of a region. Consequently,
this can result in violence, kickstart waves of migration and even accelerate demands of
separatism.
● Ethnic differentiation and nativism: Ethnic differentiation has often led to clashes between
different ethnic groups especially due to factors such as job competition, limited resources, threat
to identity etc.
● Geographical isolation: Geographical isolation too can lead to identity issues and separatist
demands. The North-East is geographically isolated from the rest of the country as it is connected
with the rest of the country by a narrow corridor i.e the Siliguri corridor (Chicken’s neck).
● Inter-religious conflicts: Inter-religious conflicts not only hamper relations between two
communities by spreading fear and mistrust but also hinder the secular fabric of the country.
● inter-state conflicts: This can lead to the emergence of feelings related to regionalism. It can
also affect trade and communications between conflicting states. For instance, the Cauvery river
dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
POPULATION AND ITS ASSOCIATED ISSUES
Factors Affecting Population Distribution
Geographical Factors
Availability of water: It is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer to live in areas where
freshwater is easily available. Water is used for drinking, bathing and cooking — and also for cattle,
crops, industries and navigation. It is because of this that river valleys are among the most densely
populated areas of the world.
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Landforms (Relief): People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such areas are
favourable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. The mountainous and hilly areas
hinder the development of the transport network and hence initially do not favour agricultural and
industrial development.
Climate: An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts is uncomfortable for human habitation.
Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people. Areas
with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low population.
Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, areas which have fertile
loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive agriculture.
EconomicFactors
Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate
employment. So, skilled and semi-skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated.
Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better
means of transport and communication. Good Civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw people
to the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue
to attract a large number of migrants every year.
Industrialization: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people. These
include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors,
teachers and other services.
Social and Cultural Factors

Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance. In the same way -
people tend to move away from places where there is social and political unrest. Many a time
governments offer incentives through various types of policies to people to live in sparsely populated
areas or move away from overcrowded places.
Fertility Rate
Fertility and Fecundity

At the outset, it is necessary to differentiate between fecundity and fertility. Fecundity refers to the
physiological capacity to reproduce.
Fertility, on the other hand, refers to the actual reproductive performance of an individual or a group.
Total Fertility Rate: The total fertility rate refers to the total number of live births that
a woman would have if she lived through the reproductive age group.
India’s total fertility rate (TFR) is declining. It is now 2.2 per woman, nearing the
replacement rate of 2.1, according to the latest government.
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Trends in Fertility Rate:

● The government's Sample Registration System in 22 states shows that TFR for India declined to
2.2 in 2017 after being stable at 2.3 between 2013 and 2016.
● In rural areas, TFR has fallen from 5.4 to 2.4 during the same period.
● For urban areas, the variation is from 1.1 in Himachal Pradesh to 2.4 in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
● Of the 22 states, only six have a TFR of 2 or more in urban areas. There are 10 states where TFR
is below 2 in rural regions.
● In different age groups, the 25-29 age is the most fertile, except in Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra, where it peaked between 20 and 24. Only J&K hits the peak after 30.
Reasons behind High TFR:

● Religious Ideologies
● Universality of the institution of marriage.
● Early marriage and early child-bearing.
● Preference for sons ingrained in the Indian culture.
● Lack of right of self-determination with reference to reproduction.
● High infant and child mortality rates - (unsatisfactory health, low nutritional status
● And poverty) also contributes to a large family size.
● Economic, social, cultural as well as religious value of children in the Indian society
● Absence of adoption of methods of conception control.
Means to Reduce the Fertility Rate:

● Higher education
● Increased mobility
● Late marriage
● Financially independent women and
● Overall prosperity
Shift in Indian Demographics
Trends:
● The share of India’s young,i.e. 0-19 years, population has already started to decline and
● is projected to drop from as high as 41% in 2011 to 25% by 2041.
● The share of elderly, 60 years and above, population will continue to rise steadily, nearly
doubling from 8.6% in 2011 to 16% by 2041.
● India’s demographic dividend will peak around 2041, when the share of working-age, i.e. 20-59
years, population is expected to hit 59%.
This highlights that India would lose its young country advantage sooner than expected and the expanding
share of dependents would further increase the burden on the state and the economy.
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Implications of this Change:
Increasing dependents in the society- India may lose demographic dividend and stare at a situation
where a large number of populations will be dependent including old age.
Double burden on the government- The twin challenges of rising population and old age dependents
will only add to India’s troubles of providing jobs, education, health along with geriatric care.
Create economic challenges- Additional jobs will need to be created to keep pace with the projected
annual increase in the working-age population of 9.7 million during 2021-31 and 4.2 million during
2031-41.
The country’s working-class population would have to create enough wealth for the growing segment of
longer-living senior citizens that will increasingly rely on pensions. Already, the country is facing job
shortage and losing the demographic advantage would put India at a loss compared to other developing
countries.
Way Forward:
states must be differentiated to accommodate different rates of population growth. The populations in
south and westIndia are growing at a much slower pace than in the central and eastern states.
Need to utilize the energies of all sections of society- including women and senior citizens too.
According to IMF research, raising women’s participation in the labour force to the same level as men can
boostIndia’s GDP by 27% and contribute additively to India’s GDP growth every year. Government
driven programs should also target people between the ages of 60-75 so as to ensure they remain
employable.
Need to improve social security architecture- by incentivizing investments and savings in retirement
schemes, pension funds etc. The focus should be on the informal sector, which constitutes the majority of
the workforce. India’s social security shortfall will increase from $3 trillion in 2015 to $85 trillion in
2050, which needs to be addressed.
Government Can Also consider increasing the retirement age to capture this changing trend. Fewer
Jobs are labour-intensive these days, while rising life expectancies are encouraging longer working lives,
and today’s higher incomes are also encouraging people to work for longer.
OVERPOPULATION ISSUE OF INDIA
Causes of Overpopulation
Social Cause
● Impoverished families have this notion that more the number of members in the family, more will
be the numbers to earn income
● Some feel that more children are needed to look after them in their old age
● Also hunger can be cause of death of their children and hence the need for more children
● Due to illiteracy, Indians still lag behind the use of contraceptives and birth control methods
Son Meta Preference:
● Many Indian parents are opting to continue having children till they have the desired number of
sons. Calling this the son meta-preference, the Survey has found that while an average Indian
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family prefers to have two children, there are instances where families have more than five
children if the last child is not a male.
Illegal Immigration
● Illegal migration is continuously taking place from Bangladesh and Nepal due to porous/open
borders. This is leading to increased population density across India.
Location Factors
● India has a highly uneven pattern of population distribution largely determined by not only
climate along with terrain and availability of water but also socio-economic and historical factors.
Effects of Overpopulation
● Generating employment for a huge population in a country like India is very difficult
● The number of illiterate persons increases every year
● Unemployment rate is thus showing an increasing trend
● The number of jobless people is on the rise in India due to economic depression and slow
business development and expansion activities. Due to this, growth of India is also being termed
as jobless growth.
● Development of infrastructural facilities is unfortunately not keeping pace with the growth of
population. The result is lack of transportation, communication, housing, education, healthcare
etc
● Food production and distribution have not been able to catch up with the increasing population
and hence the costs of production have increased Inflation is the major consequence of
overpopulation.
● Continued population growth has resulted in pressure on land, fragmentation of land holding,
collapsing fisheries, shrinking forests, rising temperatures, loss of plant and animal species.
Way Forward:
● Increasing the welfare and status of women and girls
● Spread of education
● Increasing awareness for the use of contraceptives and family planning methods, sex education.
● Encouraging male sterilisation and spacing births
● Free distribution of contraceptives and condoms among the poor
● More health care centres for the poor
NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY -2000
Objectives:
● The National Population Policy, 2000 (NPP 2000) affirms the commitment of the government
towards voluntary and informed choice and consent of citizens while availing of reproductive
health care services, and continuation of the target free approach in administering family planning
services.
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● The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for advancing goals and prioritizing strategies during
the next decade, to meet the reproductive and child health needs of the people of India, and to
achieve net replacement levels (TFR) by 2010
● It is based upon the need to simultaneously address issues of child survival, maternal health, and
contraception, while increasing outreach and coverage of a comprehensive package of
reproductive and child health services by government, industry and the voluntary
non-government sector, working in partnership.
● The immediate objective of the NPP 2000 is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health
care infrastructure, and health personnel, and to provide integrated service delivery for basic
reproductive and child health care.
● The medium-term objective is to bring the TFR to replacement levels by 2010, through vigorous
implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies.
● The long-term objective is to achieve a stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the
requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.
Shortcomings of Policy:
● The NPP have a narrow perspective and give much importance to contraception and sterilisation.
The basic prerequisite of controlling population include poverty alleviation, improving the
standards of living and the spread of education
● On national scale the policy was not publicised and failed to generate mass support in favour of
population control
● We have insufficient infrastructure owing to the lack of trained staff, lack of adequate aptitude
among the staff and limited use or misuse of the equipment for population control resulting in
failure of the policy
● The use of coercion during the Emergency (1976-77) caused a serious resentment among the
masses. This made the NPP very unpopular
INFANT MORTALITY ISSUE IN INDIA
Mortality Rates:
● The infant mortality rate (IMR) in the country currently stands at 33 per 1,000 live births.
● Between 2014 and 2017, India’s IMR has declined by 15.4%.
● At a decline rate of 17.4%, Rajasthan has been ahead of the national average in reducing IMR
while Gujarat has a decline rate of 14.3%.
● Arunachal, Tripura and Manipur have recorded a negative reduction rate between 2014 and 2017,
which means child death rates there have gone up.
Reasons behind high Infant Mortality Rates:

● Lack of education among mother
● Malnutrition (more than half of Indian women are anaemic)
● Age of the mother at the time of birth, spacing between pregnancy
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● Whether the child is born at home or in a facility

● Children born to mothers with at least 8 years of schooling have 32% lesser chances of dying in
the neonatal period and 52% lesser chances in the post-neonatal period, as compared to the
illiterate mothers.
● According to the National Family Health Survey-4, only 78.9% births in India happen in a
facility.
● Apart from the obvious infection risks in a non-institutional birth, vaccine compliance too is
usually worse in these cases.
Measures undertaken:
● Special newborn care units (SNCUs) have been established at district hospitals and sub-district
hospitals with an annual delivery load of more than 3,000 to provide care for sick newborns.
● Early identification and appropriate management of Diarrhoea and Acute Respiratory Infections
● Improving Infant and young child feeding practices including breastfeeding promotion.
● Immunisation against seven vaccine preventable diseases.
● Vitamin A supplementation and Iron and Folic Acid supplementation;
● Establishment of Nutritional Rehabilitation Centres to address severe and acute malnutrition.
● Promotion of institutional deliveries through Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)
● Operationalization of sub-centres, Primary Health Centres, Community Health Centres and
District Hospitals for providing 24x7 basic and comprehensive obstetric care services
● Engagement of more than 8.8 lakhs Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) to generate
demand and facilitate accessing of health care services by the community.
MALNUTRITION ISSUE
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients.
Malnutrition indicates that children are either too short for their age or too thin. Children whose height is
below the average for their age are considered to be stunted.
Data on malnutrition
● As per the National Family Health Survey (NFHS, 2015-16), the proportion of underweight and
stunted children was as high as 35.8 percent and 38.4 per cent respectively.
● In several districts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and even
Gujarat, the proportion of underweight children was more than 40 per cent.
Reasons Behind Malnutrition:
● Poor uneducated women don’t focus on child nutrition.

● Poor sanitation, lack of access to good quality food, lack of access to mineral drinking water are
the biggest reasons behind it.
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● Birthing children at a lower age, poor nutritional status of pregnant women and lack of adequate
gap between two children are other reasons.
● Low per capita income, Higher food inflation specially fruit inflation, mono diet ( having rice
and lentils only) further aggravates the malnutritions.
● Poor implementation of the Policies like ICDS (Integrated Child development scheme),
corruption in implementation of Mid-day meal scheme, lack of convergence between different
ministries are other policy related causes.
● Poor fund utilization : Many States have only utilized 16% of their allotted funds in the National
Nutrition Mission.
Effects of Malnutrition:
● Low Brain development causes low realization of the cognitive faculty.

● It’s a leading cause behind under 5 mortality.
● Initiates a vicious cycle of poverty and malnutrition.
● Malnutrition children perform poorly in schools subsequently having low incomes, high fertility
and provide poor care for their children. It transmits poverty.
Dealing with Malnutrition:
● Government has launched a National Nutrition Mission to deal with malnutrition.

● It set targets to reduce stunting, under-nutrition, anemia among young children, women and
adolescent girls and reduce low birth weight by 2%, 2%, 2%, 3% and 2% per annum respectively.
● It Focuses on intense monitoring and Convergence Action Plan right upto grass root level.
● It will also create synergy, issue alerts for timely action, ensure better monitoring, and encourage
States/UTs to perform.
● It will also incentivize Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) for using IT based tools.
● Other Direct Targeted interventions: 1) Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) 2)
National Health Mission (NHM) 3) Mid-Day Meal Scheme 4) Rajiv Gandhi Schemes for
Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) or SABLA, 5) Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog
Yojana (IGMSY).
● Focus on increasing breast feeding through programs like MAA (Mothers Absolute affection).
● Indirect approaches like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Jal Shakti also focus on Malnutrition.
Way Forward:
● Best Practices of States should be emulated and propagated across the country.
● Women’s empowerment, Political commitment and administration efficiency are the key to deal
with malnutrition.
● $1 spent on dealing with malnutrition leads to generation of $34-$38 in return.
● Decentralized approach by making Panchayats a key stakeholder can mobilize masses.
● Strengthening of PHC, increasing doctor ratio, increasing higher spending on health are further
steps to ensure better nutrition.
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FOOD SECURITY ISSUES
The problem of chronic hunger and malnutrition seems to prevail on a large scale. India currently has the
largest number of undernourished people in the world i.e. 212 million.
Success of India in achieving Food Security :
● There has been impressive economic progress with achievements in the domain of agriculture
contributing significantly.
● India ranks second worldwide in farm output.
● Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 18.6% of the gross
domestic product (GDP) in 2005 and employed 60% of the total workforce.
Challenges of Food Security:
The causes of existing food insecurity can be better viewed under three concepts namely the: ‘traditional
concept’ which includes factors such as unavailability of food and poor purchasing capacity;
‘socio-demographic concept’ which includes illiteracy, unemployment, overcrowding, poor
environmental conditions and gender bias; ‘politico-developmental concept’ comprising of factors such as
lack of intersectoral coordination and political will, poorly monitored nutritional programmes and
inadequate public food distribution system.
In Rural and Tribal Area:
● Reduction of investment in rural development has affected the availability and expansion of
irrigation facilities, improvement in agricultural technology and overall food grain output.
● Climate change too, has an impact on agricultural productivity, which affects the availability of
food items and thus, food security.
● For the tribal communities, habitation in remote difficult terrains and practice of subsistence
farming has led to significant economic backwardness.
In Urban Area:
● Slum settlements in urban areas are characterized by inadequate water and sanitation facilities,
insufficient housing and increased food insecurity.
● dependence of labourer class on daily employment wages which tends to be variable on different
days of the month and thus the food procurement and access is also fluctuating.
● around 50 % of the urban slums are not notified and thus are deprived of the government
schemes.
Others:
● A number of programmes with improving nutrition as their main component are planned in the
country but these are not properly implemented.
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● Lack of coherent food and nutrition policies along with the absence of intersectoral coordination
between various ministries of government such as Ministry of Women and Child Health, Ministry
of Health and Family Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Finance etc have added to the
problem.
● Lack of adequate knowledge amongst mothers regarding nutrition, breast-feeding and parenting is
another area of concern.
● Gender inequality places the female child at a disadvantage compared to males and causes them
to suffer more because they are last to eat and considered less important .
Way Forward:
● Implementing measures to improve agricultural productivity and food storage: The measures
should focus mainly on rationale distribution of cultivable land, improving the size of the farms
and providing security to the tenant cultivators apart from providing the farmers with improved
technology for cultivation and improved inputs like irrigation facilities, availability of better
quality seeds, fertilizers and credits at lower interest rates.
● Improving purchasing power through employment generating schemes
● The government should come up with more holistic schemes like Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
● Crop diversification, establishing food grain banks and promoting household gardening
● Community awareness through IEC activities and social marketing
● Monitoring and timely evaluation of nutritional programmes
Government Schemes for Food Security
● The Public Distribution System (PDS).

● Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY).
● The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education, also known as “Mid-Day
Meal Scheme”.
● The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
● Food Security Act
ISSUES FACED BY WOMEN
There are various issues and problems which women generally face in the society in India. Some
of the problems are mentioned and described below:
Selective abortion and female infanticide

● It is the most common practice for years in India in which abortion of female fetus is performed
in the womb of mother after the fetal sex determination and sex selective abortion by the medical
professionals.
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Sexual harassment
● It is the form of sexual exploitation of a girl child at home, streets, public places, transports,
offices, etc by the family members, neighbors, friends or relatives.
Dowry and Bride burning
● It is another problem generally faced by women of low or middle class families during or after
marriage. Parents of boys demand a lot of money from the bride’s family to be rich at one time.
Disparity in education
● The level of women's education is less than men still in the modern age. Female illiteracy is
higher in the rural areas. Where over 63% or more women remain unlettered.
Domestic violence
● It is an endemic and widespread disease that affects almost 70% of Indian women according to
the women and child development official. It is performed by the husband, relative or other
family member.
Child Marriages
● Early marriage of the girls by their parents in order to be escaped from dowry. It is highly
practiced in rural India.
Inadequate Nutrition
● Inadequate nutrition in childhood affects women in their later life especially women belonging to
the lower middle class and poor families.
Low status in the family
● It is the abuse or violence against women. Women are considered inferior to men So they are not
allowed to join military services.
Status of widows
● Widows are considered as worthless in Indian society. They are treated poorly and forced to wear
white clothes.
Suggestions to Mitigate it:
● Promoting societal awareness to gender issues and women’s human rights.

● Review of curriculum and educational materials to include gender education and human rights
issues
● Removal of all references derogatory to the dignity of women from all public documents and
legal instruments.
● Use of different forms of mass media to communicate social messages relating to women’s
equality and empowerment.
● The PRIs and the local self-Governments should be actively involved in the implementation and
execution of the National Policy for Women at the grassroots level.
● The involvement of voluntary organizations, associations, federations, trade unions,
nongovernmental organizations, women’s organizations, as well as institutions dealing with
education, training and research should be ensured in the formulation, implementation,
monitoring and review of all policies and programmes affecting women.
● Media should be used to portray images consistent with human dignity of girls and women. The
Policy will specifically strive to remove demeaning, degrading and negative conventional
stereotypical images of women and violence against women.
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● All legislation should be strictly enforced.
Issues Associated with Women
Need for Women Empowerment

● Women are currently Under-employed and unemployed but equally competent and intelligent
● Leads to overall development of society
● Economic benefits as women play anchor role in family
● Rise in individual well as household incomes ultimately leads to National Development
Forms of Women Empowerment :
Social 'Women Empowerment

● This includes promotion of gender equality
● Gender equality implies a society in which women and men enjoy the same opportunities,
outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of life
Educational Women Empowerment
● It means empowering women with the knowledge, skills, and self-confidence necessary to
participate fully in the development process
● It means making women aware of their rights and developing a confidence to claim them
Economic and occupational empowerment
● It implies a better quality of material life through sustainable livelihoods owned and managed by
women
● There is a need for reducing their financial dependence on their male counterparts by making
them a significant part of the human resource
Legal Women Empowerment
● It suggests the provision of an effective legal structure which is supportive of women
empowerment
● It means addressing the gaps between what the law prescribes and what actually occurs
Political Empowerment
● It means the existence of a political system favoring the participation in and control by the
women of the political decision-making process and in governance.
Poor Child Sex Ratio

● Child Sex Ratio (CSR) has significantly declined with 918 girls per 1000 boys in the age group of
0-6 years as per the Census, 2011.
Reasons behind it:

● Rising financial costs of raising children and the relative costs of raising daughters
● An aspiring middle class believes it can ill-afford a daughter in their desire to climb the
economic ladder
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● Patrilineal household structures- ensure resources are pooled between parents and sons
● Dowry, and wedding expenses ensure that parents of the bride incur large expenses
● Compulsory nature of marriage and norms related to marriage- patrilocal (practice of brides
moving out of the natal home after marriage) and ‘marrying up’ (women marrying men of higher
socio-economic backgrounds)
● Concerns for old age security in the absence of pension benefits and social security- daughters are
not perceived as support during old age; also restrictions on women’s mobility and women’s
limited control over financial resources limits their ability to provide support to their parents
● Safety concerns and need to control girls’ sexuality as girls are perceived to carry family honour-
girls are thus perceived to be especially vulnerable and a liability
Way Forward and Suggestions:
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao:
The objectives of this initiative are:
● Prevention of gender biased sex selective elimination

● Ensuring survival & protection of the girl child
● Ensuring education and participation of the girl child
Other Suggestions:
● Promote higher education and skills (paid jobs)- enable girls to stay in school and achieve higher
education- hostels and boarding facilities in upcoming towns, linkage with open schools and
bridge schooling, scholarships for higher education, address basic things like toilets, access to
schools and safety within educational institutions and on the way to schools/colleges
● Focus on Asset building- promote women’s ability to earn, own, and inherit assets
● Advocate for skilling of girls and women outside of traditional ‘feminine’ roles and professions
● Sustained focus on safety and mobility- Safety in schools, colleges, training institutions, work
spaces, and in public spaces needs to be addressed to ensure that girls realize their full potential
and exercise their agency in an environment that is conducive for change.
About PCPNDT Act-1994
Prohibits sex selection before & after conception.

● Prohibits advertisement related to determination and selection of sex of foetus. even through the
internet.
● Mandatory reglstralon for facilities providing diagnostic services capable of determination of sex.
● MAINTENANCE and PRESERVATION of records. Including ·Form ~ Is mandatory for all
facilities.
● There is no punishment and fine for the women who are compelled to undergo sex selection.
● Provision of Imprisonment and financial penalties under the Act ====
● Up to 3 years of imprisonment with fine up to Rs 10.000/- for doctors/ or clinics for the first
offence and cancellation of medical registration of doctor for 5 years for subsequent offence
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● Up to 3 years of Imprisonment and up to Rs so.ooo/- fine for husband/ family member or any
other person abetting sex selections
● Up to 3 years of amprisonment wtlh fine up to Rs 10.ooo/-for any advertisement regarding sex
selection.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 37% of married women face domestic
violence. Domestic violence is a violation of the fundamental right to live with dignity and of the right to
equality and equal protection of the law guaranteed under the Indian Constitution and demand proper
legal actions.
Reasons for Violence:
● Women identified lapses in fulfilling their responsibilities (cooking, attending to household,

looking after children and in-laws) as key factors influencing the occurrence of violence.
● Sexual control is also another area of conflict cited by women. Not infrequently, women
attributed violence due to infidelity
● satisfaction or dissatisfaction with amounts of dowry
● control over a woman’s sexuality and its safe transfer into the hands of husbands who are
assumed to “own” their wives is of primary importance.
● women who come from households with: a) lower levels of education, b) fewer household
appliances, c) higher levels of husband unemployment, and d) higher levels of index women
unemployment are more likely to report being demeaned, threatened, abandoned, and that their
husbands are unfaithful.
Impact of Domestic Violence:
● Direct costs: loss of income, productivity loss, health care costs, housing costs, and costs of social
services.
● Indirect costs: impact on child well-being, female and child mortality, intergenerational social
and psychological costs
● Healthcare expenditure due to violence-related injuries and symptoms.
Way Forward:
● Responses to domestic violence need to address the issue of acceptability of violence as a feature
of gender relations in the marital home. Unless the norms of acceptability of violence are broken,
women will continue to experience physical and psychological violence.
● Greater access to economic resources and education are important preconditions for women to
have greater options in negotiating conflict within the marriage.
● The site of first response to violence – which includes members of the natal family, the marital
family, neighbors, co-workers, and social and community groups—must be strengthened. These
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are the community members who can make a difference by not condoning violence with their
silence and by responding positively to a woman’s effort to seek help.
● Lastly, it is critical that community responses are grounded in a human rights framework to
ensure every woman’s freedom from violence.
Government Schemes:
● Criminal offence: In 1983, domestic violence was recognised as a specific criminal offence by the
introduction of section 498-A into the Indian Penal Code. This section deals with cruelty by a
husband or his family towards a married woman.
● Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: This Act prohibits the giving or taking of dowry. This is to ensure a
change in the culture of dowry in India and associated violence.
● Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act, 2005 ensures the reporting of cases of domestic violence against women to a
Protection Officer. The Act was to make justice available to women who may not always want
criminal proceedings and would want to keep the option of reconciliation alive.
GLOBALISATION AND ITS EFFECT

Globalization has been defined as the process of rapid integration of countries and happenings through
greater foreign trade and foreign investment.
Factors aiding globalisation:

● Technology: has reduced the speed of communication manifolds. The phenomenon of social
media in the recent world has made distance insignificant.
● LPG Reforms: The 1991 reforms in India have led to greater economic liberalisation which has
in turn increasedIndia’s interaction with the rest of the world.
● Faster Transportation: Improved transport, making global travel easier. For example, there has
been a rapid growth in air-travel, enabling greater movement of people and goods across the
globe.
● Rise of WTO: The formation of WTO in 1994 led to reduction in tariffs and non-tariff barriers
across the world.It also led to the increase in the free trade agreements among various countries.
● Improved mobility of capital: In the past few decades there has been a general reduction in capital
barriers, making it easier for capital to flow between different economies.
● Rise of MNCs: Multinational corporations operating in different geographies haveled to a
diffusion of best practices.
Arguments in Favor of Globalisation:

● Greater access to global markets.
● Advanced Technology
● Better future prospects for large industries of developing countries.
Arguments Against Globalisation:
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● Benefits accrue more to developed countries than developed countries

● Compromise with welfare of people residing in developing countries
● Creates economic disparity among nation and people
Impact of Globalisation on Culture:
Homogenisation of Culture: Global trends are affecting the local culture.

● Family structure: Joint families have been adversely affected due aeThere has been an increase in
nuclear families.
● Food: due to opening up of food joints like McDonalds, KFC across the country, there has been a
homogenization of food available across the country.
● Borrowing of money has become more acceptable now as compared to the past. Taking loans is
very common due to increasing access to financial institutions .
● In place of old cinema halls, multiplex theatres are coming up.
● Use of English has increased manifold in urban areas, this has led to a homogenization in
language across the country.
Glocalisation of Culture: Global culture is becoming local.
● Food: India has its unique cuisine, but the cuisines of foreign countries have become more easily
available, they are modified to suit the taste buds of Indians (like Paneer Tikka Burger in
McDonalds).
● Movies: popularity of foreign movies has increased, Hollywood, Chinese, French and Korean
movies are quite popular among the urban youth.
● Marriage: Importance of marriage is decreasing, there has been an increase in divorce, increase in
live-in relationships, and single parenting is increasing.
Revival of Culture
● Revival of Yoga in the country as well as at the international level. This can be seen in the
popularity of the ‘Art of Living’ course by Ravi Shankar, or the celebration of International Yoga
day across the world.
● There has been a revival of ayurvedic medicines in the country as well as outside it.
● Due to increasing uncertainty by inter-linkage with the outside world, there has been religious
revivalism.
● mobilizing people on the basis of religion.
Impact of Globalisation on Women:
● Changing Role in work Globalization has undermined traditional roles of women in

homemaking,farming,livestock, animal husbandry, handicrafts, handlooms etc and resulted in a
relatively better environment for women.
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● Changing Role in Family, Marriage, Caste Globalisation has posed a major challenge to the
institution of patriarchy in India. As women take up jobs and achieve social mobility, they have
also begun to stand up for their rights.
● Prospects of higher and quality education have become feasible for those women who can afford
them, economically and socially.
● Employment In technological and other advanced sectors, which have global bearing, has opened
up for suitably qualified women.
● With changing attitudes towards women,especially in the urban areas, women enjoy a more
egalitarian set of gender relationships.
● Augmentation of women’s movements through exposure at the international level will help bring
about major changes in the economic, social and political lives of women.
● Reduction in gender inequalities will have a positive effect on women’s empowerment in the
socio-economic context.
● Attitudinal changes towards women’s role in the family due to good education, benefits of family
planning and health care, child care, good job opportunities etc. will surely help in the
development of more confident and healthy women.
● Positive approach to economic and cultural migration will facilitate women to be exposed to
better prospects at the international level.
Negative Impacts:
● With increasing nuclear families, the older women’s life has become pitiable, sometimes spending
their later days in old age homes and isolation.
● The feminization of the population has further aggravated this problem. Similarly, male migration
from rural areas to urban centres has put the women under a triple burden of home
making,farming and jobs in the rural sector.
● At the sametime, migration of women for economic reasons has led to increased exploitation
including sexual exploitation and trafficking. The most important issues stand as those pertaining
to marriage, children, abortion, crimes against women,andinheritance.
● Crimeslike rape, kidnapping, eve teasing and indecent exposure can be groupedas crimes against
women.
Impact of Globalisation on Family
● The family bonding and toes have started loosening due to physical distance as it rendered
impracticable for family members to come together soften as earlier. This affected the earlier
idealized notion of ‘family’ as the caring and nurturing unit for children, the sick and elderly.
● With more women joining the workforce system, the care of the aged within families has
declined.
● Finding partners: younger generations have started depending on internet marriage sites like
‘Shadi.com, Bharat Matrimony’ etc. Family involvement in finding a groom / bride is reducing.
However, the tradition of arranged marriages is still relevant in Indian society.
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● Traditionally the family served the role of providing education to the younger generation.
However this role has been taken overby the specialised institutions due to growing division of
labour and specialization of the work.
● Traditional authority structure has changed. The head of the family- father/grandfather have
started losing their authority to the bread of the family In nuclear families.
● there has been a change in marital rules and distributions of powers. Total subordination of
women to men's strict disciplinarian role of father towards children is changing.
● Individualism in the younger generation is increasing, many of them don’t believe in total
surrender of their individual interests to family interests.
Impact on the Caste System
● There has been expansion of economic opportunities, education and liberal thoughts, which has
resulted in weakening of the caste system.
● Inter caste marriages are becoming more commonandare being accepted gradually.
● Traditional division of labour was breaking down due to industrialization; this was given a boost
by globalization.
● Increasing use of modern communication facilities, increased interaction between members of
different castes has led to decrease in feeling of Casteism.
● Globalization has resulted into growing urbanization, which has facilitated a secular pattern of
living and hence impacted the “separation of contact” aspect of the caste system.
● However, despite changes, the caste system has shown immense resilience and still continues to
exist as one of the significant features of Indian society.
Impact on Employment and Labor:

● Globalization has resulted in casualization of labour. It encourages informal units to shift workers
to piece-rate or casual work arrangements without assured minimum wages,or benefits.
● Real wages of casual labour increased faster than in the past- both among agricultural and
industrial workers.
● There has been a shift in the composition of labourforce in favour of the skilled laborers, in
general, and more significantly in the unorganised sector.As a natural consequence, labour
productivity indicated faster improvement both in organized and unorganised sectors.
● International mobility of labour: The migration of laborers across international boundaries is one
of the most striking features of globalization worldwide.
● Womanlabour: feminization of the workforce increased after liberalization.
● Child labour: Though undesirable, child labor persists primarily in rural and agricultural activities
on account of socio-economic compulsions. But there has been a decline in participation of
children aged 5- 14 years in the workforce. There has been a substitution effect, which favors the
employability of adult females.
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Impact on Environment
● Globalization has led to an increase in the consumption of products, which has impacted the
ecological cycle. increased consumption leads to an increase in the production of goods, which in
turn puts stress on the environment.
● Globalization has also led to an increase in the transportation of raw materials and food from one
place to another. The amount of fuel that is consumed in transporting these products has led to an
increase in the pollution levels in the environment.
● It has also led to several other environmental concerns such as noise pollution and landscape
intrusion.
● Transportation has also put a strain on the non-renewable sources of energy.
● Ozone layer depletion and enhanced greenhouse effect pose additional challenges. The industrial
waste that is despre as a result of production has is dumped in oceans.This has killed many
underwater organisms and has deposited many harmful chemicals in the ocean.
● Oil spills from oil tankers pose a threat to the marine environment.
● Due to globalization and industrialization, various chemicals have been thrown into the soil. This
toxic waste has caused a lot of damage to plants by interfering in their genetic makeup.
● It has put pressure on the available land resources. In various parts of the world, mountains are
being cut to make way for a passing tunnel or a highway.
● Vast barren lands have been encroached upon to pave way for new buildings.
● Globalization increases the vulnerability of ecosystems and societies, and the least resilient
ecosystems.
Globalisation impact on State and its institutions :

Positive:
● It has brought global ideas of supremacy of citizens in the working of institutions leading to
citizen centric administration.
● Increased awareness of individual rights have led to challenges for status-quo and red -tapism in
the institutions leading to new reforms.
● It has led to establishment of new institutions and new policies like right to information.
● Focus is on making institutions lean and decentralised in nature.
Challenges:
● The Institution's focus has shifted more to cost cutting and showing profits rather than achieving
justice in society.
● Making state work like business has led to marginalisation of the poor sections further.
● Modern policies like Public private partnership have created issues of accountability and public
interest.
● It has led to cases of crony capitalism in the institutions.
Globalisation impact on Elderly:

● Growth in the nuclear family has led to weakening of the care of elder people.
● Reduction in government subsidies has weakened the financial position of the elder people.
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● Growth in civil society due to globalisation has brought many volunteer organisations to work
with older people. It is also providing them help in housing, clothing and lodging.
● Elder people feel left out due to not being able to cope up with the rise in technology which has
arrived because of globalisation.
● Elimination of pension for the control of expenditure on the behalf of the government has left
elder people with little savings.
● Increased consumerism and materialism in society has eroded the culture of care and compassion
which is very much required by elder people.
Impact on Children:
● Globalisation has totally changed the meaning of childhood. Children have become more
advanced and technologically sound with the help of this process.
● Globalisation has changed their lifestyle, food habits, dressing sense, recreation medium, and
consumer approach.
● Children are moving far away from their culture and tradition as a result of this process.
● Children prefer to wear western dresses.
● Children prefer packed food in the tiffin rather than home made food.
● Children celebrate traditional festivals along with the western festivals.
● Children are increasingly becoming aware of their rights. They seek authority and independence
within the family sphere.
Globalisation impact on Tribals:

● Displacement of Tribals: It is estimated that owing to construction of over 1500 major irrigation
development projects since independence, over 16 million people were displaced from their
villages, of which about 40 per cent belong to tribal population.
● Land Alienation of Tribals: Land is a very important component for tribal development. It
occupies their source of livelihood. But the globalization trend has alienated tribals from their
mainstay.
● Problems of Indebtedness: The global economy has overburdened the tribals with various debts
due to inadequate livelihood resources. The lack of education, purchasing power and lack of
resources for engaging in gainful activity has led to indebtedness for tribal communities. The
indebtedness of tribals pushes them into extreme poverty.
● Endangering of Intellectual Property Rights: In the era of globalization the existence of
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) among primitive communities seems to be withering away.
● Extinction of Primitive tribal culture: The ethos of globalization has not only impacted the
socio-economic conditions of tribal people but their cultural status also.
● Privatisation of PSUs: One of the ways of globalisation in India is disinvestment or
privatization. The profit making enterprises like BALCO, which are in the tribal belt, have been
privatized. PSEs in the tribal belt were beneficial to tribal people giving them employment and
livelihood. Privatization of these enterprises has adversely affected the tribal people and disturbed
the regional balance in terms of industrialization.
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● The new generation of the tribals - many of them - have given up their traditional occupation and
look to sell their labour to the new producers. The economy is created and the old economy is
destroyed.
● Globalisation is hastening the process of destruction of local production and local markets. Gone
were the days of Shikai, Rita, Pulse powders (Sunni Pindi), neem twigs and Kumkum. Today they
are replaced by shampoos, tiklis, toothbrush and toothpaste of hundred and one brands which
have swept into remote villages of Andhra Pradesh.
URBANISATION
Factor Behind Urbanisation:

● Availability of public facilities: To make a smart city, metropolitan cities also offered better
public facilities which are not there in rural areas. Since a variety of public facilities such as
health and education are provided in the cities, people have more choices either to use public or
private.
● Job opportunities: There are ample job opportunities in mega cities therefore village people or
individuals from town frequently migrate to these areas.
● Availability of transportation: Due to easy transport, people prefer to stay in big cities.
● Migration: Migration is the main cause for rapid growth of mega-cities. Migration has been
going on over centuries and it is a normal phenomenon.
● Industrial revolution: Industrial employment catches the attention of people from rural to urban
areas. In the urban areas, people work in the modern sector in the occupations that assist national
economic development.
Issues of Urbanisation:
● Housing : The growing cost of houses compared to the income of the urban middle class, has
made it impossible for the majority of lower income groups to reside in congested
accommodation and many of those are devoid of proper ventilation, lighting, water supply,
sewage system, etc.
● Degradation of environmental quality: Due to urbanization, there is environmental degradation
especially in the quality of water, air and noise.
● Unsuccessful urban governance: The urban authority undergoes multifaceted challenges to
manage a city. The fast speed of urbanization is a major challenge which needs every party to be
more focused in undertaking each and every responsibility in urban development.
● Urban public transport : As high income individuals are buying more private vehicles and use
less public transport. Such a huge number of vehicles in cities is causing more traffic jams, which
in turn decreases the efficiency of public transport. Also the penetration of public transport is less,
which makes people use private vehicles.
● Urban Crime: The mega cities are facing increased criminal activities on account of unchecked
migration, illegal settlements and diverse socio-cultural disparities, organized groups, gangsters,
professional criminals for wishing a lavish life in the metropolis.
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● Provision of Employment: Providing gainful employment to the growing urban population is a

major challenge before the government. It is generally observed that the literate and semi-literate
migrants are absorbed with minimal work, carrying lower wages and more hours of work.
● Sewerage Problems: Urban centres in India are almost constantly beset with inadequate sewage
facilities. Resource crises faced by the municipalities and illicit growth of the cities are two major
causes of this pitiable state of affairs.
Way Forward:
● Smart Cities Mission: The Smart Cities Mission aimed at promoting cities that provide core
infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment,
and the application of ‘Smart’ Solutions. This includes assured water and electricity supplies,
efficient sanitation, solid waste management, and public transport, adequate healthcare and
education facilities, and affordable housing, especially for economically-weak sections of society.
● HRIDAY Mission: Its Specific objectives are: Planning, development and implementation of
heritage sensitive infrastructure and improving Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in
historic city core areas.
● RURBAN Mission: The larger outcomes envisaged under this Mission are Bridging the
rural-urban divide-viz: economic, technological and those related to facilities and services.
Stimulating local economic development with emphasis on reduction of poverty and
unemployment in rural areas.
● PM Awas Yojana: It was launched on 25th June 2015 which intends to provide housing for all in
urban areas by year 2022.
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) Mission: The purpose
of mission is to: Ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water
and a sewerage connection. Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and
well-maintained open spaces (e.g. parks)
● National Urban Transport Policy:The objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable,
quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to
jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within our cities.
● Industrial Corridors:The Government of India is developing 5 major industrial corridors in
various states.
URBAN POOR
In 2001, according to the National Report (India Habitat III by the Ministry of Housing and Urban
Poverty Alleviation) about 23.5% of urban households were slum dwellers.
Causes of Urban Poverty:

● Uncontrolled migration: The lack of infrastructure in rural areas, forces inhabitants of these
regions to seek out work in India’s mega-cities.
● Lack of investment: Urban poverty is a result of the lack of opportunities and skills training for
most of the working age population. Over the years, a shortage of adequate investment in quality
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education and basic services like health, sanitation, waste management and skill training has had
its consequences.
● Lack of infrastructure in villages: Due to lack of basic amenities and employment options in
villages people migrate to cities. Agriculture is barely a lucrative option in villages, so their only
job option is to seek out work in the cities’ informal economies.
● Lack of affordable housing: The lack of affordable housing leaves urban poor address-less on
paper. They settle wherever they can, but as more people join, a whole community of
undocumented settlers emerges.
● Poor Government Accountability: Traditionally, institutional corruption has played a major role
in the slow rate of provision of affordable urban housing. Over the past decades, officials at
different levels of operation have been known to harass slum dwellers by asking them to pay up
for documents they lacked. They also ignored bureaucratic procedures by “justifying” delays in
housing provision, forcing them to permanently settle in these unsustainable settlements.
● Rural poverty is transforming into urban poverty as people migrate in large numbers to urban
areas in search of jobs. This is creating issues of slum development.
Impact of Urban poverty:

● Poor quality, overcrowded housing
● Risk of forceful eviction
● Lack of safe, readily available, water supplies
● Poor provision for sanitation, drainage and solid waste collection
● Lack of access to healthcare, emergency services and policing
● Difficulty accessing government schools, and
● Locations at high risk of disasters and with risk levels increasing because of climate change.
Suggestions:
● giving slum-dwellers access to some form of credit and resources
● more investment into satisfying the demand for more jobs, equal pay, more career and movement
opportunities in the tertiary or agriculture sector, could ease the increasing pressure on urban
infrastructure services.
● Improvement of life in rural areas: To control large-scale migration from rural to urban areas, the
current state of rural infrastructure (or lack thereof) must be addressed. It is also important that
slum dwellers be given access to any kind of loans and resources and help them to promote
investment in rural areas.
● Better Urban Planning and Slum Rehabilitation: After privatization, the design of cities of India is
constantly changing, but the presence of slums is a big question mark on urban planning. It is true
that successful urbanization takes time, but life in slum settlements will improve only when the
living conditions of its residents are improved or improved at the basic level. That is why our
important program in India includes the rehabilitation and upgrading of slums.
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ISSUES OF SLUMS
About Slums
● Slum is a contiguous settlement where the inhabitants are characterized as having inadequate
housing and basic services. Cities Alliance Action Plan describes slums as neglected parts of
cities where housing and living conditions are appallingly poor.
● Census of India 2011 explained slums as residential areas where dwellings are unfit for human
habitation by reasons of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangements and design of such
buildings, narrowness or faulty arrangement of street, lack of ventilation, light, or sanitation
facilities or any combination of these factors which are detrimental to the safety and health.
● The slum is an inevitable part of modern urbanization and the urban poor are active agents
serving the non-slum dwellers and contributing to economic growth.
Data:
India has a population of 65.49 million people living in 13.7 million slum households across the country.
As much as 65% of Indian cities have adjoining slums where people live in small houses adjacent to each
other.
Reasons behind rise in Slums:

● Rural-Urban Migration: Many people migrate from rural to urban areas in search of
employment as employment opportunities are less in rural areas as compared to urban areas.
● Poor Housing Planning: The gap between growing demand for affordable urban housing and
insufficient supply has encouraged the formation of slums. Whenever the demand surplus is not
met by formal sectors, this gap is typically filled by an informal dwelling such as a slum.
● Informal Economy : Slums grow because of the growing informal economy which creates
demand for workers, and as demand increases more people migrate from rural areas and settle
down in slums as the only left option.
● Lack of Available Urban Land: In the past 15 years, India’s urban population density has
increased 45%. With an increasingly densified urban population, there exists a huge demand for
land.
● Regulatory Constraints : Development projects in urban areas are subject to a long approval
process regarding different aspects from both state and central level, which brings about
postponement in tasks.
● Natural Disasters : Major natural disasters in poor nations often lead to migration of
disaster-affected families from areas crippled by the disaster to unaffected areas, the creation of
tent city and slums, or expansion of existing slums.
Impact of Slums
● Lack of basic services/ amenities: The slums are characterised by lack of access to sanitation
facilities and safe water sources, absence of waste collection systems, electricity supply, drainage.
● Substandard housing:Slum areas are associated with a high number of substandard housing
structures, often built with non-permanent materials unsuitable for housing and in dilapidated
conditions.
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● Overcrowding:Overcrowding is associated with a low space per person, high occupancy rates,
cohabitation by different families. Many slum dwelling units are overcrowded, with a large
number of people sharing a one-room unit used for cooking, sleeping and living.
● Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations:Unhealthy living conditions are the result
of a lack of basic services, open sewers, lack of pathways, uncontrolled dumping of waste,
polluted environments, etc
● Perpetuating cycle of Poverty: Low income and poverty is both cause and to a large extent
consequence of slum conditions.Slum conditions create barriers to human and social
development.
● Social problems:Slums are areas of social exclusion that are often perceived to have high levels
of crime. Gender discrimination and violence towards women and children, substance abuse are
rampant phenomena in slum areas.
● Health: Since slums are not connected to basic services such as clean water, sanitation and
hygiene facilities, residents are at great risk of contracting water-borne and respiratory diseases.
Government Steps :
● National Slum Development Programme (NSDP):Initiated in 1996, NSDP provided both loans
and subsidies to states for slum rehabilitation projects on the basis of their urban slum population.
● Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yozana (VAMBAY) :Introduced in 2001, it focused on
shelter for the urban poor, with 20% of total allocation for community sanitation facilities under
the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) program
● Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP):BSUP was an important component of Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). BSUP aimed to provide basic services to
urban poor in 63 of the largest cities in India by population
● Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP):Integrated Housing & Slum
Development Programme (IHSDP) was launched by GoI by merging the schemes of NSDP and
VAMBAY. The objective of the scheme is to provide adequate Shelter and basic infrastructure
facilities to the slum dwellers in urban areas.
● Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP): The Scheme envisages the
provision of interest subsidy to economically weak section and Low income groups to enable
them to buy or construct houses.
● Housing for All: In June 2015, the government approved the 'Housing for All' scheme, with the
goal to provide housing to every Indian household by 2022. One of the major components of the
program is to utilize in-situ slum rehabilitation, through which the government has devised a
strategy to incentivize private developers to use land as a resource.
Urbanisation Related Government programmes and Issues
Government programme:
● Smart Cities Mission: The Smart Cities Mission aimed at promoting cities that provide core
infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment,
and the application of ‘Smart’ Solutions. This includes assured water and electricity supplies,
32
efficient sanitation, solid waste management, and public transport, adequate healthcare and
education facilities, and affordable housing, especially for economically-weak sections of society.
● HRIDAY Mission: Its Specific objectives are: Planning, development and implementation of
heritage sensitive infrastructure and improving Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in
historic city core areas.
● RURBAN Mission: The larger outcomes envisaged under this Mission are Bridging the
rural-urban divide-viz: economic, technological and those related to facilities and services.
Stimulating local economic development with emphasis on reduction of poverty and
unemployment in rural areas.
● PM Awas Yojana: It was launched on 25th June 2015 which intends to provide housing for all in
urban areas by year 2022.
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) Mission: The purpose
of mission is to: Ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water
and a sewerage connection. Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and
well-maintained open spaces (e.g. parks)
● National Urban Transport Policy:The objective of this policy is to ensure safe, affordable,
quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to
jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within our cities.
● Industrial Corridors:The Government of India is developing 5 major industrial corridors in
various states.
Need of Government Programme:

● Engines of inclusive economic growth: Of the 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore live in rural areas
while 37.7 crore stay in urban areas, i.e. approx. 32 % of the population.
● Rapid and haphazard urbanization: Mass movement of people from villages to cities in search
of a better life, drawn by the lure of riches and money has resulted in the haphazard urbanization
with increasing slum population.
● Traffic: With overcrowding in the cities, traffic congestion becomes a problem, increasing the
time it takes to commute over even small distances.
● Share in GDP: Cities contribute to 63 % of Indian GDP. The increasing population has caused
extreme stress on urban amenities.
● Health problems: The concentration of a large population living in squalor in slums in the urban
sprawl makes it a haven for the spread of diseases. Environmental concern: Vulnerability to risk
posed by the increasing man-made and natural disaster is increasing.
Issues with the Government Programme:

● Lack of Finance: Smart cities project is not smartly privileged, unfortunately, when it comes to
funding. Financing is said to be one of the biggest challenges when it comes to the smart city
challenge.
● Availability of Master Plan – Most cities in India do not have their master plans and
development plans in place. This is a tragic situation about developing them into smart cities.
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● No time figure attached to the plan: The entire smart city plan is a one big plan which should
get all the clearances if not before time then on time. Everything should be online and timely
which unfortunately is not happening in this case.
● Availability of Master Plan: Most cities in India do not have their master plans and
development plans in place. This is a tragic situation if we talk about developing them into smart
cities.
● No time figure attached to the plan: The entire smart city plan is a one big plan which should
get all the clearances if not before time then on time. Everything should be online and timely
which unfortunately is not happening in this case.
● Availability of facilities: We are very much aware of the unfortunate fact that India as of now is
not that equipped when it comes to skilled manpower and advanced technology requirements for
developing 100 smart cities.
● Lack of capacity in smaller cities to implement urban development programmes.
● The Central government’s control over the program implementation and sanctioning of funds may
lead to delays. Studies have shown that the involvement of higher levels of government can
increasingly impact the process of empowerment of the local governing bodies.
● Lack of use of the participatory approach in capturing a local community’s needs and local
solution. The role of ULBs in programme design and operationalization is limited.
Way Forward
● It is vital to create an enabling policy and regulatory environment.
● This will allow for a smart and yet sustainable roadmap for urban development.
● Foreign investments are important requirements. However, the cities need to be given the power
to decide on the specific aspects to invest upon, along with the modalities and timing of that
investment.
● It is crucial to show some actions happening on the ground to win the investors’ confidence.
● An equal impetus should also be given to the advanced research in Urban Planning to encourage
innovation and make investments sustainable.
● There is a vast pool of knowledge resources consisting of different aspects of city planning and
smart cities, both in India and abroad.
POVERTY
Classification of Poor and poverty line Issue

Definition: Poverty is a state or condition in which a person lacks the resources for a minimum standard
of living.
Poverty line: The conventional approach to measuring poverty is to specify a minimum expenditure (or
income) required to purchase a basket of goods and services necessary to satisfy basic human needs. This
expenditure is called the poverty line. The basket of goods and services necessary to satisfy basic human
needs is the Poverty Line Basket (PLB).
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Poverty line Estimation:

● Committee reports in India on poverty Some of the important committees set up by the
government after independence to tackle poverty were the following:
● YK Alagh Committee (1979): It defined a poverty line based on the nutritional requirements for
the urban and rural areas and assigned a consumption expenditure amount for it. Every year, this
line was adjusted for inflation.
● Lakdawala Committee (1993): This committee continued with the poverty line and nutritional
requirements approach. However, it recommended that it is important for every state to define its
own poverty line based on the diversity and also a separate poverty line for the rural and urban
areas.
● Suresh Tendulkar Committee report (2009): The following were the recommendations:
○ Shift away from consumption-based poverty estimation to a more inclusive approach.
○ The committee noted that the consumption patterns of people had changed and it was
important to add more items than just calories needed for basic nutrition.
● It also recommended the addition of various intoxicants, education, fuel, medical and sanitation.
● Uniform poverty line- It did away with the system of having different approaches for the urban
and rural areas of different states. » Private expenditure on health and education.
● Rangarajan committee report (2012): It set the poverty line at Rs 47 in urban areas and Rs 32
in rural areas as a poverty line per day per person as a poverty line. The international poverty line
set up by the World Bank is USD 1.90 per individual in a day.
Issues with Poverty line estimation:

● The poverty line should vary over regions mainly because of the variations of the tastes and
preferences and the price structures over the regions. Hence, determining components of
Poverty Line Basket (PLB) has been one of the key challenges of poverty line estimation in India
due to price differentials (of constituents of basket) which vary from state to state and period to
period.
● consumption patterns, nutritional needs and prices of components keep on changing as per
dynamics of macro economy and demography.
● A significant %age of households above the expenditure-based poverty line was unable to
meet the minimum calorie requirements. This called into question the practice of defining a
“poor household” solely on the basis of its per capita monthly expenditure vis-à-vis a poverty line
expenditure cut off without considering the household’s access to a wide set of dimensions.
● Poverty encompasses other factors such as poor health or malnutrition, lack of clean water
or electricity, poor quality of work and limited education access.
● Important aspects such as ill health, low educational attainments, geographical isolation,
powerlessness or dis-empowerment in civil society, caste or gender based inherent disadvantages
etc. remain to be conclusively captured in identifying and enumerating the poor.
Way Forward:
Socio-Economic Caste Census:
● SECC-2011 allows for the first time to track the deprivation of households and address gaps
effectively with focus on multi-dimensionality of poverty.
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● Being outside the Census Act, it provides a rare opportunity to know the specific deprivation of
each household.
● The Sumit Bose Committee (2017) recommended using SECC 2011 data to identify beneficiaries
for all centrally sponsored, central and state government schemes as far as possible.
● GOvernment has used this survey under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana.
Rights Based Approach :
● Rather than targeting the specific line, the government is creating rights around the basic
amenities like education, work and food. It would provide basic goods for all populations despite
their economic standard.
Capability Approach :
● Under this approach, the government is focussing on developing capacity through skill
development and health & education to bring people out of poverty.
Reasons for poverty

There are many reasons for poverty in India. Here, we shall list out certain reasons:
● Historical reasons: In his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’, Dadabhai Naoroji
explains that the very nature of British rule in India has encouraged poverty and impoverished the
masses. The decimation of the rural handicrafts and artisan communities, backwardness of
agriculture and expenditure on the company officials are described as some of the reasons.
● COVID-19 has resulted in an unemployment rate which is at a historic high. Lack of income or
even lack of steady income results in poverty.
● Illiteracy and lack of quality education: Despite more than 15 million graduates being
produced every year, there are no jobs available for them due to lack of quality of education.
Most of these graduates are studying outdated educational syllabus and hence cannot be
productively employed anywhere.
● Vicious trap of poverty: Prevalence of massive malnourishment, stunting and wasting amongst
children which negatively impacts their physical and mental potential pushing them deeper into
the vicious trap of poverty for the rest of their lives.
● Sub-standard health outcomes: More than 60% of the household incomes in many families is
devoted towards health expenditure. This out of pocket expenditure on healthcare is one of the
biggest pulling factors for poverty.
● Administrative Bottleneck: Certain government policies that favour one sector over the other.
Also there is a lack of rule of law and enforcement of laws such as the Minimum Wages Act.
● Income Inequality: According to Oxfam, the top 10% of the Indian population holds 77% of the
total national wealth. 73% of the wealth generated in 2017 went to the richest 1%, while 67
million Indians who comprise the poorest half of the population saw only a 1% increase in their
wealth.
● Discrimination: Discrimination and poverty go hand in hand. Discrimination can both cause
poverty and be a hurdle in alleviating poverty. Ex: Discrimination against women, SC, ST,
Disabled, Old age people etc is one of the major causes of poverty among them.
● Nature of job: Approximately 56% of the total working population is in the agricultural sector.
Which is marked by poor landholding, low productivity and disguised unemployment.
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● The issue of low employment growth within industrial and service sectors has contributed to
stagnant or declining standards of living.
● Inadequate public infrastructure: Lack of accessibility to primary health care centres, quality
public schools, research institutions, roads, waterways, rural markets, etc. act complementary for
the rise and sustenance of poverty in India.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND POVERTY
Introduction:
Estimates indicate that by 2030 more than 100 million people could fall back into extreme poverty due to
climate change, while over 200 million people could be displaced due to more frequent and severe
climatic disasters.
How it creates poverty:

● Evidence shows that weather events create poverty traps linked to health, education, livestock and
other assets.
● The increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like hurricanes, wildfires and
droughts threaten lives in these front-line communities, driving people from their homes and
jeopardizing food sources and livelihoods.
● Gradually shifting weather patterns, rising sea levels and more extreme weather events are
devastating evidence and affect the agricultural system.
● food, resulting in increased competition to access these basic necessities. This increases the
chances of the intensification of existing conflicts and also creates new ones.
● Frequent floods and droughts caused by climate change lead to food shortages and rise in food
prices. This causes hunger and malnutrition, the effects of which are felt most strongly by the
poor. According to the World Food Programme’s 2018 Global Report on Food Crises, “climate
disasters triggered food crises across 23 countries, mostly in Africa, with shocks such as drought
leaving more than 39 million people in need of urgent assistance.” etc
● India ranks fifth globally for the losses it has experienced due to climate change. Around 800
million people in the country live in villages and depend on agriculture and natural resources for
their livelihoods. With at least 50% of the farmlands in the country being rain-fed, changes in the
pattern of the monsoons will affect their livelihoods the most.
Way Forward:
● cash transfers before and after climatic disasters,
● subsidies to enhance food and water security for affected communities,
● employment-generating programmes around climate resilient infrastructure,
● use of weather indexed insurance for farmers, and
● systems to facilitate mobility and effective resettlement for climate affected communities.
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Covid 19 and Pandemic

● Recently, a new research conducted by Pew Research Center has found that the coronavirus
pandemic has pushed about 32 million Indians out of the middle class and increased poverty in
the country.
Rise of Poverty:
● Loss of livelihoods
● Increased malnutrition further affecting the capacity of Poor to earn
● Higher Covid related health expenditure bringing people back into poverty trap.
● Lack of economic growth further affecting future prospects of the poor
● Increased inequality in society leading to higher inflation.
Way Forward:
● Improvement in effectiveness and efficiency in governance.

● Changes in consumption patterns of food, energy and water.
● Global collaboration for climate action.
● Additional investments in Covid-19 recovery.
● Need for improved broadband access and technology innovation.
WOMEN AND POVERTY
Context:
The feminization of poverty is the term given to the phenomenon in which women experience poverty at
far higher rates than men.
Causes of Feminisation of Poverty:

● Labour of women is often primarily in terms of family care and household duties—works for
which they receive no wages.
● When employment opportunities are limited, women may have to migrate to other areas to find
work. If a woman has children, however, she may be unable to pursue a job which is far from her
residence.Thus she faces a reduced accessibility to opportunities and this in turn leads to less
education for her children and deprivation of adequate nourishment and health care and further
diminished opportunities for her children
● Women's jobs are more likely than men's to be forms of informal employment, which takes place
in small, unregistered enterprises and are not protected by government regulation.
● the unpaid labour that women perform in taking care of family members and other household
chores is considered of far less worth (at least economically) than positions that require formal
education or training
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● where school is not compulsory or where girls encounter various barriers to education, upward
economic mobility through higher-skilled employment is nearly impossible.
Way Forward:
● Investments to increase agricultural productivity, improve livestock management and provide
livelihood opportunities are key ways to address the needs of poor rural women.
● Another, more popular and effective intervention that currently reaches millions of women
worldwide is microfinance — small loans and other financial services for poor women who have
no access to the formal banking system.
● Microfinance programs have succeeded in increasing the incomes of poor households and
protecting them against complete destitution.
● Yet another strategy to improve the economic status of poor women has been to increase women’s
access to and control of land. Women who own or control land can use the land to produce food
or generate income, or as collateral for credit.
CHILD LABOUR
‘Children are considered as future of any nation, their place should be in school not in industries’
Definition:-
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) defines child labour as work that deprives children of their
childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that hinders their physical and mental development.
It refers to their association to any work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and
harmful to children, or work whose schedule interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or work
that affects in any manner their ability to focus during school or experience healthy childhood.
What not constitutes child labour:-

However, children or adolescents who participate in work that does not affect their health and personal
development or interfere with their schooling, is not child labour. Such work includes activities such as
helping their parents at home, assisting family or earning pocket money outside school hours and on
holidays.
STATUS OF CHILD LABOUR IN INDIA:-
● According to the 2011 Census, There were more than 10.2 million “economically active” children
in the age group of 5yrs to 14yrs. 5.6 million boys and 4.5 million girls are found to be engaged
in such activities. Out of these, 8 million children were working in rural areas, and 2 million in
urban areas.
● Child labour has decreased in rural areas however; it has increased drastically in the urban areas
which is really alarming, associated with destitution and poor income of households.
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● An analysis by CRY (Child Rights and You) in 2016 of census data shows that the overall
decrease in child labour is only 2.2%per year from 2001 to 2011.
IMPACT OF CHILD LABOUR:

● Socialisation, which is the basis of transforming a human being into social being is negatively
impacted due to child labour as it hampers their cognitive, behavioural and emotional well being.
● Child labour deprives a child of his/her childhood. It not only denies his/her right to education but
also a child is left with little or no time to play.
● Working in hazardous conditions adversely affects a child’s physical and mental health.
● Impact on socio-economic development of a country as it will negatively impact the future
demographic dividend, human capital and social capital per se.
● Rising urban crimes, child pornography, child sexual abuse and drug addictions are highly related
to child labour and its associated work culture.
● INFORMALISATION of economy.
● Overall it impacts all the dimensions of a welfare state in negative ways, which is contradictory to
fundamental rights as well as DPSPs and moral duty of citizenry at large.
According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), there are tremendous economic benefits for
developing nations like India by sending children to school instead of work(Demographic Dynamism).
Without education, children do not gain the necessary skills that will increase their productivity to enable
them to secure higher skilled jobs in future with higher wages that will lift them out of poverty, which is
also reiterated by niti ayog in it’s three year vision plan.
NATIONAL LEGISLATIONS ANDGOI INITIATIVES ADDRESSING THE ISSUE OF CHILD

LABOUR IN INDIA:-
● Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act (1986):-Based on the recommendations of the
Gurupadswammy Committee (1979), the Act was passed in 1986.
objectives:-
● To prohibit the engagement of children in certain occupations.

● To regulate the conditions of work of children in certain other occupations.
● The act defines a child as any person who has not completed his fourteenth year of age.
Part II of the act prohibits children from working in any occupation listed in Part A of the Schedule; for
example: Catering at railway establishments, construction work on the railway or anywhere near the
tracks, plastics factories, automobile garages, etc.
The act also prohibits children from working in places where certain processes are being undertaken, as
listed in Part B of the Schedule; for example: beedi making, tanning, soap manufacture, brick kilns and
roof tiles units, etc.
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Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016:- The Act prohibits the
engagement of children in all occupations and of adolescents in hazardous occupations and processes.
Adolescents refer to persons under 18 years and children to those under 14.
JUVENILE JUSTICE (CARE AND PROTECTION OF CHILDREN) ACT 2000 (AMENDED IN

2006):-
● It includes the working child in the category of children in need of care and protection, without
any limitation of age or type of occupation.
● Section 23 (cruelty to Juvenile) and Section 26 (exploitation of juvenile employee) specifically
deal with child labour under children in need of care and protection.
THE RIGHT TO FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION ACT (2009):- The Act made it
mandatory for the state to ensure that all children aged six to 14 years are in school and receive free
education.
● Article 21A of the Constitution of India recognizes education as a fundamental right. By

ensuring free education to children, these would help to combat the menace of child labour in
India.
● India ratified ILO CONVENTIONS 183 and others regarding eradication of child labour.
● PENCIL portal was developed under ministry of labour for real time interventions in child labour
prone areas.
SUGGESTIVE MEASURES TO PREVENT CHILD LABOUR:-

● IEC approach to change the existing mindset of society to value education rather than money
making activities.
● Proper implementation of Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act and other legal
provisions.
● Stricter punishment for one who employs or encourages child labour.
● Improvement of educational infrastructure- ensuring access to educational institutions,
improvement in quality and relevance of education.
● Awareness-raising and mobilization of families and communities against the exploitation of
children.
● Social protection programmes and cash transfers to improve the economic situation of families
and to reduce the “need” to send children to work.
● Co-ordinated action is required between government departments to combat the problem of child
labour.
● Ngo-Academia-Industry partnership in line with BACHPAN BACHAO ANDOLAN initiated by
Nobel Laureate Kailash Satyarthi in india.
Thus for a better future and inclusive society India must stand for its 25% of population which is in dire
need of care and support. A new India will only be realised when its children will be in school with
quality food, quality education and an enabling environment.
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“A children is like a flower which blossom only when the sun is gentle, watering is periodic and care is
regular”
POCSO ACT AND VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
violence against children can be "physical and mental abuse and injury, neglect or negligent treatment,
exploitation and sexual abuse.”
-UNICEF
STATISTICS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE IN INDIA:-
According to data compiled by NCRB for 2015, 8,800 cases of rape on children were registered across the
country under the Protection of Children against Sexual Offences Act (POCSO).
The KEY Findings are stated below;
● Neighbours were the biggest abusers in such cases in 2015 - 3,149 (35.8%).
● In over 10 per cent of cases last year, children were subjected to rape by their own family
members or relatives.
● In 94.8 per cent of cases, children were subjected to rape by someone known to them.
MAJOR FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHILD ABUSE:-
● Emotional Quotient of children at an early age is prone to manipulation. Pedophiles used such
measures to lure them and exploit inappropriately. Eg. Nithari child sexual abuse and murder
scandal.
● economic distress of family lead to distress migration and it makes children insecure at home
which is one the reasons behind sexual offenders find it easy to harass children.
● lack of parenting knowledge and absence of sexual education like GOOD TOUCH AND BAD
TOUCH approach.
● difficulty in relationships and divorced parents left children at their own destiny making them
more prone to sexual abuse.
● Depression and other mental health problems, Domestic violence, poor work culture at family
level.
● Child pornography as established industry is also one of the major reason behind child sexual
abuse. The recent RAJ Kundra pornography scandal episode can be sought as an example.
IMPACTS OF CHILD ABUSE:

● Hampers overall development of children.
● Physical injury to the child is the most common effect.
● Psychologically it impacts cognitive development of children negatively and creates a sense of
fear and loss of trust towards someone.
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● Physically, Children who get abused often feel isolated, fearful and untrusting, and these
immediate emotional effects can transform into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem,
depression and relationship difficulties.
● Behavioural Aspects changes like Serious behavioural effect which may lead to delinquency, drug
abuse etc.
To overcome the menace of child sexual abuse the GOI came with stringent POCSO ACT in 2012.
CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE AND PROTECTION OF CHILDREN FROM SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT
(POCSO ACT) 2012:-
● The POCSO act was enacted to protect children from crimes of sexual assault, sexual harassment
and Child pornography. It also deals with a child-friendly system for the trial of these offences.
● The POCSO Act, 2012 is a gender neutral legislation. It defines a child as any individual below
18 yr and provides protection to all children from sexual abuse.
● Definition of child sexual abuse is comprehensive and encompasses the following:
(i) penetrative sexual assault,
(ii) aggravated penetrative sexual assault,
(iii) sexual assault,
(iv) aggravated sexual assault,
(v) sexual harassment,
(vi) using child for pornographic purpose,
(vii) trafficking of children for sexual purposes.
● The POCSO Act further makes provisions for avoiding re-victimization, child friendly
atmosphere through all stages of the judicial process and gives paramount importance to the
principle of “best interest of the child”.
● It incorporates child friendly mechanisms for reporting, recording of evidence, investigation and
speedy trial of offences, trial in-camera and without revealing the identity of the child through
designated Special Courts.
● It also provides for the Special Court to determine the amount of compensation to be paid to a
child who has been sexually abused, so that this money can then be used for the child's medical
treatment and rehabilitation.
● The Act also provides for mandatory reporting of sexual offences.
● The Act prescribes stringent punishment for offenders who commit sexual offences against
children.
Issues with the act:-
a) Consent: If the child/adolescent refuses to undergo medical examination but the family member or
investigating officer is insisting for the medical examination, the POCSO Act is silent and does not give
clear direction.
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(b) Medical examination: The POCSO Act, Section 27(2) mandates that in case of a female
child/adolescent victim, the medical examination should be done by a female doctor.This conflicting legal
position arises when female doctor is not available.
(c) Treatment cost: The law has casted legal obligation on the medical fraternity and establishment to
provide free medical care to the survivors. Hampering the implementation of act in letter and spirit.
(d) Consented sexual intimacy: Sexual contact between two adolescents or between an adolescent and an
adult are considered illegal under the POCSO Act 2012, because no exception has been granted in the Act
under which an act of sexual encounter with a person under 18 is an offence irrespective of consent or the
gender or marriage or age of the victim/the accused.
(e) Child marriage: Child marriage and consummation of child marriage are considered illegal under the
POCSO Act, 2012. In India even though child marriage is prohibited under secular law, it enjoys sanction
under certain Personal Law thus complicating matters.
(f) Training: There is an urgent need to train the medical, teachers, judicial, advocates and law enforcing
agencies in the POCSO Act, 2012. Research, information, monitoring and sensitizing the public are the
biggest challenges.
(g) Role of mental health professional: The definitive signs of genital trauma are seldom seen in cases of
child sexual abuse. Hence, the evaluation of child sexual abuse victim requires special skills and
techniques in history taking, forensic interviewing and medical examination.
(h) Low Reporting: cases of child sexual abuse are usually not reported. Both survivors and family
members feel embarrassed and ashamed bearing the guilt, anger, frustration and emotional turmoil of the
act. The fear of re-victimization because of medical examination, criminal justice system and poorly
informed society members keeps them silent and undergo torture for long duration.
Measures:-
● Mental health professionals need to be involved in follow up care of the victim with regard to
emergence of psychiatric disorders, by providing individual counselling, family therapy and
rehabilitation.
● Training all the stakeholders is one of the important variables in providing comprehensive care
and justice.
● Sensitisation of police personnel, reforms in criminal justice system, child friendly court
proceedings are sine qua non for realising the real goal of act.
● Social morality should be awaken through IEC approach, sex education and primary socialisation
have key stakes in this regards.
● Legal provisions related to child pornography, domestic violence and child need care( orphanage,
unwanted child, rescued children) should given child friendly environment so that incidents like
MUJAFFARPUR GIRL SHELTER CASES will not arise.
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Conclusion:-
A golden rule to all the medical professionals working with children is to report all reasonable degree of
suspicion in child sexual abuse to the legal authorities. Hence, professionals need to keep watch on sexual
abuse, explore and assess the child thoroughly. Though the POCSO Act, 2012 is an excellent piece of
legislation and it recognizes almost every known form of sexual abuse against children as punishable
offence, a few challenges remain to be answered. A multi-dimensional, multi-agency team and multi-tier
approach including access to psychosocial support is to be made available to deliver holistic
comprehensive care under one roof for victims of child sexual abuse.
CHILD MARRIAGE
Child marriage violates children’s rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse.
Child marriage affects both girls and boys, but it affects girls disproportionately.
It is defined as a marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and
informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a partner as if married.
Child marriage ends childhood. It negatively influences children’s rights to education, health and
protection. These consequences impact not just the girl directly, but also her family and community.
Status of child marriage in india:-

As per UNICEF,
● Estimates suggest that each year, at least 1.5 million girls under 18 get married in India, which
makes it home to the largest number of child brides in the world - accounting for a third of the
global total.
● Nearly 16 per cent adolescent girls aged 15-19 are currently married.
● While the prevalence of girls getting married before age 18 has declined from 47 per cent to 27
per cent between 2005-2006 and 2015-2016 it is still too high.
Causes:-
● Child marriage, a deeply rooted social norm, provides glaring evidence of widespread gender
inequality and discrimination.
● It is the result of the interplay of economic and social forces.
● In communities where the practice is prevalent, marrying a girl as a child is part of a cluster of
social norms and attitudes that reflect the low value accorded to the human rights of girls.
● Economies of marriage:- Poverty and marriage expenses such as dowry may lead a family to
marry off their daughter at a young age to reduce these costs.
● Patriarchal Indian society considers a girl as an economic burden. Marrying her off at an early age
is a way to transfer this burden to the marital family.
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● Lack of education:- Poor educational opportunities for girls, especially in rural areas increase the
vulnerability of a girl child to be married off early.
● Also, in the current patriarchal setup of the Indian society a girl’s right to education is regarded as
a secondary priority to her labour in the household.
● Patriarchy and gender inequalities prevailing in the Indian society is one of the major reasons for
persisting high incidence of child marriages.
● Prevailing cultural perspectives too encourage the child marriage to thrive in.
● Inadequate implementation of laws is a major reason for persisting menace of child marriage in
the country.
Impacts:-
● Child marriage negatively affects the Indian economy and can lead to an intergenerational cycle
of poverty.
● Girls and boys married as children more likely lack the skills, knowledge and job prospects
needed to lift their families out of poverty and contribute to their country’s social and economic
growth.
● Early marriage leads girls to have children earlier and more children over their lifetime,
increasing economic burden on the household.
● The lack of adequate investments in many countries to end child marriage is likely due in part to
the fact that the economic case for ending the practice has not yet been made forcefully.
● As a result of norms assigning lower value to girls, as compared to boys, girls are perceived to
have no alternative role other than to get married. And are expected to help with domestic chores
and undertake household responsibilities in preparation for their marriage.
● On women health: Issues related to early pregnancy. Mental health is also a major concern.
Violence and abuse at marital homes can lead to post-traumatic stress and depression.
● On Education: Girls are forced to drop out of schools. There lies a cause and effect relationship
between lack of education and child marriage.
● On fertility: Lower age at marriage directly affects fertility rates. Lower the rate of age at
marriage higher is the fertility rate.
● Maternal mortality: Maternal mortality is high among women who have conceived at an early
age. Risks associated with pregnancy are higher.
● Infant Mortality: Mortality rates of children born to very young mothers are high. The children
that survive are likely to develop health problems and are more at risk of transmitting HIV/AIDS.
● Violation of Rights of Children: The Rights of Children are denied by early marriage. The
Convention on the Rights of the Child is designed to guarantee certain individual rights. Child
marriage denies the following rights:
Legislations in this regard:-

● Indian Penal Code (1860) prohibited the consummation of marriage if the girl was less than
10years of age.
● Marriageable age was fixed at 14 years for girls and 18 years for boys under the Brahmo Act of
1872. This Act later came to be known as Native Marriage Act.
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● In 1891, the Age of Consent Bill was passed which prohibited cohabitation with wife under the
age 12.
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006:-
● Under this Act, “child” means a person who, if a male, has not completed twenty-one years of
age, and if a female, has not completed eighteen years of age.
● The Act defined “child marriage” as a marriage where either of the contracting parties is a child.
● Boys and girls forced into child marriages as minors have the option of voiding their marriage up
to two years after reaching adulthood, and in certain circumstances, marriages of minors can be
null and void before they reach adulthood.
● It provides maintenance for the female contracting party.Children born of child marriages are
considered to be legitimate.
● Responsibility laid on the District Courts to decide upon the parental custody of the child,
keeping in mind children’s best interests.
● Punishment of male adult marrying a child: A male adult above eighteen years of age, if contracts
a child marriage shall be punishable with rigorous imprisonment which may extend to two years
or with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees or with both.
● Punishment for solemnizing a child marriage: Whoever performs, conducts, directs or abets any
child marriage shall be punishable with rigorous imprisonment which may extend to two years
and shall be liable to fine which may extend to one lakh rupees unless he proves that he had
reasons to believe that the marriage was not a child marriage.
Way forward:-
● Beti bachao beti padhao initiative is a good step towards the right direction and should be
implemented in letter and spirit
● Law commission white paper on parity of marriageable age of boys and girls should be
welcomed.
● UNICEF and UNFPA have joined forces through a Global Programme to Accelerate Action to
End Child Marriage.
● The significant progress in the reduction of child marriages in India has contributed to a large
extent to the global decrease in the prevalence of the practice. The decline may be the result of
multiple factors such as increased literacy of mothers, better access to education for girls, strong
legislation and migration from rural areas to urban centres. This spirit should be continued.
● A holistic approach that is critical game changers for adolescent girls’ empowerment include
postponing marriage beyond the legal age, improving their health and nutritional status,
supporting girls to transition to secondary school, and helping them develop marketable skills so
that they can realize their economic potential and transition into healthy, productive and
empowered adults.
● Increased rates of girls’ education, proactive government investments in adolescent girls, and
strong public messaging around the illegality of child marriage and the harm it causes are also
among the reasons for the shift.
Conclusion:-
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At the global level, child marriage is included in Goal 5 “Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls” under Target 5.3 “Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced
marriage and female genital mutilation”.
MIGRANTS ISSUE
According to the State of World Population report, more than half of the world’s population lives in urban
areas.As per the census, the level of urbanization in India has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16%
in 2011. Urbanization in India is a consequence of demographic explosion and poverty-induced
rural-urban migration.
The Economic Survey of India 2017 estimates that the magnitude of inter-state migration in India was
close to 9 million annually between 2011 and 2016, while Census 2011 pegs the total number of internal
migrants in the country (accounting for inter- and intra-state movement) at a staggering 139 million.
Trends-source and destination states:-

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are the biggest source states, followed closely by Madhya Pradesh, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal; the major destination states are Delhi,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
Causes:-
Push factors:-
● Poor agricultural productivity and vicious cycle of poverty.
● Poor quality of life in rural areas and relative backwardness.
● Lack of employment opportunities.
● Ethnic, caste, class conflicts and sense of insecurity.
Pull factors:-
● Urbanisation and employment opportunities.
● Quality of life with basic civic amenities.
● Better access to quality education, health and a secure environment.
● Enabling ecosystem.
Impacts:-
● Labour mobility has a positive effect on the economy because they are engaged in the
construction industry, domestic work, textiles, mines and quarries,agriculture, food processing
and the hotel and restaurant business.
● The rising contribution of cities to India’s GDP would not be possible without migration and
migrant workers.
● Migrants also take their skills and knowledge back with them, generally called ‘social
remittances’.
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● The backbone of the Green Revolution in Punjab was actually migrant labour.
● With rising incomes, migrant remittances also encourage investment in human capital formation.
● Migration may provide an opportunity to escape caste divisions and restrictive social norms.
● Migrants may return with renewed social attitudes and act as a channel of knowledge.
● Migration and inter-cultural dialogue between populations bring in new ideas, energy, and
diversity to urban spaces.
Challenges:-
● Poor implementation of protections under the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 (ISMW
Act)
● Son of the soil doctrine and related exploitation of migrants. Eg. in maharashtra the bihari bhaiya
notion.
● Double city concept with slum areas creating social stratification.
● Rising urban crimes and poor work culture in slum dwelling areas called ghettoisation.
● Poor social security and job stability.
● Covid-19 and migrant crisis.
● Feminisation of agriculture and extra burden on women of migration household.
● Many smart city proposals identify slums as a “threat” to the city in their “SWOT”
(Strengths,Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis while totally failing to account for
migrant labour in the schemes.
● Women migrants are victims of gender-based violence, physical, sexual, or psychological
abuse,exploitation, and trafficking.
Government steps:-
● New labour codes and related social security provisions for migrants and unorganised labours.
● Skill mapping for migrants for employability as per skill of individual.
● PM-AWAS yojana (urban) for quality and affordable housing for migrants.
● Smart city mission for overall development of megalopolis and slum area development
programme.
● Ek bharat shreshtha bharat scheme for more confidence building and mutual respect among
natives and migrants.
● SDG india index and improvement in indicators related to urban civic amenities.
● Local industries promotion via stand up india, startup india, MSME promotion and SHGs
empowerment.
● MGNREGS during covid-19 served as saviour to distress migrants.
Way forward:-
● The Human Development Report by the United Nation Development Programme (2009)
highlights that migration is integral to the process of human development and it plays a very
important role in achieving sustainable development goals, thereby preventing migration could
even be counterproductive.
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● The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(ECOSOC) has highlighted
that the policies and programs facilitating the integration of migrants at the destination remain
weak at best or non-existent and suggested the inclusion and integration of migrants in
development.
● National best practices should be included in evidence based policy making ;For instance,
schemes like Kerala government’s Aawaz health insurance scheme, Apna Ghar project
-accommodation for migrant workers, Portable Rights- ensures the basic rights to workers in their
respective home state, even as they labour in other states.
CONCLUSION:-
Hence India needs to formulate migration centric policies, strategies, and institutional mechanisms in
order to ensure inclusive growth and development and reduce distress induced migration, thereby
increasing India’s prospects for poverty reduction and achieving Sustainable Development Goals.
REFUGEES
● The UN defines refugees as those individuals that have fled their own countries because of
persecution, war or violence.
● Refugees are defined and protected in international law. The 1951 Refugee Convention is a key
legal document and defines a refugee as: “someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their
country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.”
● An internally displaced person (IDP) is a person who has been forced to flee his or her home for
the same reason as a refugee, but remains in his or her own country and has not crossed an
international border. Unlike refugees, IDPs are not protected by international law or eligible to
receive many types of aid.
Statistics:-
As per Global Refugee Forum;

● Globally, more than two-thirds of all refugees come from five countries: Syria (6.7 million),
Afghanistan (2.7 million), South Sudan (2.3 million), Myanmar (1.1 million), and Somalia (0.9
million).
● According to the UN, by the end of 2018, there were around 70.8 million people around the world
who had left their home countries because of conflict and persecution. Of these 70.8 million,
roughly 30 million are refugees.
● Countries in the developed regions host 16 percent of refugees; one-third of the refugee
population (6.7 million people) are in the Least Developed Countries.
● The largest host countries are Turkey (3.7 million), Pakistan (1.4 million), Uganda (1.2 million),
Sudan (1.1 million), and Germany (1.1 million).
● According to the UN’s Global Trends report, there are 37,000 new displacements every day.
● In 2018, 13.6 million people were newly displaced due to conflict and or persecution.
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India and refugee crisis:-

● Being located at the heart of south asia( one of politically unstable regions in the past) india is
facing a grave refugee crisis.
● India does not have a separate statute for refugees, and until now has been dealing with refugees
on a case-by-case basis.
● India is not a signatory to the 1951 Convention on Refugees or the 1967 Protocol Relating to the
Status of Refugees.
● The Union government circulated to all states and Union Territories a Standard Operating
Procedure to deal with foreign nationals who claimed to be refugees.
● Rohingya started to arrive in India’s northeast following stepped-up persecution by the
Myanmarese armed forces.
● Chakmas and madhesi along with tibetan refugees have been looking for a safe place in india for
a long time.
Issues:-
● They have denied their basic rights covered under the United Nations declaration on human
rights.
● The refugees also have an impact on the economy and society of their host nations. Resource
distribution and demographic changes could have adverse impacts.
● Large numbers of refugees can have a devastating impact on the host nation, resource availability
and competition with natives can be sought as one of prime examples.
● Large number of refugees actually lose their lives while trying to reach different countries which
might take them. The Middle East to European refugee crisis of 2015 is one such example.
● Fundamentalism and associated radicalisation for cause of suffering they faced, They could be
used by terrorist organisations, sex or slave trade etc., thus denial of basic human rights,
disruption of global peace.
● It is often seen that immigrants are exploited for their cheap labour.
● Immigration sometimes also becomes a social or political issue; racism is used to exploit feelings
or as an excuse for current woes of the local population.
Solutions:-
● Letter and spirit adherence to global convention on refugees. Principle of non-refoulement must
be followed.
● Repatriation treaties could be future solutions while giving shelter at times of needs.
● CAA-2019 should be made inclusive and non discriminatory as an effective solution to tackle
refuggee crisis in india on humanitarion grounds.
● Creation of New domestic law aimed at refugees. In the absence of proper legal measures,
refugee documentation, and work permit, refugees may end up becoming illegal immigrants. So,
such a law should include certain essential provisions.
● Climate change associated with environmental refugees should also be included in existing
schemes.
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● The Supreme Court in the National Human Rights Commission vs. State of Arunachal Pradesh
(1996) held that “while all rights are available to citizens, persons including foreign citizens are
entitled to the right to equality and the right to life, among others.”
Conclusion:-
In spite of not being a party to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol, India has been one of
the largest recipients of refugees in the world. However, if India had domestic legislation regarding
refugees, it could have deterred any oppressive government in the neighborhood to persecute their
population and make them flee to India.
At the global level, UN, NGOs, and countries facing such problems must come forward with novel
measures to tackle the problem for larger humanitarian interest.
RESERVATION SYSTEM
Reservation is a form of affirmative action i.e. positive discrimination towards distributive justice in
society. In developing countries like India, there are various marginalised and
socio-educationally-economically backward sections, which need support from the state to ensure their
upward social mobility.
Constitutional provisions to safeguard the interests of various social sections via reservation:-
● The Preamble of the Indian Constitution provides for “social, economic and political justice”.
This aims to create a society without discrimination. Reservation to the weaker section of the
society is an aspect of Social Justice.
● Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the Indian Constitution enables the Government to reserve seats in
government services. This is provided for the advancement of any Socially or Educationally
Backward Classes of citizens (SEBCs) or the members of the SC and STs.
● Article 330 and 332 has provisions for specific representation through the reservation for SCs and
STs. These reservations were provided both in Parliament and in the State Legislative Assemblies
respectively.
● Article 243D and Article 233T provides for the reservation of seats in every Panchayat and
Municipalities respectively for SCs and STs.
● 103rd CAA Enacted to extend the benefits of reservation to the new deprivation category of
economically backward sections of society.
Why reservation:-
● Historical injustice: Caste based reservation is a necessity in India because of historical

negligence and injustice caused to those backward communities.
● Level Playing field: Reservation provides a level playing field as it is difficult for the backward
sections who were historically deprived of education, skills, and economic mobility to suddenly
start competing with those who had access to those means for centuries.
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● Meritocracy Vs Equality: Meritocracy is important, however, it will have no meaning without

equality. The caste-based reservation also minimized the gap between upper and lower castes to a
great extent.
● Administration quality: A study revealed that reservations have not affected the efficiency of
administration, but enhanced quality. The best example is the Indian Railways in which the
SC/ST employees comprise more in number, and the results have been better.
Apprehensions regarding evergreening of reservation:-
● Relative disadvantageous notions lead to new demands of reservations: maratha, jaat, patidar
anamat andolan regarding the same.
● Rising agricultural distress and unemployment issues creating an environment for reservation as a
panacea to get a job, creating domino effect and spillover effect.
● Political compulsions to rationalise and phasing out the temporary provisions made in the
constitution regarding 10 year basis of review of further need of reservation.
● The Supreme Court's verdict in the RAM SINGH case opened up the debate of more avenues of
deprivations rather than socio-educational only.
● Staggering results of upward social mobility which shows that the most deprived sections in the
reserved category itself are not getting benefitted by reservation policy.
Solutions:-
● Recently appointed justice Rohini commission is mandated to look into sub categorisation of
other backward classes is a good step in the right direction. It will ensure that the most eligible
beneficiary will get the benefits as per the spirit of theory of reservation.
● Rural development and doubling farm income will lead to engagement of people in primary
sector activities which will ensure economic empowerment at grassroot level. It will tackle the
new demands of reservation.
● Human development and inclusive growth are the way forward to be adhered to.
● Government must look into rationalisation of the reservation system rather than evergreen it out
of political compulsions.
● The Supreme Court must dilute the hue around the debate by making strict guidelines regarding
qualitative and quantitative criteria of reservation. The Indira Sawhney case must be revisited in
this regard and should uphold the aspirations of all the sections of society.
Reservation Jurisprudence And Judicial Verdicts In India:-
● The State of Madras v. Smt.Champakam Dorairajan (1951) case was the first major verdict of the
Supreme Court on the issue of Reservation. The case led to the First Amendment in the
constitution.
The Supreme Court in the case pointed out that while in the case of employment under the State, Article
16(4) provides for reservations in favor of the backward class of citizens, no such provision was made in
Article 15.
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● In Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) case the court examined the scope and extent of
Article 16(4).
1. The Supreme Court while upholding the 27 percent quota for backward classes, struck down the
government notification reserving 10% government jobs for economically backward classes
among the higher castes.
2. The Supreme Court in the same case also upheld the principle that the combined reservation
beneficiaries should not exceed 50 percent of India’s population.
3. The concept of ‘creamy layer’ also gained currency through this judgment and provision that
reservations for backward classes should be confined to initial appointments only and not extend
to promotions.
4. The Court has said that the creamy layer of OBCs should be excluded from the list of
beneficiaries of reservation.
● The Supreme Court in M. Nagaraj v. Union Of India 2006 case while upholding the constitutional
validity of Art 16(4A) held that any such reservation policy in order to be constitutionally valid
shall satisfy the following three constitutional requirements:
1. The SC and ST communities should be socially and educationally backward.

2. The SC and ST communities are not adequately represented in public employment.
3. Such a reservation policy shall not affect the overall efficiency of the administration.
● In Jarnail Singh vs Lachhmi Narain Gupta case of 2018, Supreme Court holds that reservation in
promotions does not require the state to collect quantifiable data on the backwardness of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
The Court held that creamy layer exclusion extends to SC/STs and, hence the State cannot grant
reservations in promotion to SC/ST individuals who belong to the creamy layer of their community.
Conclusion:-
Reservation is a Potent tool to realise social equality in real terms. In democratic countries like India, it is
imperative on part of the state to strive for welfare of all the sections of society without impacting the
overall administrative efficiency as well as rationalising the benefits of reservation to the most backward
sections only. So that the upward social mobility gains faster pace and demand for reservation will
become a thing of the past.
SCHEDULE CASTE IN INDIA
Scheduled castes are those castes which were placed at the bottom in the traditional caste system. They
were treated as polluted or impure. Concept of pollution attached to them had made them untouchables.
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As per census-2011 SC constitutes approximately 15% population of india. There are more than 700
scheduled castes in india.
Problems faced by scheduled caste in india:-
1. Untouchability and notion of purity and pollution:- despite existing stringent laws in this regard
(untouchability offences act-1955, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act, 1989), this social evil is still prevalent in various areas of the country.
2. Poverty:- material deprivation, landlessness, educational backwardness, unemployment,
indebtedness, health and nutrition are key issues faced by scheduled castes. This creates a vicious
cycle of poverty.
3. Atrocities:- as per NCRB data the crimes against sc increased by 7% in between 2017-2018.
Recent jharkhand lynching can be sought as key example.
4. Despite being given political reservation in parliament, state assemblies and panchayats the
notion of proxy candidates hampers their political empowerment.
5. Poor human development and unavailability of basic amenities in rural areas lead to their
exploitation by caste hierarchy.
Constitutional provisions regarding SC empowerment:-
● Article 15(4) refers to the special provisions for their advancement.

● Article 16(4A) speaks of “reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in
the services under the State in favour of SCs/STs, which are not adequately represented in the
services under the State’.
● Article 17 abolishes Untouchability.
● Article 46 requires the State ‘to promote with special care the educational and economic interests
of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
● Article 335 provides that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled
Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of
administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs
of the Union or of a State.
● Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution respectively provide for reservation of seats in
favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the
legislative assemblies of the States.
● Under Part IX relating to the Panchayats and Part IXA of the Constitution relating to the
Municipalities, reservation for SC and ST in local bodies has been envisaged and provided.
What have been done so for:-
1. Standup india, pm mudra yojana, mgnrega for economic empowerment.

2. Swachh bharat abhiyan and criminalising manual scavenging to alleviate the core problem of
irrational division of functions in society.
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3. Sc/st act to prevent atrocities against SCs.

4. Rashtriya garima abhiyan.
5. Reservation in public employment, educational institutes and in elections for upward social
mobility.
6. Pm-awas yojana, saubhagya yojana, bharat net, ujjwala yojana for quality of life in the remotest
part of the country.
Way forward:-
● Social transformation is needed via the CAB approach of attitudinal changes.

● Using ICT to spread awareness regarding their rights, protection under law and government
scheme to avail the benefits without exploitation will ensure their overall empowerment.
● Land reforms 2.0 is imperative for redistribution of ideal land lying with the state to the scheduled
caste and other vulnerable sections.
● Rurban mission and smart villages initiatives to be taken to overhaul the rural economy so that
the dividends of growth could be equitable.
● Legal provisions must be implemented without any fear or favour to protect them against any
atrocity.
Conclusion:-
India is truly a country with unity in diversity. We must respect Indianness rather than any caste ridden
social order. For an inclusive and progreesive society in a democratic state it is imperative on part of the
state to protect the rights of the vulnerable sections then only the spirit of welfare state be realised.
TRIBALS ISSUES IN INDIA
According to 2011 census, the population of ST is 104.3 million and comprises 8.6% of total
population.Article 366 in the Constitution of India defines scheduled tribes as "such tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article
342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution"
There are certain Scheduled Tribes who are known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
PVTGs are characterised by:
1. pre-agriculture level of technology

2. stagnant or declining population
3. extremely low literacy
4. subsistence level of economy
The criterion followed for specification of a community, as scheduled tribes (lokur committee 1965)are-
● Primitive Traits
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● Geographical isolation
● Distinct culture
● Shy of contact with community at large
● Economic backwardness.
Classification of tribes:-Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes.
● Criminal Tribes Acts (CTA) of 1871: About 200 communities were deemed to be ‘hereditary
criminals’ and subject to surveillance, confinement and gross discrimination. It was in light of the
then prevailing notion that crime was a genetic trait passed down from one generation to the next.
● The CTA was removed from the statute books in 1952 on the recommendation of the All India
Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee (1949) and henceforth, ‘Criminal Tribes’ came to be known
as 'Denotified Tribes' instead.
● Nomadic and semi-nomadic communities practice a range of occupations-pastoralists and
hunter-gatherers, mainly shepherds, cowherds and hunters of small game, entertainers including
dancers, acrobats, snake charmers, monkey trainers.
Problems of STs in india:- as per virginius xaxa committee report,
The five critical issues:

(1) livelihood and employment,
(2) education,
(3) health,
(4) involuntary displacement and migration,
(5) legal and constitutional matters
● Massive development induced displacement: As a part of the faulty nation-building process, tribal
areas have witnessed the large-scale development of industry, mining, infrastructure projects such
as roads and railways, hydraulic projects such as dams and irrigation.These have been followed
by processes of urbanization as well.
● There has often been loss of livelihood, massive displacement and involuntary migration of tribes.
● Another important issue analysed by the Committee is the working of legislation.
● The overall condition of tribal people, including their poverty, is attributed to their social and
geographical isolation.Verrier Elwin attributed their deplorable and impoverished condition to
their contact with the outside world, which had led to indebtedness and loss of control over their
land and forests.
● Integration and Development:- State is actually pursuing for tribals is assimilation rather than
integration, contrary to what is claimed (development as well as for safeguarding and protection
of their interests).
● There is also an argument for inadequate resource allocation for tribal development. Poor
implementation of programmes is offered as another explanation for the issue of lack of social
development among tribes.
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● Another argument regarding poor development of the tribal populations is built around the issue
of the traditional socio-cultural aspects of tribal life. For example, education in the regional
language is usually familiar to the general population, including the Scheduled Castes, but this is
not the case in the tribal context.
● The appropriation of tribal land and forests began during colonial rule and has continued to the
present. Since tribal-inhabited regions are rich in mineral, forest and water resources, large-scale
development projects invariably came to be located in tribal areas.
Case study:-States of Jharkhand and Odisha, which have considerable natural resources, but also the
highest percentages of tribal people living below the poverty line.
In 2004–05, the proportion of tribal people living below the poverty line stood at 54.2 per cent in
Jharkhand while the percentage was as high as 75.6 per cent in Odisha in the same year.
Overcoming tribal ‘isolation’ through large-scale mining, industrial and infrastructure projects, as these
States have witnessed, has clearly not resolved the problem of poor development indicators. Rather, these
have led to further impoverishment and vulnerability.
● Laws and rules that provide protection to tribes are being routinely manipulated and subverted to
accommodate corporate interests.
● Violence: Tribal protests are being met with violence by the State’s paramilitary forces and the
private security staff of corporations involved.These dismal situations have paved the way for
Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) in tribal areas.
What have been done till now:-
● Tribal panchsheel of nehru for assimilation of tribes into mainstream without hampering their
unique identity and culture.
● Constitutional safeguards under various articles as discussed in SCs section.
● National commission for STs to protect their rights and ensure overall development of the
community.
● The Provisions of Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), 1996 and The
Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act
(FRA), 2006, enacted to redress the historical injustice to tribal and forest communities, have
been significant initiatives that have changed their legal status.
SOLUTIONS:-
● Tribal communities face disregard for their values and culture, breach of protective legislations,
serious material and social deprivation, and aggressive resource alienation. Hence, the solution to
these issues should enable the tribes to protect their own interests.
● An empowered citizenry and a functioning, participatory (including participation of women)
self-governance is the best guarantee for a democratic nation.
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● Due share in socio-economic progress for tribal people and their habitations, including facilities
like health, education, livelihood, drinking water, sanitation, roads, electricity and sustainable
income, in situ.
● Protecting the land and forest rights of tribal communities is equivalent to protecting their
livelihoods, life and liberty.
● The right to natural resources in tribal lands has to be protected. They should only be accessed
with the consent of the Gram Sabhas of the villages
● While tribal lands hold much of the natural and mineral wealth of the nation, these resources
cannot be alienated against their will. Moreover, communities who part with their lands have the
right to share in the wealth and income so generated from its resources.
● The right to preservation of their language, culture and traditions, and to protect themselves
against the loss of identity, must be recognized, protected, documented and allowed to thrive as a
dynamic living culture.
Conclusion:-
There is a need to re-orient development in tune with the tribal culture and to adopt a more humane
approach to tribal development.Beyond the concerns of inadequate resource allocation, ineffective
implementation or tribal traditions, there is a need to engage with the larger question of national and
regional development.
LGBTQ ISSUES
In 2018, the Supreme Court of India decriminalised homosexuality (Navtej singh Jauhar case) by ruling
that IPC Section 377’s application to acts of homosexuality between consenting adults was
unconstitutional. This legal provision was in conflict with the right to life and right to privacy of every
citizen in india.
historical aspects of issue:-
● Same-sex marriages are not a new phenomenon in India.Hindu scriptures define marriage as the
union of ‘two souls’ and the same scriptures also define that a soul has no gender. It is only the
human bodies that possess a gender.
● These scriptures are a major source of Hindu Law including the Act. The Act merely codifies the
Hindu law and doesn’t try to erode the values imbibed within the Holy Scriptures.
● The 11th-century Sanskrit text, the Kathasaritsagara, provides the same explanation for
cross-class and cross-caste couples who want to marry.
ISSUES RELATED TO LGBT [lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender] community:-
● Legal recognition- Same-sex marriages are not legally recognized in India.For example- Recently,
a PIL was filed in the High Court of Delhi seeking declaration to the marriage rights of the gay
community under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
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● Deprived in Rights – The rights enjoyed by opposite-sex couples are not enjoyed by same-sex
couples. They are prohibited from those rights. For example-The lack of a legal structure around
their relationship became increasingly stark when they tried to bring each other on as nominees in
insurance and financial plans, just as married couples did.
● Most male-female married couples take for granted that the day after they marry, they can open a
joint account, make health and funeral-related decisions for each other, and inherit each other’s
property.
● Families violently separated the same sex couples, often driving them to suicide.
● Racial Discrimination– Additionally, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people suffer from
social and economic inequalities due to continuous discrimination.
Some Key Observations by SC OF INDIA:-
● The SC stated that Article 14 guarantees to every person equality before the law or the equal
protection of the laws within the territory of India. Read more on the Right to Equality.
● The Court upheld the preeminence of constitutional morality by saying that equality before the
law cannot be denied according to precedence to religious or public morality.
● The SC also took into cognisance the fact that many legislations and modern psychiatry do not
consider homosexuality a mental disorder, and hence, it cannot be penalised.
● The SC also acknowledged that homosexuality was observed even in the animal world and this
dispels the myth that it is against the order of nature.
YOGYAKARTA PRINCIPLES:-
● The SC also said that the ‘Yogyakarta Principles on the Application of International Law in
Relation to Issues of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity’ ought to be applied to Indian law.
● The Yogyakarta Principles were outlined in 2006 in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, by a group of eminent
human rights experts.They are a set of principles which pertain to the application of international
human rights law with respect to sexual orientation and gender identity.
Way forward-
● Codifying IPC,CrPC,personal laws etc for inclusion of LGBTQ in the legal recognition as a
community.
● Recent steps by the Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu government regarding provisions of
reservation for the community in public employment is a step in the right direction.
● Human development must be seen in a more inclusive manner and the dividend of growth must
also be shared with the said community too.
● Creating avenues of holistic development of community to get rid of social stigma,
discrimination, harassment, trafficking and begging.
● Startup, stand up schemes could be used to empower them.
CONCLUSION:-
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Countries around the world have legalized same-sex marriages. The world is heading towards progressive
LGBTQ rights. Therefore, it is time to join the many democracies which recognize the right of a citizen to
marry anyone she chooses.
TRANSGENDER ISSUES
In 2014, the Supreme Court of India, in the case of the National Legal Services Authority versus Union of
India, established the foundation for the rights of transgender persons in India by recognising
‘transgender’ as a ‘third gender’ and laying down several measures for prohibition of discrimination
against transgender persons and protection of their rights.
The judgment recommended reservations for transgenders in jobs and educational institutions and their
right to declare the self-perceived gender identity without undergoing a sex reassignment surgery.
Current developments:-
Recently, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has launched the National Portal for
Transgender Persons and has inaugurated Garima Greh, a shelter home for transgender persons.
National Portal for Transgender Persons:-

It has been launched in consonance with the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020.It
would help transgenders in digitally applying for a certificate and identity card from anywhere in the
country, thus preventing any physical interaction with officials.
Garima Greh:-
It has been opened in Vadodara, Gujarat and will be run in association with the Lakshya Trust, a
community-based organisation entirely run by the transgenders.
The Scheme of ‘Shelter Home for Transgender Persons’ includes shelter facility, food, clothing,
recreational facilities, skill development opportunities, yoga, physical fitness, library facilities, legal
support, technical advise for gender transition and surgeries, capacity building of trans-friendly
organizations, employment, etc.
Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, 2020:-
● The rules seek to recognise the identity of transgenders and prohibit discrimination in the fields of
education, employment, healthcare, holding or disposing of property, holding public or private
office and access to and use of public services and benefits.
Key Features:-
● Definitions: Definitions of ‘person with intersex variation’and ‘transgender person’ have been
provided to include trans men and trans women (whether or not such person has undergone sex
reassignment surgery, hormone or other therapy).
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● Non-discrimination: It prohibits the discrimination of transgender persons at educational

establishments, in employment or occupational opportunities, healthcare services and access to
public facilities and benefits.It further reinforces transgender persons’ right to movement, right to
reside, rent, or otherwise occupy property.
● Certificate of Identity:It provides for a right to self-perceived gender identity and casts an
obligation on the district magistrate to issue a ‘certificate of identity’ as a transgender person,
without the requirement of any medical or physical examination.
● If the transgender person undergoes medical intervention to change sex either as a male or female
and requires a revised identity certificate then they would need to apply to the district magistrate
along with a certificate issued by the medical superintendent or chief medical officer of the
concerned hospital.
● Equal Opportunity Policy:Every establishment has been mandated to formulate an equal
opportunity policy for transgender persons with certain specific information as prescribed under
the law.
● Complaint Officer:Every establishment has been mandated to designate a person as a complaint
officer to handle complaints from transgender persons.
● Transgender Protection Cell:Every state government will also have to set up a Transgender
Protection Cell under District Mgistrate and Director general of Police to monitor offence against
transgender persons.
National Council for Transgender Persons:-
● Constitution of the NCT to advise the government for the formulation and monitoring of policies
and redress the grievances of transgender persons.
● Offences and Penalties: Offences, like indulging transgender persons in forced or bonded labour
or denial of access to public places or physical, emotional or sexual abuse.
● Other offences committed under the provisions of the Transgender Persons Act, are punishable
with imprisonment for a term of at least six months, extending up to two years along with fine.
Conclusion:-
With the vision of new India by 2022 and the motto of “sabka sath, sabka vishwas, sabka vikas”, it is the
high time for democracies like India to strive for the protection of rights and overall holistic development
of the community.
COMMUNALISM
Religion is a way of life. When there is political trade in religion or mixing the politics with religion is
called communalism. It is a concept which ultravoires the very fabric of secularism.
Evolution of communalism in india:-

1. Pre-independence phase:-
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○ Divide and rule policy of the British erstwhile.

○ Ganesha and shivaji festivals during the swadeshi movement.
○ Formation of muslim league.
○ Shuddhi,sangathan and ajlaf movement during the civil disobedience movement.
2. Post-independence phase:-
○ Anti sikh riots 1982
○ Kashmiri pandits exodus 1990s
○ Babri masjid demolition issue 1992
○ Gujrat riots 2002
○ Muzzaffarnagar riots 2013
Factors and causes aiding Communalism in India:-
● Political factors: British policy of divide and rule led them to focus on using religion to divide
India. This culminated in separate electorates for Muslims, which was later given to Sikhs and
Anglo Indians. Other political factors include religion-based politics, partiality of political leaders
towards their communities etc.
● Economic factors: Communalism in India has its beginnings in the British policy of ‘divide and
rule’. A prominent reason why this policy gained currency was that the Muslim middle class had
lagged behind the Hindus in terms of education. The demand for a separate nation of Pakistan got
the fervour due to marked inequalities in socio-economic indicators including representation in
the seats of power.
● Social causes:- The Mappila Rebellion, the first so-called communal clash was also more of a
proletarian strike against the landed gentry than a communal riot. It only so happened that the
landed gentry were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims.
● In India, politics of opportunism is the biggest cause of communalism driven by the middle/
upper class for secular gains and trusted by the lower sections that identify with the cause.
● Historical factors: British historians projected ancient India as being ruled by Hindus and
Medieval period as the period of Muslim rule, when Hindus were exploited and threated. Some
influential Indians too supported this projection.
● Social factors: Issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition, conversion efforts by
religious groups etc., further created a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims.
Consequences:-
● Threat to unity in diversity of india.

● Social capital is weakened which will hamper stability and peace. A great challenge to public
order, law and order and security of state.
● Xenophobic tendencies leads to suffeing of indian diaspora in offshore areas.
● It hampers the global image of Indian democratic values and sarva dharma sambhav philosophy.
Suggestions:-
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● Building solidarity and assimilation of various religious groups at different levels in society
workplace, neighborhood etc. by fostering a secular culture eg. celebrating each other’s religious
festivals.
● Swift and prompt response to radicalization by a militant group on social media through police
action, counselling sessions for those radicalized especially adolescents etc.
● Ensuring that political parties refrain from using religion, religious ideologies in order to garner
votes through strict vigilance by institutional mechanisms such as the Election Commission,
media, civil society etc.
● Instances of an inter-religious marriage of two consenting adults should not be construed as “love
jihad issue” and highlighted in the media. Thus, media persons should be sensitized regarding the
issue.
● Mobs leading communal riots should be controlled and strict action should be taken against them
as a combative measure.
● Stern law should be framed by the Parliament against communal violence. The weaknesses of
laws have resulted in the escape of politicians and other influential persons who have openly
indulged in inciting communal violence.
● The CBI or a special investigative body should investigate communal riots within a stipulated
time frame. Further, special courts should hear such cases for quick delivery of justice to victims.
● Police and other bodies upholding law and order should be held accountable as sometimes the
police bow down to pressure from politicians and remain inactive during communal violence and
in the course of its follow up eg. while filing FIRs, arresting the accused, producing charge sheets
etc. Thus, legal reforms must be introduced which hold them accountable for swift action.
● Pluralistic settlement where members of different communities live together should be
encouraged by removing existing barriers as religious segregation strengthens communal
identities and reinforces negative stereotypes of other religious groups. Eg. taking action during
instances of intolerance when Muslims, Dalits, North-Eastern citizens etc. are denied housing
owing to their identities.
● Sachar Committee report on the status of Indian Muslims recommended the creation of an Equal
Opportunities Commission to deal with complaints of intolerance and exclusion.
● Secular education should be taught in all educational institutions, which will lead to development
of harmony and co-operation among members of different communities.
● History education should be de-communalized as the present categorization of Indian history into
ancient, medieval and modern has contributed to communal thinking as it has effectively divided
history into the Hindu period, Muslim period and Christian period respectively. This has given
rise to notions that India was a Hindu country which was ‘invaded’ by Muslims and Christians.
● Increased employment opportunities for minorities can lead to decrease in communal discord.
Thus, there should be focus on skilling members of minority communities through various
programmes and initiatives.
● Religious heads can play an important role in dissemination of ideas of diversity of re ligion,
ideas, etc. which can help in spreading peace among different communities.
● The government should not ban minority practices in order to appease the majority group.
E.g. the state should not show a preference for vegetarianism.
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● Uniform Civil Code should be formulated and implemented with the consensus of all religious
communities so that there is uniformity in personal laws.
● Media, movies and other influences should be used in promoting religious harmony and peace.
Conclusion:-
India is the land of bhakti and sufi movements, khilafat and non cooperation movements which tried to
build communal harmony on the basis of mutual peaceful coexistence. It is imperative on part of society,
state and individual to take utmost care of our legacy and build a nation full of diversity, love and peace.
REGIONALISM
Region provides the basis for the emergence of regional identity. It results in loyalty towards the region
and ultimately takes the shape and form of regionalism. It gives way to regional politics. It is more
oriented towards protecting and promoting regional interests rather than national interests.
● Regionalism is conditioned by economic, social, political and cultural disparities.

● Regionalism at times is a psychic phenomenon.
● Regionalism is built around as an expression of group identity as well as loyalty to the region.
● Regionalism presupposes the concept of development of one's own region without taking into
consideration the interest of other regions.
● Regionalism prohibits people from other regions from being benefited by a particular region.
Regionalism in india:-
● Demand for State Autonomy: The first and the most challenging form of regional politics was in
the demand of people in certain states or regions to secede from the Indian Union and become
independent sovereign states. Such demands occurred soon after independence but they are
mostly non-existent now. The important examples in this context are that of the Plebiscite Front
(Kashmir), Mizo National Front (Lushai Hills of Assam), Nagaland Socialist Conference (Naga
Hills District of Assam) etc.
● Supra-state Regionalism: This implies that more than one state is involved in the issue of
regionalism. It is an expression of the group identity of some states. They take a common stand
on the issues of mutual interest vis-a-vis another group of states.
● Inter-state Regionalism: It is related with state boundaries and involves overlapping of one or
more state identities, which threaten their interests. River water disputes, in general, and other
issues like the Maharashtra-Karnataka border dispute in particular can be cited as examples.
● Intra-state Regional Politics or Sub-regionalism: This refers to regionalism, which exists within a
state of the Indian Union. It embodies the desire of a part of a state for identity and
self-development. It may also reflect a notion of deprivation or exploitation of a part of the state
at the expense of another.The important examples of this kind of sub-regionalism are a Vidarbha
in Maharashtra, a Saurashtra in Gujarat, a Telangana in Andhra Pradesh, an East U.P. in Uttar
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh in Madhya Pradesh.
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● Son of Soil theory: It ties people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles and
responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others. It is accentuated by factors such as
competition for resources, jobs, economic disparities, etc. Examples of implementation of the
concept to further the cause of regionalism include campaign for safeguard of interests of
Maharashtrians by the Shiv Sena, clashes among Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam,
among others.
Impacts:-
1. Positive Impacts:-
● It can lead to intergroup solidarity in a particular region. People belonging to a region may feel
the need to come together to protect their vested interests, setting aside their differences.eg.
Tripura Tribal Autonomous District Council that was formed in 1985 has served to protect an
otherwise endangered tribal identity in the state by providing a democratic platform for former
separatists and has reduced the bases of political extremism in the state.
● Given the increasing uncertainty in the contemporary globalized world, regionalism has become a
source of identity among people. The accommodation of such identities is healthy for maintaining
the socio-cultural fabric of India.
● It may induce competition among people of a region and propel them to do better to improve the
status of their region. Eg. Competitive federalism in India and ensuing competition among states
regarding resources, setting up of industries, infrastructural facilities, etc.
2. Negative Impacts:-
● It can have adverse impacts on national integration, as loyalty to a particular region remains
stronger than loyalty to the nation.
● It can be exploited and used for political leverage in order to garner votes.
● Development plans can be implemented unevenly, in order to curb regionalist and secessionist
demands. Thus, it can lead to unbalanced development.
● When agitations to satisfy regional demands occur, law and order situation is disturbed. It can
also result in violence.
● It can give a leeway to external factors (E.g. terrorist groups, extremist groups) to get involved in
regional issues and create disruption by inciting the masses.
Suggestions:-
● Ek bharat, shreshtha bharat spirit to promote indianness.

● Inclusive development with more focus on the most backward and deprived regions.
● Use of tribal advisory councils and autonomous district councils as an effective tool to tackle
local and regional issues.
● Region specific industrial policy and localised logistics parks for economic developments.
● Tackling migration related issues associated with regionalism with a self-sufficient village
economic model.
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● Inter state cultural and people to people contacts development.

● More integration of the north east with the rest of india.
Conclusion:-
India is one of the megadiverse countries in the world. The diversity must not be a threat to the integrity
of the nation so that the regional aspirations must be respected and fulfilled with effective allocation of
resources for holistic development of the regions.
SECULARISM
Secularism is political philosophy whose connotation lies in the separation of religion from political
affairs of state. The western secularism emphasizes more on mutual exclusion of state and religion while
Indian secularism is based on active intervention of state on religious issues to promote equal treatment of
all the religious denominations.
Constitutional Provisions Regarding Secularism in India:-
● Article 25: guarantees freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion.
● Article 26: every religious denomination has the freedom to manage its religious affairs.
● Article 27: Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
● Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain
educational institutions.
Other Constitutional safeguards regarding religion include the following:
● Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
● Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and no citizens shall be
ineligible for employment on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth.
● Article 29: Protection of distinct language, script or culture of minorities
● Article 30: Rights of all minorities, whether based on religion or language, to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
● The Preamble of India recognises India as a secular country (added after 42 nd Amendment Act,
1976).
Secularism and judicial pronouncements in india:-
● Secularism has been deemed as one of the pillars of “Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution”.
● In the S. R Bommai vs Union of India case (1994), the Supreme Court observed the following,
“Notwithstanding the fact that the words 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added in the Preamble of
the Constitution in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment, the concept of Secularism was very much
embedded in our constitutional philosophy”. Thus, secularism which was implicit in the
Constitution was made explicit.
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● In Stanislaus vs State of Madhya Pradesh case (1977), The Supreme Court held that the right to
propagate religion (under Article 25) does not include right to forcible conversion as it may
disturb public order.
● In Ratilal vs State of Bombay (1954), it was held that regulations by the state should not interfere
with essentials of religion.
● In the Church of God (Full Gospel) in India vs K. K. R. Majestic Colony Welfare Association
(2000), it was held that as the right to religion is subject to public order, no prayers (through voice
amplifiers or beating of drums) should be performed by disturbing the peace of others.
● In St. Stephen’s College vs University of Delhi (1992), the court held that autonomy of a minority
institution cannot be taken away as it will defeat the purpose of the right to establish and
administer educational institutions by minorities.
Conflict between constitutional morality i.e. secularism and social morality:-
● Sabrimala temple entry issue and social customs and traditions are in conflict with right to
equality under article 14.
● Triple talaq criminalisation being a progressive step towards cosmopolitan society but it goes
against religious laws of community.
● Uniform civil code has the potential to create mose egalitarian and equal protection by law based
society. But concerns related to uniformity goes against the right to freedom of religion as
mentioned under article 25.
● Illegal conversions are a real threat to secular fabric and ganga jamuni tehzeeb of india.
● Rising social media spadventures and hate speech, post truth doctrines are acting like dividing
forces which threaten secularism.
Suggestion to strengthen secularism :-
● Robust law and order machinery to tackle fringe elements and social divide.
● Roping ngos, civil society, religious leaders to strengthen inter-community, intra-community
relationships.
● Ethical education and value based education.
● Primary socialisation and social capital via IEC approach.
● Regulation of fake news and social media adventures affecting the religious diversity of Indian
society.
● Electoral reforms to weed out the religious appeasement policies.
Conclusion:-
Indian secularism is a positive concept and known as the melting pot of various traditions, cultures,
philosophies of the world. Following constitutionalism in letter and spirit with mutual respect to religions
is the way forward.
SDG GOALS
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Limits to growth (club of rome), Our common future (Brundtland commission) and UNCED-1992 (
RIO SUMMIT) have led the discourse on environment degradation and carrying capacity of the mother
earth with growing needs of population in the world. To balance the needs of the upcoming generation
along with the present generation is the core idea of sustainable development goals.
They are the next in the process after the 2000-2015 period of millennium development goals. SDGs
(2015-2030) are a set of 17 targets and 169 goals to be achieved to tackle various environmental and
social issues of global concern.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), officially known as transforming our world: the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development is a set of seventeen aspirational "Global Goals" with 169 targets
between them. The goals are contained in paragraph 54 United Nations Resolution of 25 September,
2015. It is popularly known as The Future We Want.
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all stages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for
all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment
and decent work for all
9. Built resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster
innovation
10. Reduce inequalities within and among countries
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production pattern
13. Take urgent actions to combat climate change and its impact
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably managed
forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable
development
Features:-
● The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.
● The objective was to produce a set of universal goals that meet the urgent environmental, political
and economic challenges facing the world.
69
● The SDGs are a bold commitment to finish what the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
started, and tackle some of the more pressing challenges.
● All 17 Goals interconnect, success in one-goal motivates for the success of others.For example,
dealing with the threat of climate change impacts how we manage our fragile natural resources,
achieving gender equality or better health helps eradicate poverty, and fostering peace and
inclusive societies will reduce inequalities and help economies prosper.
Why Sustainable Development?
● "Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
● The focus of sustainable development is far broader than just the environment. It's also about
ensuring a strong, healthy and just society.
● This means meeting the diverse needs of all people in existing and future communities, promoting
personal wellbeing, social cohesion, and inclusion, and creating equal opportunity.
● The rampant growth of industry has adversely affected the environment and is also against the
ethos of sustainable development.
● In 2018 itself we are 1.1 degrees above the pre-industrial temperature already. And if the
greenhouse emissions are not drastically cut then by the end of the century the rise of the
temperature could be 3—3.5 degree. Such an increase would have an irreversible and catastrophic
impact across the world.
India and SDGs:-
● Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is being

implemented to provide jobs to unskilled labourers and improve their living standards.
● The National Food Security Act is being enforced to provide subsidized food grains.
● The government of India aims to make India open defecation free under its flagship programme
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
● Renewable energy generation targets have been set at 475GW by 2030 to exploit solar energy,
wind energy and other such renewable sources of energy efficiency and reduce the dependence on
fossil fuels.
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Heritage City
Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) schemes have been launched for improving
the infrastructure aspects.
● India has expressed its intent to combat climate change by ratifying the Paris Agreement.
● India’s intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) by 2030 targets to ensure
sustainable developments.
Suggestions:-
● Global cooperation, technology transfer, funding for eco friendly practices are sine qua non for
implementation of the targets.
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● Polluter pays principle, common but differentiated responsibility with respective capabilities
(CBDR-RC) APPROACHES must be implemented with zero tolerance policy.
● Promotion of renewable solutions.
● Gender parity via gender budgeting, circular economy, sustainable agriculture are the way
forward.
● Role of NGOs, civil society, and individuals in cooperation with the state is essential for positive
changes.
Conclusion:-
“There is enough in mother earth to fulfill everyone’s needs but not greeds”
-M.K.Gandhi
DIVYANGS IN INDIA
Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions.
● An impairment is a problem in body function or structure.

● An activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action;
● A participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life
situations.
Statistics:-
As per Census 2011, in India, out of the total population of 121 crore, about 2.68 Cr persons are
‘Disabled’ (2.21% of the total population).Out of 2.68 crore, 1.5 crore are males and 1.18 crore are
females.Majority (69%) of the disabled population resided in rural areas.
Constitutional Frameworks for Disabled in India:-
● Article 41 of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) states that State shall make effective
provision for securing right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of
unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, within the limits of its economic capacity and
development.
● The subject of ‘relief of the disabled and unemployable’ is specified in state list of the Seventh
Schedule of the constitution.
Legal provisions in this regard:-
Right of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016:-
● The Act replaces the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act, 1995.
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● "Person with disability" means a person with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory
impairments which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in
society equally with others.
● The types of disabilities have been increased from 7 to 21.
● It increases the quantum of reservation for people suffering from disabilities from 3% to 4% in
government jobs and from 3% to 5% in higher education institutes.
● Every child with benchmark disability between the age group of 6 and 18 years shall have the
right to free education. Government funded educational institutions as well as the government
recognized institutions will have to provide inclusive education.
● Stress has been given to ensure accessibility in public buildings in a prescribed time frame along
with the Accessible India Campaign.
● The Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities and the State Commissioners will act as
regulatory bodies and Grievance Redressal agencies, monitoring implementation of the Act.
● A separate National and State Fund will be created to provide financial support to persons with
disabilities.
● The Bill provides for grant of guardianship by District Court under which there will be joint
decision – making between the guardian and the persons with disabilities.
● The Bill provides for penalties for offences committed against persons with disabilities and also
violation of the provisions of the new law.
● Special Courts will be designated in each district to handle cases concerning violation of rights of
PwDs.
● The New Act will bring our law in line with the United National Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), to which India is a signatory.
Government steps in this regard:-
1. Accessible India Campaign:- Creation of Accessible Environment for PwDs: A nation-wide

flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that will enable persons with disabilities
to gain access for equal opportunity and live independently and participate fully in all aspects of
life in an inclusive society.The campaign targets at enhancing the accessibility of the built
environment, transport system and Information & communication ecosystem.
2. DeenDayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme:- Under the scheme financial assistance is
provided to NGOs for providing various services to Persons with Disabilities, like special
schools, vocational training centres, community based rehabilitation, pre-school and early
intervention etc
3. Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase / fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP) - The
Scheme aims at helping the disabled persons by bringing suitable, durable,
scientifically-manufactured, modern, standard aids and appliances within their reach.
4. National Fellowship for Students with Disabilities (RGMF)- The scheme aims to increase
opportunities to students with disabilities for pursuing higher education.Under the Scheme, 200
Fellowships per year are granted to students with disability.Schemes of the National Trust for the
Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities.
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Issues and Challenges:-
● Health:- A large number of disabilities are preventable, including those arising from medical
issues during birth, maternal conditions, malnutrition, as well as accidents and injuries.
● Education:- The education system is not inclusive. Inclusion of children with mild to moderate
disabilities in regular schools has remained a major challenge.
● Employment:- Even though many disabled adults are capable of productive work, disabled adults
have far lower employment rates than the general population. The situation is even worse in the
private sector, where much less disabled are employed
● Accessibility:- Physical accessibility in buildings, transportation, access to services etc still
remain a major challenge.
● Discrimination/Social Exclusion:- Negative attitudes held by the families of the disabled, and
often the disabled themselves, hinder disabled persons from taking an active part in the family,
community or workforce.
● Differently-abled people face discrimination in everyday life. People suffering from mental
illness or mental retardation face the worst stigma and are subject to severe social exclusion.
● Inadequate data and statistics:-The lack of rigorous and comparable data and statistics further
hinders inclusion of persons with disabilities.
● Poor implementation of policies and schemes hinders the inclusion of disabled persons. Though
various acts and schemes have been laid down with an aim to empower the disabled, their
enforcement faces many challenges.
Suggestions:-
● Prevention:- Preventive health programs need to be strengthened and all children need to be
screened at a young age.Kerala has already started an early prevention programme. The
Comprehensive Newborn Screening (CNS) programme seeks early identification of deficits in
infants and reduces the state's burden of disability.
● Awareness:- People with disabilities need to be better integrated into society by overcoming
stigmaThere should be awareness campaigns to educate and aware people about different kinds of
disability.Success stories of people with disabilities can be showcased to inculcate positive
attitude among people
● Employment:-Disabled adults need to be empowered with employable skills. The private sector
needs to be encouraged to employ them.
● Better measurement:- The scale of disability in India needs to be better understood by improving
the measurement of disability.
● Education:- State-wise strategies on education for children with special needs need to be
devised.There should be proper teacher training to address the needs of differently-abled children
and facilitate their inclusion in regular schools.Further there should be more special schools and
ensure educational material for differently-abled children
● Access:- Safety measures like road safety, safety in residential areas, public transport system etc,
should be taken up. Further, it should be made legally binding to make buildings disabled-friendly
● Policy Interventions:- More budgetary allocation for welfare of the disabled. There should be a
disability budgeting on line of gender budget.
73
● Proper implementation of schemes should be ensured. There should be proper monitoring

mechanisms and accountability of public funds.
Conclusion:-
Inclusive growth promotes the wellbeing of every strata in the society. With the making of new India by
2022 we must strive to protect the rights and create an enabling environment for the welfare of divyangs
then only will we realise the notion of ‘ sabka sath sabka vikas, sabka vishwas’ in letter and spirit.
SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
Social empowerment means all sections of the society having equal control over their lives and the
opportunity to take important decisions. A nation can never have a good growth trajectory without
empowering all sections of society equally.
Welfare state and Social Empowerment:-
● Social empowerment leads one to take the right job and hence reduce the incidence of
unemployment and under-employment.
● Social empowerment leads to a decrease in social violence engineered against the deprived
section of the society. If one is empowered socially, they know the rights they enjoy and the
duties they serve.
● Social empowerment is also advantageous in case of corruption as people tend to understand the
exploitative class and restrain from giving any bribe which ultimately reduces corruption.
● Social empowerment is one approach to reduce poverty. When people are empowered, they tend
to use the knowledge in the right direction and somehow reduce their poverty which is so
important for national growth also.
● The main advantage of empowerment is that there will be an overall and inclusive development
of the society. The money that people earn does not only help them and or their family, but it also
helps develop society.
SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS:-
● Scheduled Tribes
● WOMENS
● Scheduled Castes
● Minorities
● Rural Population
● Senior Citizens
● Persons with Disabilities
(Detailed discussion related to all these sections have been done in above sections)
Government approach:-
74
● Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY): Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana OGSY) is the
restructured, streamlined, and comprehensive version of the erstwhile Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
ORY). It was started on 1 April 1999. The aim of this program was the development of rural areas
Infrastructure like roads to connect the village to different areas, which made the village more
accessible and also other social, educational (schools) and infrastructure like hospitals.
● The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): It was launched by the Govt. of India to
provide connectivity to unconnected Habitations as part of a poverty reduction strategy. Govt. of
India is endeavoring to set high and uniform technical and management standards and facilitating
policy development and planning at the State level in order to ensure sustainable management of
the rural roads network.
● Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP): By providing income-generated assets to the
poor in rural India, IRDP is ambitious in alleviating rural poverty. The main objective of IRDP is
to raise families of the identified target groups below the poverty line by the creation of
sustainable opportunities for self-employment in the rural sector. Assistance is given in the form
of subsidy by the government and term credit advanced by financial institutions (commercial
banks, cooperatives, and regional rural banks.
● National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA): The NREGA bill notified in 2005 and
came into force in 2006 and further modified it as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) on Oct 2, 2009. This scheme guarantees 150 days of
paid work to people in rural areas. The scheme has proved to be a major boost in the Indian rural
population’s income. The Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) is the nodal Ministry for the
implementation of NREGA. It is responsible for ensuring timely and adequate resource support to
the States and to the Central Council.
● National social assistance program:- core of the core scheme for overall social empowerment of
the vulnerables.
● New labour codes to ensure social security of unorganised and platform workers.
● Beti bachao beti padhao, UJJWALA, UJALA, SAUBHAGYA, SWACHH BHARAT ABHIYAN
to improve the overall quality of life of women.
Way ahead:-
● Sustainable and inclusive growth with growth accelerators.

● Empowering the vulnerables with targeted interventions.
● Area based and region specific developmental programmes.
● Robust service delivery and protection of rights.
Conclusion:-
Welfare state emphasis on the overall development of all the sections to realise their full capacity.
Capacity building and access to opportunities are sine qua non in this regard.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
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It is the policy of positive discrimination by state towards socio-economic empowerment of the lower
strata of society. Under article 15,16, 334 etc indian constitution have provisions regarding reservation
i.e. affirmative action.
Disadvantaged groups are a part and parcel of our socio-economic and political formations in the form of
race, colour, caste, gender and biological disability. Efforts have been on to assimilate these marginalised
groups into the mainstream of socio-economic and political life, especially since the last half of the
twentieth century. Arguments are presented both for and against affirmative action as well as providing
the legal and moral rationale for the continued application of affirmative action type programmes.
Why affirmative action:-
● To correct the historical injustice faced by backward castes in the country.

● To provide a level playing field for backward sections as they can not compete with those who
have had the access of resources and means for centuries.
● To ensure adequate representation of backward classes in the services under the State.
● For advancement of backward classes.
● To ensure equality as the basis of meritocracy i.e all people must be brought to the same level
before judging them on the basis of merit.
Issues regarding the policy:-
● Disproportionate:- Through reservation of seats in political and public institutions of the state, it
was thought that the hitherto marginalised groups, which have suffered generations of oppression
and humiliation would, finally, be able to find place in the power sharing and decision-making
processes. However, this strategy of removal of disabilities has not translated into an equalisation
of life chances for many groups in our heterogeneous society.
● Problem of Reification: The current system suffers from the problem of reification (fallacy of
ambiguity) is a reality in the present situation.The data released by Justice G. Rohini
Commission’s report on the sub-categorisation of OBCs gives a good synoptic view to understand
this.Based on the last five years’ data on appointments in central government jobs and OBC
admissions to central higher education institutions, the commission concluded that 97% of central
OBC quota benefits go to just under 25% of its castes.As many as 983 OBC communities — 37%
of the total — have zero representation in both central government jobs and admissions to central
universities. Also, the report states that just 10% of the OBC communities have accrued 24.95%
of jobs and admissions.
● Lack of Data:-It is important to note that the Rohini Commission’s data are based just on the
institutions that come under the purview of the central government. There is lack of any legible
data on the socio-economic conditions of varied social groups at more local levels of State and
society.
● Caste Still Attached to Income Level:- Even in the phase of liberation castes have remained tied
to more traditional sources of income and were incapable of realising the new opportunities
provided by the opening of the economy. In the wake of the lack of social security net on the
76
ground, the marginal majority still dwells in the waiting room of history, waiting to see the light
of the policy grid of the state.
Many suggestions were made in the recommendations that the expert committee for an Equal
Opportunities Commission (2008) made in its comprehensive report that it submitted to the Ministry of
Minority Affairs.
However, little policy progress has been made in this regard. Successive governments have been reluctant
to engage with such radical policy options, almost always caving in to immediate and myopic political
gains.
● Demands From the Marginalised Section:-There is now a strong demand from those who have
not been able to accrue the benefits of reservations from within the marginalised sections, to
devise some policy option which may be able to supplement the existing system of reservation.
● Asymmetrical Distribution:-Asymmetrical distribution of reservation has even deterred the
solidarity among the lower caste groups.
Suggestions:-
1. Recalibrating Affirmative Action:- It is required that benefits of affirmative action are shared by
the poorest of poor sections of any caste.A mechanism is required that can address this lacuna in
the present implementation of affirmative action and make the system more accountable and
sensitive to intra-group demands.
2. Need For Evidence-based Policy:-There is an urgent need to develop a wide variety of
context-sensitive, evidence-based policy options that can be tailored to meet specific
requirements of specific groups.
3. Institutional Setup:-There is a need for an institution like the Equal Opportunities Commission of
the United States or the United Kingdom which can undertake two important but interrelated
things:
4. Make a deprivation index correlating data from the socio-economic-based census of different
communities including caste, gender, religion, and other group inequalities and rank them to
make tailor made policies.
5. Undertake an audit on performance of employers and educational institutions on
non-discrimination and equal opportunity and issue codes of good practice in different sectors.
This will make the formulation of policy and its monitoring simpler at an institutional level.
6. Need For Comprehensive Caste-based Census:- A socio-economic caste-based census becomes a
necessary precondition to initiate any meaningful reform in the affirmative action regime in
India.Thus it is the need of the hour to include caste census with the general census.
7. Strong Political Will:- A strong political will is indispensable to find an equilibrium between
justice to the backwards, equity for the forwards and efficiency for the entire system.
Conclusion:-
77
Inclusive and egalitarian society resides on the platform of equality and equity. Equitable distribution of
resources with ensuring equality of opportunity is much needed in developing countries like india to
strengthen the social capital and human development with affirmative action.
GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS RELATED TO MINORITIES
The term “Minority” has not been properly defined anywhere in the Indian Constitution. But minority
status has been conferred on many groups.
● Article 29- According to Article 29 of the Constitution, any group living within the jurisdiction of
India is entitled to preserve and promote its own language, script or literature, and culture.
● Article 36- Article 36 states that a minority group whether based on religion or language shall
have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Minorities in India:-
1. The word ‘minority’ mentioned in the Constitution of India used in various articles viz. Article
29, 30, 350 A, and 350 B.
2. The constitution recognizes minorities based on religion and language, but it neither defines the
term ‘minority’.
3. As per sec 2(c) of the National Commission for Minorities Act 1992, ‘minority’ means a
community notified as such by the Central govt. The Union Government notified Six religious
communities, viz; Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis), and Jains as
minority communities which constitute about 19% population of the country.
4. States governments are also empowered to designate state minorities and set up State Minority
Commissions. For e.g. Jains were designated as a minority by 11 states before the Jains were
nationally recognized in 2014.
Issues faced by minorities in India:-
● The problem of communal tensions and riots:-The minority interest is at stake whenever a
communal riot and tension occurs. The number of social unrest also started to increase post the
1960s. Hence, combined with the magnitude and frequency of communal riots, the minority is
losing confidence over the system and it is highly tough for the government to restore the
confidence in them.
● The problem of Identity:- Because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, history, and
backgrounds, minorities have to grapple with the issue of identityThis gives rise to the problem of
adjustment with the majority community.
● The problem of Security:- Different identities and their small numbers relative to the rest of
society develop feelings of insecurity about their life, assets, and well-being.This sense of
insecurity may get accentuated at times when relations between the majority and the minority
communities in society are strained or not very cordial.
● The problem of lack of representation in civil service and politics:- The equality and equal
opportunities to all its citizens including the religious minorities are given in Indian Constitution,
78
the biggest minority community, that is, Muslims, have not availed themselves of these facilities
of basic human cause. There is a feeling among them that they are neglected.
● The problem of separatism:-Some of the demands put forward by some religious communities in
some areas are not acceptable to others. This has widened the gap between them and others (e.g.,
the separatist tendency present among some Muslim extremists in Kashmir and their demand for
the establishment of Independent Kashmir is not acceptable to others)
● Education and Employment among Muslims in India:-The participation of Muslims is relatively
low in the education space but has improved in recent years.The participation of Muslims in
higher education is particularly poor Household endowments along with location play a critical
role in determining the participation of Muslims in education.Muslims are predominantly
engaged in self-employment and their participation as regular worker especially in the tertiary
sector in urban areas is low as compared to other socio-religious communities.
Steps Taken by Government of India:-
● Prime Minister’s new 15-point program:-Prime Minister's new 15 point program for the welfare
of minorities, which is an overarching program covering various initiatives of different ministries.
● USTAAD:- The scheme aims at upgrading skills and training in the preservation of traditional
ancestral arts crafts of minorities.
● Hamari Dharohar:- To preserve the rich and diverse heritage of minority communities in India.
● Strengthening of State Wakf Boards:- It is to provide support for training and administrative cost
of State Wakf Boards, strengthen the state Wakf boards, etc.
● Nai Roshni:- The scheme is envisaged to reach out to women through non-governmental
organizations who will be provided with financial support for conducting leadership development
training so that women are empowered and emboldened to move out of the confines of home and
community and assume leadership roles and assert their rights collectively or individually.
Conclusion:-
The democratic spirit of any state is evaluated on the basis of the protection it endowed to it’s minorities.
In India with the existence of various communities, it is imperative on part of the state to extend
constitutional protection in letter and spirit to ensure overall development of the minorities.
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UPSC 2022

FOR PRINTED COPIES OF IAS NETWORK NOTES : WHATSAPP / TELEGRAM : 9779726117

TOPICS AS PER UPSC SYLLABUS, WHOLE SOCIETY PART OF GS1 COVERED :

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

MAJOR ISSUES AFFECTING INDIAN SOCIETY

Overlap between Westernisation and Modernisation:

Contradictions between Westernisation and Modernisation:

Tradition versus Modernity:

Conflict and Cooperation

● Emphasis on sustainability, caring for nature and its various creations.

Indian Society Uniqueness in sustaining its culture:

Means of Indian Society Continuing Caste:

Changes in the Caste System:

Factors affecting Caste System:

● Sanskritisation: Sanskritization as a process of change is the mobility concerned with positional

Recent Changes in the Marriage System:

Factors leading to Unity:

Factors threatening India’s Unity:

● Regionalism: Regionalism tends to highlight interests of a particular region/regions over national

POPULATION AND ITS ASSOCIATED ISSUES

Factors Affecting Population Distribution

Social and Cultural Factors

Fertility and Fecundity

Trends in Fertility Rate:

Reasons behind High TFR:

Means to Reduce the Fertility Rate:

Shift in Indian Demographics

Implications of this Change:

OVERPOPULATION ISSUE OF INDIA

NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY -2000

INFANT MORTALITY ISSUE IN INDIA

Reasons behind high Infant Mortality Rates:

● Whether the child is born at home or in a facility

Reasons Behind Malnutrition:

● Poor uneducated women don’t focus on child nutrition.

● Low Brain development causes low realization of the cognitive faculty.

Dealing with Malnutrition:

● Government has launched a National Nutrition Mission to deal with malnutrition.

FOOD SECURITY ISSUES

Success of India in achieving Food Security :

Challenges of Food Security:

In Rural and Tribal Area:

Government Schemes for Food Security

● The Public Distribution System (PDS).

ISSUES FACED BY WOMEN

Selective abortion and female infanticide

Suggestions to Mitigate it:

● Promoting societal awareness to gender issues and women’s human rights.

● All legislation should be strictly enforced.

Issues Associated with Women

Need for Women Empowerment

Forms of Women Empowerment :

Social 'Women Empowerment

Poor Child Sex Ratio

Reasons behind it:

Way Forward and Suggestions:

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao:

The objectives of this initiative are:

● Prevention of gender biased sex selective elimination

About PCPNDT Act-1994

Prohibits sex selection before & after conception.