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Notes: Bioethics. BSET-366.: Sources
Notes: Bioethics. BSET-366.: Sources
NOTES:
Bioethics.
BSET-366.
Sources:
NOTE: these notes are made by a student mostly by class lectures.
Google search, HEC Website & Wikipedia.
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Bioethics:
The term Bioethics is derived from two words bio (life) & ethos (behavior). To study the
behavior of human life comes under the umbrella of bioethics. Ethics is a science of moral in
human conduct. Till 1970s the term bioethics was not used but then a scientist Van Rensselaer
used the term bioethics for the first time in 1971.
History of Bioethics:
It was all started from the 6th BC when the experiments were conducted on the prisoners who
were given the rotten meat.
1. I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment
and never do harm to anyone.
In 1900 there was a scientist Walter reed he gave germs of yellow fever to 22 subjects & he
exploited them financially.
From 1932 to 1972 (Tuskegee) study was conducted on the disease syphilis & the subjects
were 400 black share coppers they were given the injections of syphilis disease but they were
told by the researchers that they are giving them vaccination for the cure of disease
In 1943 some experiments were conducted on 16 mentally disabled people they were kept In
the refrigerators at 30 degree Fahrenheit for 120 hours.
The scientific community then decided to make rules and regulations to stop the violation of
ethical issues.
The Nuremberg code includes such principles as informed consent and; properly
formulated scientific experimentation; and beneficence towards experiment participants.
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(Informed consent is a legal procedure to ensure that a patient or client knows all of the risks and costs
involved in a treatment.)
Helsinki Declaration:
1964 in this declaration it was decided that the interest of science and society should never
take precedence over the well being of subjects
In 1979 Belmont report was presented and three basic principles were decided in that report
2. Principle Of beneficence.
Persons are treated in an ethical manner not only by respecting their decisions and
protecting them from harm, but also by making efforts to secure their well-being. Such
treatment falls under the principle of beneficence
3. Justice.
whenever research supported by public funds leads to the development of therapeutic
devices and procedures, justice demands both that these not provide advantages only to
those who can afford them and that such research should not unduly involve persons from
groups unlikely to be among the beneficiaries of subsequent applications of the research.
In 1991 CIOMS (Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences) Guide lines was
introduced by W H O and four principles were there:
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Education:
Bioethics is taught to postgraduates and undergraduates as a subject in their course.
Research:
For research purposes there is a committee known as Research Ethics Committee in almost
every university and research institute which checks the ethical bases of study and give its
decision about the study i.e. whether to it allow it or not.
Clinical:
In hospitals there is a committee Known as Clinical or Hospital Ethics Committee. The
committee has two functions:
1. When a researcher is going to conduct a study on a patient he should take the patient in
confidence and get the approval of Hospital Ethics Committee.
2. In case if the patient is get harmed by the researcher & if he or she report his complaint
to H E C then H E C will have take the action against the particular researcher.
Policy making:
In policy making H E C is going make policy based on priority setting and resource allocation.
For example if there are 20 bed available in the hospital emergency room and nineteen of them
are given to 19 patients & only one bed is left and two more patient arrive then H E C is going to
give the priority to the patient who more is serious. Likewise in resource allocation H E C is
going to decide which department is more deserving for the funds and it will it be given the
priority over others.
CONCLUSION:
1. To study the behavior of human life comes under the umbrella of bioethics.
2. It was all started from the 6th BC when the experiments were conducted on the prisoners
who were given the rotten meat.
6. In 1991 CIOMS (Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences) Guide lines
was introduced by W H O.
Branches of Bioethics:
There are three major branches of ethics:
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1. Meta ethics:
Meta ethics is an ethical field that seeks to understand attitudes and judgments.
In Meta ethics the focus is on how we understand and knows about what is right and
what is wrong.
2. Normative ethics:
In normative ethics we decide what to do, what not to do and what we ought to do.
3. Virtue ethics:
Virtue ethics describe the character of moral agent as a deriving force for ethical
behavior rather than rules.
Some isms:
1. Hedonism:
The basic concept of hedonism is that we have to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
2. Consequentilism:
The basic principle that we have to do whatever has the best consequences.
3. Deontology or Kantianism:
It is the philosophy of Immanuel Catt and it says that you should do your duty, having a
good will.
4. Utilitarianism:
It is based on the thoughts of Jeremy Bentham and he believes on the greatest good for
the greatest number of people. It has got two more types:
A). Act utilitarianism:
It is based on the selection of particular action under particular circumstances.
B). Rule Utilitarianism:
To follow the rule in a particular situation no matter what are the circumstances.
Conflict of Interest:
The term ‘conflict of interests’ refers to situations where a conflict arises between public
duty and private interest, which could influence the performance of official duties and
responsibilities. Such conflict generally involves opposing principles or incompatible
wishes or needs. Conflict of interest is behavior not a condition. A conflict of interest is a
set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgments or action regarding
a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest.
Conflict of interests can involve pecuniary interests (i.e. financial interests or other
material benefits or costs) or non-pecuniary interests. They can involve the interests of
the public official, members of the official’s immediate family or relatives (where these
interests are known), business partners or associates, or friends. Enmity as well as
friendship can give rise to an actual or perceived conflict of interests.
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Research:
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic
investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing
problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method.
Research has been defined in a number of different ways.
A broad definition of research is given by Martin Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of
the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts
for the advancement of knowledge."
Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states - "Research is a process
of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic
or issue”.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious
inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".
Scientific research
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step
order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are
usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:
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1. Observations and Formation of the topic: Consistst of the subject area of ones
interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The
subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast
amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the
researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is
advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two
or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they
will be measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples,
gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific
research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and
reliable.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to
draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures and pictures,
and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
What Is A Null Hypothesis?
For this to work you’re going to have to imagine that you are a scientist. Now in order to
get that Nobel Prize you’re gonna have to come up with something pretty damn brilliant.
So let’s say you have some rather exciting ideas about why you seem to lose socks at
an astonishing rate. Maybe, you hypothesise, aliens are beaming down to steal one
sock out of every pair you own.
In order to test whether your hypothesis is true or not, you have to carry out some
research to see if you can back it up. So you set up a hi-tech alien detection system and
record whether times of alien activity are correlated with when your socks go missing.
However, when you get your results, it’s possible that any relationship that appears in
your data was produced by random chance. In order to back up your hypothesis you
need to compare the results against the opposite situation: that the loss of socks is not
due to alien burglary. This is your null hypothesis – the assertion that the things you
were testing (i.e. rates of alien activity and sock loss) are not related and your results
are the product of random chance events.
Null hypothesis. The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is usually the hypothesis that
sample observations result purely from chance.
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Research methods
. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the
boundaries between them may be obscure.):
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Qualitative research
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.
This type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to
quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between
variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it is
extremely expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of
research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory
research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.
Quantitative research
Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to
analyze utilizingstatistical methods. The quantitative research designs are
experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).[10] Statistics derived from
quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or
causal relationships between variables.
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Observational Study:
This type of research draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control
group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. We
merely observe what is happening or what has happened in the past and the
conclusion is based on observations, involving no human intervension.
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Example
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS
Randomized controlled trials are one of the most efficient ways of reducing the
influence of external variables.
by Martyn Shuttleworth (2009)
In any research program, especially those using human subjects, these external
factors can skew the results wildly and attempts by researchers to isolate and
neutralize the influence of these variables can be counter-productive and magnify
them. Any experiment that relies upon selecting subjects and placing them into
groups is always at risk if the researcher is biased or simply incorrect. The
researcher may fail to take into account all of the potential confounding variables,
causing severe validity issues. http://www.experiment-resources.com/research-designs.html
Plagiarism
Definition:
According to oxford dictionary plagiarism is defined as “ talking and using the thoughts, writings
and inventions of another person as one’s own’
1. Verbatim copying.
3. Self plagiarism.
1. Verbatim Copying:
It is copying the elements of another author’s paper, such as equations or illustrations that are
not common knowledge, or purposely paraphrasing (i.e. a restatement of a text, passage, or work giving
the meaning in another form) sentences without citing the source.
It is copying the portions of another author’s paper or copying from reports by citing the source
but not clearly differentiating what text has been copied (e.g. not applying the quotation marks
correctly), or not citing the source correctly.
3. Self plagiarism:
Wikipedia describes self plagiarism as “the re use of significant, identical, or nearly identical
portions of one’s own work without acknowledging that one is doing so or without citing the
original work”.
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Explanation by Wikipedia:
According to Wikipedia; “the unauthorized use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of
another author and the representation of them, as one’s own original work.” Unlike cases of
forgery, in which the authenticity of writing, document, or some other kind of object itself is a
question, plagiarism is concerned with the issues of false attribution. Within academia
plagiarism by students, professors or researchers is considered academic dishonestly or
academic fraud and offenders are subject to academic censure.
With some text, plagiarism is not a concern because content is not creative. Here are some examples where
attribution is generally not required for plagiarism concerns,
1. Use of common expressions and idioms, including those that are common in various
sub-cultures such as academic ones.
2. Phrases that are the simplest and most obvious way to present information. Sentences
such as "John Smith was born on 2 February 1900" lack sufficient creativity to require
attribution.
3. Simple, non-creative lists of information, such as a list of song titles on an album, or
actors appearing in a film. If creativity has gone into producing a list by selecting which
facts are included, or in which order they are listed, then reproducing the list without
attributing it to its source may constitute plagiarism.
4. Mathematical and scientific formulae which are part of the general background
knowledge of a field.
5. Simple logical deductions.
All institutions and organizations are responsible to apprise their students, teachers,
researchers and staff of the definition, implications and resulting punishments in case, after
due investigation, they are found guilty of plagiarism.
The punishments for Plagiarism have been divided into two separate categories, i.e. those
for "Teachers, Researchers and Staff" and those for the "Students". The penalties for
plagiarism should not only take into account the severity and recurrence of the offence, but
also the intellectual standing of the offender. This entails a gradual increase in punitive
action with minimum punishment for a first time offence by a student who copies a home
work assignment to a maximum punishment for a teacher/researcher/staff who attempts to
present plagiarized material; as his own, in a conference or journal.
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In cases where most of the paper (or key results) have been exactly copied from any published
work of other people without giving the reference to the original work, then (a) a major penalty of
dismissal from service needs to be prescribed, along with (b) the offender may be “Black
Listed” and may NOT be eligible for employment in any academic / research organization, and
(c) the notification of “Black Listing” of the author(s) may be published in the print media or may
be publicized on different websites at the discretion of the Vice-Chancellor / Rector / Head of the
organization.
In case where some paragraphs including some key results have been copied without citation,
then a moderate penalty involving any one or both of the following needs to be imposed (a)
demotion to the next lower grade, (b) the notification of “Black Listing” of the author(s) which
may be published in the print media or may be publicized on different websites at the discretion
of the Vice-Chancellor / Rector / Head of the organization.
In case a few paragraphs have been copied from an external source without giving reference of
that work, then minor penalties need to be prescribed for a specified period involving any one
or more of the following: (a) warning, (b) freezing of all research grants, (c) the
promotions/annual increments of the offender may be stopped, for a specified period and (d)
The degree of a student may be withdrawn if AT ANY TIME it is proven that he or she has
presented Plagiarized work in his / her MS, MPhil or PhD dissertation.
The notification of the plagiarism by the author(s) may be published in the print media or
may be publicized on different websites at the discretion of the Vice Chancellor / Rector /
Head of the Organization.
The offender may be relegated to a lower class. The offender may be given a failure grade
in the subject. The offender may be fined an amount as deemed appropriate.
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The offender may be given a written warning if the offence is minor and is committed for the
first time.
If the case of Plagiarism is not proved and it is confirmed that a false allegation was lodged,
the Vice Chancellor / Rector / Head of the Organization will inform the complainant’s
Organization and will recommend disciplinary action against the complainant, to be taken by
his / her parent organization.
Appeal:
As the penalties are severe, the affected person(s) will have the right to appeal to the
Chairman Vice Chancellor / Rector / Head of the Organization for a review of the findings or
may submit a mercy petition within 30 days from the date of notification. Such appeals /
petitions will be disposed off within 60 days of receipt, by following the laid down procedures
regarding such appeals.
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Start of life:
Life starts from conception when sperm fuses with ovule. Sperm and ovary cannot live alone. A
cell is considered alive if there is metabolism, growth and reproduction. Some people say that
life stars after 24 hours of conception that is zygote formation (Blastomere). Zygote has a
potential of a complete human being. Medically zygote is biologically considered to be alive.
Zygote reproduction is 16 cell stages that is 14 days after conception. Two cell stage of zygote
is called blastomere. Pregnancy starts after 10 days of conception. Medically once the
blastocyct is implanted in to the uterus it is call pregnancy. After 3 days (16 cell stage) morula is
produced & after five days 5 days it is converted to blastocyct (14 days). We can take stem cells
for 14 days because after that they are differentiated into organs. Primitive streak appears after
14 days of conception. This primitive streak develops into nervous system & life starts.
According to Islamic point of view the life stats after 40 days of conception because the embryo
can be distinguished at that stage, that is we can say that it is human embryo. After 10 weeks of
conception we can identify the gender.
End of life:
Life support system technology uses a device called ventilator that provides oxygen and export
carbon dioxide. At the end of life we use ventilators it is a new technology and used mostly in
cases when a birth of baby occurs before estimated period. Ventilators are use at terminal
stages the life is ended, that is death occurs we the heart beat is stopped this is an old concept.
According to the new concept the life is ended when the Brain death occurs. One of the biggest
ethical issues about the usage of ventilators is that for how long patient would be supported by
the ventilator. If someone is in vegetative stage and go into coma stage it is known as
comatose. Terri schiavo was a young lady in 1990 she went into coma by car accident and was
living on ventilation and she went into vegetative stage. For some period of time she was
supported by her husband but then he said he is not going to support her any more but her
parents said that he has to support her, so her husband filed a case in the court to remove her
ventilator. The case was there till 2001. According to some people she was under futile
treatment while the others said that she is not under futile treatment. The opinion of the doctors
was the she is under non-futile treatment and she can survive for at least one day without
ventilators, and her husband said that that she is under futile treatment because cannot survive
any longer without ventilators. Eventually the doctors removed the ventilators in 2001 and she
survived, so doctors put her in the ventilator again. But in 2005 G.W Bush ordered to remove
her ventilator and she was died. After that incident it established that when brain death occurs,
the person is died.
Euthanasia:
It means mercy killing. It is legal in 20 western countries. The term is derived from the Greek
word ‘Eu’
Means ‘good’ and ‘thanatos’ means ‘death’. So it means ending someone life in painless
manner, or “Deliberate action undertaken with the express intention of ending a life to relief
suffering”.
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Types of Euthanasia:
1. Active Euthanasia;
It means doing some action to end one’s life, for example if someone injects
poison to end his/her life.
2. Passive Euthanasia:
If a person refuses to take necessary actions that could save his/her life then it is
known as passive euthanasia. For example if someone rejects to take dialysis
that could save his/her life.
3. Physician Assisted suicide:
it involves the assistance of physician to end someone’s life.
Active and passive euthanasia can be done voluntary (patient’s will) or
involuntary (without patient’s will)
HUMAN CLONING:
Cloning is used to produce identical genetic copy of a living organism. Cloning is Greek
word which has been used for centuries, coning means (twig) terminal end of large woody plant.
Cloning is used in plants for centuries. The concept of cloning was there in invertebrates (like
earth worms) it is a natural phenomenon from which the cloning was started artificially. Identical
twins are from two parents and clones are from a single parent, this is the main difference
between identical twins and cloning. Cloning is an identical genetic copy of an existing life form.
Fro cloning first of al we take the unfertilized egg, the in the second stage we enucleate
it. In third stage we take the somatic cell apart from reproductive cell, after that we extract the
nucleus from the somatic cell and insert it into the unfertilized egg of the surrogate mother. Then
this modified cell is given a minute electric charge, before implanting into the womb of surrogate
mother. The clones are 99.5% identical and 0.5% genes are stored in the mitochondria. In
vertebrates the cloning was started in 1952 by Robert Bricks and Thomas king. They tried to
clone a frog and were not succeeded and therefore concluded that cloning is impossible in
vertebrates. John Guader in 1970 cloned the frog and proved that cloning is possible in
vertebrates. In 1997 the concept was raised that mammals cannot be cloned but in 1997 Dolly
Sheep was cloned by Scottish scientist Dr. EL Wilmot & Dr. Ian Rosin, after that pigs, sheeps,
cows, rodents and mute were cloned. Mule are the hybrids of horse and donkey, they are sterile
giving the concept that sterile couples can have babies through cloning. Korean team started
human cloning in 1998 but failed, the Australians started cloning of humans in 2001 but after 6
cell stage it was stopped. Clones facilitate in genetic engineering of animals. PPL Therapeutic
Biotech Company cloned a sheep “poly” having capability of producing milk, containing proteins
to treat Heamophilia patients.
Ethical Issues:
1. Failure rate of cloning is 90%.
2. Wide range of abnormalities.
3. Large offspring syndrome LOS.
4. Life span of clone is very short.
5. Family and reproductive issues.
6. Confusing personnel identity.
7. Homosexuality will become legal.
8. It is already banned in more than 45 countries.
9. Dr Wilmot didn’t defended cloning, in the US congress he said “it is un ethical because
the failure rate is high”.
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THERAPEUTIC CLONING:
` it is also known as stem cell cloning. In therapeutic cloning we perform growth till
blastocyct stage (14 days). Then we extract the cell mass from blastocyct stage i.e. we extract
16 cells then cells have the ability to grow. It can be done to clone the entire human, by using
his/her healthy cells, and then using the healthy cells of a newly formed clone to treat the
unhealthy person. We call it therapeutic cloning because we use it to cure disease. Blosatosyst
stage is also called blank cell or blank microchip. Sometimes it is also referred to as body repair
machine.
Totipotent:
The morula stage cells are the totipotent cells also known as germ/stem cells because they
produce both germ cells and stem cells.
Pluripotent:
Produce only stem cells ectoderm (producing GIT etc), endoderm (all epidermal cells, CNS etc)
and mesoderm (muscles, bones, urinogenital tract).
Multipotent:
These are the cells that can be differentiated in many types of cells but having the common
origin like blood cells.
Unipotent:
Produce only one type of cells like epidermal cells.
In stem cell research our object is to extract pluripotent cells (blastocyct stage).
Adults have multipotent, pluripotent or unipotent cells. Supporters of stem cells research say
that we can cure many diseases through stem cell research & it is quite helpful for
transplantation, they say they do it with a good will.
Ethical issues:
1. Death of embryo.
2. Embryo is a divine creation.
3. Moral status of embryo is violated.
4. De value of human life.
5. Obtaining large number of eggs is invasive.
6. Social oppression.
7. Eggs market.
8. Embryos have intrinsic value.
Solution:
We can take bone marrow cells to avoid these issues.
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IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION
it is technique to help women to achieve pregnancy. Also know as Assisted reproduction (AR),
Intra uterine Insemination (IUI), Gamete Intra fallopian Tube Transfer (GIFTT), Testicular Sperm
Extraction (TSE), Embryo Cryopreservation (EC), Assisted Hatching (AH), Frozen Embryo
Transfer (FET), Surrogacy, Embryo Donation (ED) are the alternate names for In-vitro
fertilization.
The basic components of pregnancy are eggs which are finite. Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH)is produced in the brain and control ovaries, if too much FSH is released it means more
eggs are produced withdrawing ovaries. After withdrawing of ovaries from eggs, the maturation
of eggs will be started, after maturation the released eggs are grown in follicle (small cyst) , and
eventually at the end one or two cells will survive the rest of them will die. Mature eggs in follicle
releases steroidal or estrogen hormones and when the level of estrogen increases, then the
brain will release Luteinizing Hormone (LH) to start the process of ovulation (fusion of sperm
and ovary to form embryo). If a patient has deficiency of these hormones then we gave him
drugs but if there is problem in ovulation then we go ahead and perform in-vitro fertilization.
Fertility drugs are given to the patient for e.g. clomid tablets. It helps in the increase of embryo
survival rate
Eggs can be extracted by two ways;
1. Through needle (without anesthesia).
2. Laparoscopy (by making small incision in the abdomen to extract eggs through fallopian
tube).
Mature eggs are extracted and sperms are inserted in it and then we wait for its growth. Some
cells will have sperms and others will not. The produced embryo will be inserted in the uterus.
On 25th july 1978 Lewis Brown was born by using IVF & he is the first test tube baby.
Ethical Issues:
1. Large numbers of embryos are transferred, only one or two cells grow.
2. The extra eggs are either free-zed used for research or they can be donated to someone.
3. Fertility of embryo through surrogacy is a major issue.
4. Multiple pregnancy is dangerous for physical and mental health of mother.
5. Population burden.
6. In divorce case the issue of orphan embryo arises.
ABORTION
The life of baby is dependent on her mother (US concept) so it is up to her whether to allow it or
not
Ethical Issues:
1. If the baby is grown for let say 6 months and it is found that the blood group doesn’t
match with her mother, in that case if the baby is aborted then the life of mother can be
saved, but if the life of mother is taken then the baby will die, so it is an ethical issue.
2. In case if the baby is found to have any abnormality or disease in future, then the ethical
issue is that whether to allow it or not.
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CHIMERA
It is a new technique where we take two embryos from four parents and fuse them
together; the individual which is formed that way is composed of cells with different embryonic
origins, and referred to as chimera. Chimera in plants occurs through grafting. In USA in 2004
they decided to fuse the embryo of human and chimpanzee to produce “Humanzae”, but it was
banned. In 2001 human neuron cells were inserted in mouse, that mouse was then used for the
research of human neuronal disease (Alzheimer & Parkinson). “Geep” was produced by
crossing sheep and goat. In 1953 a woman Mrs. MCK was born, containing 60% O blood group
and 40% A blood group, because two zygotes were fused during her birth process. Walls from
pig’s heart were inserted in human heart by using one of the applications of chimera. Quail brain
cells were inserted in chick. 1966 Chimeric mouse was produced by crossing two different mice.
Ethical Issues:
1. Un-natural way of reproduction.
2. Moral confusion.
3. It is contrary to human dignity.
4. Violation of integrity of species is involved.
Animal rights
Animal right is an idea that “Most basic interest of non-human beings should be afforded the
same consideration as the similar interest of human beings”
Why animal rights shouldn’t be there;
Divine Hierarchy:
The concept was given by Aristotle who said “Animals are classified as high level and low level
animals, and high level animals (humans) have the right to use them”
Another concept is that since animals have no duty so they have got no rights. According to
another philosopher Nicolas Malebranche “animals eat without pleasure cry without pain, grow
without knowing, desire nothing, fear nothing, and know nothing”.
For animal rights we follow two approaches:
1. Utilitarian, developed by peter singer (“animals are equal to human beings they feel
pleasure and suffer pain”).
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2. Contractualist, developed by Tom Regan (“Animals have inherent moral value that might
be less than humans”) he further defended his argument by saying that it just like
embryo have less right then baby, baby have less right then adult, and adult have less
right then Comatose.
There are two types of values:
1. Intrinsic value. (“Animals have their own rights for their own self”)
2. Instrumental Value. (“Animals have instrumental value we can use their rights for
someone else”).
Animal Usage:
1. Transport.
2. Labor.
3. Food.
4. Textile.
5. Zoos (entertainment).
6. Research (13 million each year, including 90% rodents, mouse & rats etc).
7. We use animals because they have short life span.
8. Help to understand how our body works.
9. To find cure or treatment for disease.
10. Test new drugs for safety.
11. Animals may also have the benefit of research.
12. Finally we have no other choice of testing our drugs.
BSET-366 Bioethics.
Biotech Online.
BS (Biotechnology & Informatics)
BSET-366 Bioethics.
Biotech Online.
BS (Biotechnology & Informatics)
2. Allograft:
It is the transplantation within one species between two genetically non identical
members of same species.
3. Xeno-grafting:
It the transplantation between two different species like anima to man.
4. Split Transplantation:
In this type one organ is divided between two or more recipient.
5. Artificial Organ Transplantation:
Stems cells are treated with various growth factors which then develops into a specific
organ that could be transplanted then e.g. trachea was transplanted in 2011.
Cases in transplantation;
Opt In:
Anyone who has not given consent is a donor.
Opt Out;
Anyone who has not refused is a donor
Ethical Issues:
1. Definition of death.
2. When and how consent should be given.
3. Socio-Economic Disparity.
4. Organ trafficking.
5. Organ theft.
6. Commercialization.
7. Rejection by surrogate.
8. Organ shortage.
9. Distribution of organ.
10. Donor’s safety.
11. Xeno Transplantation.
Avoiding issues:
1. Animal organs.
2. Artificial transplantation.
3. Stem Cells.
4. Adult Abortion.
Ethical Issue;
1. Who owns HGP?
2. Genetic test.
3. Fetus Genetic test.
4. Gender determination.
BSET-366 Bioethics.
Biotech Online.
BS (Biotechnology & Informatics)
Biotechnology is basically the field of life sciences that is involved with the studies of and
manipulation of living organisms, and development of new technologies for human benefit, so
biotechnology is basically the area of life sciences which offers new emerging technologies
based on living organisms. Today biotechnology is divided into four major categories namely;
industrial, medical, agricultural and marine biotechnology. The field of biotechnology has shown
significant amount of improvement in area of agriculture, medicine and industry. Genetically
modified crops has been developed by the use of agriculture biotechnology and the new drugs
and medicines have been introduced utilizing the technologies of medical biotechnology and
likewise “transgenic animals” are produced by industrial biotechnologists to enhance the yield of
commercial products.
Besides providing these marvelous benefits to mankind, this field like other developing
fields has raised some serious issues. Some of the ethical issues are as follows;
In the field of agricultural biotechnology genetically modified crops are cultivated by the
support of agrichemical industries, and these foods containing GM ingredients are not labeled to
indicate their origin, and the reason is that if a food is found to include chemicals that are toxin
or causing allergy, it is not marketed. Certain companies sold GM foods to the farmers that did
not produced viable seeds, forcing farmers to purchase new seeds each year. Due these vary
reasons there is an uncertainty among people about the cultivation and the use of GM crops.
In the area of health care and medical biotechnology, experiments and clinical trials are
conducted on participants to develop new treatments for disease. Participation in the clinical
trials of recombinant DNA drugs, or of gene therapy requires informed consent. A case in 1999
provoked re-evaluation of the adequacy of informed consent protocols, in which 19 years old
Jesse Gelsinger participated in an experiment of gene therapy to have his “Orithine
Transcarbamylase Deficiency” treated (the mentioned disorder causes the accumulation of
ammonia in the body and damages the brain) mostly affected individuals under this particular
condition die within the early days of their birth, but survivors can usually control the symptoms
with proper diet and drugs. Jesse had been doing that but died five days after receiving the
gene therapy treatment. His death was tragic fro the researchers.
There are several other issues like, test tube babies, production of pest resistant crops &
formation of transgenic animals rising serious questions about the ethical bases of these
procedures and experiments, and also about the possible consequences of these experiments,
so the researcher are now looking forward to solve these issues and practice biotechnology
ethically.
References:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/guide/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioethics
http://www.eubios.info/Papers/AGBIO.htm
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/kolehmainen.html
BSET-366 Bioethics.